A contribution to the International Hydrological Programme

. - Technical Papers in Hydrology

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Teaching aids in hydrology

Second edition

A contribution to the International Hydrological Programme

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27

Unesco

Technical Papers in Hydrology 27

In this

series:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

Perennial ice and snow masses. A guide for compilation and assemblage of data for a world inventory Seasonal snow cover. A guide for measurement, compilation and assemblage of data.

Variations of existing glaciers. A guide to international practices for their measurement.

Antartic glaciology in the International Hydrological Decade.

Combined heat, ice and water balances at selected glacier basins. A guide for compilation and assemblage of data for glacier mass balance measurements.

Textbooks on hydrology - analyses and synoptic tables of contents of selected textbooks.

Scientific framework of world water balance.

Flood studies - an international guide for collection and processing of data.

Guide to world inventory of sea, lake, and river ice.

Curricula and syllabi in hydrology.

Teaching aids in hydrology.

Ecology of water weeds in the netropics.

The teaching of hydrology.

Legends for geohydrochemical maps.

Research on urban hydrology, vol.

1.

Research on urban hydrology, vol. 2.

Hydrological problems arising from the development of energy.

Urban hydrological modelling and catchment research, international summary.

Remote sensing of snow and ice.

Predicting effects of power plant once-through cooling on aquatic systems.

Research on urban hydrology, vol.

3.

Curricula and syllabi in hydrology.

Dispersion and self-purification of pollutants in surface water systems.

Experimental facilities in water resources education.

Teaching the systems approach to water resources development.

Study of the relationship between water quality and sediment transport.

Teaching aids in hydrology - Second edition.

A contribution to the International Hydrological Programme

Teaching

^{,’.Id. .}

aids in ^hydrology

Second edition

A report by IHP Working Group

“Teaching aids in hydrology”

Chairman : U. Maniak, Editor : P.W. Jowitt,

Federal Republic of Germany United Kingdom

Unesco

The designations employed and the presentation of the material do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of Unesco concerning the legal status of any country or territory, or of its authorities, or concerning the frontiers of any country or territory.

Published in 1985 by the

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

7, place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris

Printed by Presses Universitaires de France, Vendbme OUnesco 1985

Printed in France

ISBN 92-3-102304-7

Preface

Although the total amount of water on earth is generally assumed to have remained virtually constant, the rapid growth of population, together with the extension of irrigated agriculture and industrial development, are stressing the quantity and quality aspects of the natural system. Because of the increasing problems, man has begun to realize that he can no longer follow a "use and discard" philosophy

-

either with water resources or any other natural resource. As a result, the need for a consistent policy of rational management of water resources has become evident.

water availability and movement. Thus, as a contribution to the solution of the world's water problems, Unesco, in 1965, began the first world-wide programme of studies of the hydrological cycle

-

the International Hydrological Decade (IHD). The research programme was complemented by a major effort in the field of hydrological education and training. The activities under- taken during the Decade proved to be of great interest and value to Member States. By the end of that period, a majority of Unesco's Member States had formed IHD National Committees to carry out relevant national activities and to participate in regional and international co- operation within the IHD programme. The knowledge of the world's water resources had substan- tially improved. Hydrology became widely recognized as an independent professional option and facilities for the training of hydrologists had been developed.

logical Decade and following the recommendation of Member States, Unesco, in 1975, launched a new long-term intergovernmental programme, the International Hydrological Programme (IHP), to follow the Decade.

from the beginning of a need to direct its activities toward the practical solutions of the world's very real water resources problems. Accordingly, and in line with the recommendations of the 1977 United Nations Water Conference, the objectives of the International Hydrological Programme have been gradually expanded in order to cover not only hydrological processes con- sidered in interrelationship with the environment and human activities, but also the scientific aspects of multi-purpose utilization and conservation of water resources to meet the needs of economic and social development. Thus, while maintaining IHP's scientific concept, the objec- tives have shifted perceptibly towards a multidisciplinary approach to the assessment, planning, and rational management of water resources.

issued : "Studies and Reports in Hydrology" and "Technical Papers in Hydrology". In addition to these publications, and in order to expedite exchange of information in the areas in which it is most needed, works of a preliminary nature are issued in the form of Technical Documents.

The "Technical Papers in Hydrology" series, to which this volume belongs, is intended to provide a means for the exchange of information on hydrological techniques and for the coordi- nation of research and data collection. Unesco uses this series as a means of bringing together and making known the experience accumulated by hydrologists throughout the world.

Rational water management, however, should be founded upon a thorough understanding of

Conscious of the need to expand upon the efforts initiated during the International Hydro-

Although the IHP is basically a scientific and educational programme, Unesco,has been aware

As part of Unesco's contribution to the objectives of the IHP, two publication series are

Contents

I INTRODUCTION

. . .

1

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 I1 2.1 2.1.1 2.1.2 2.1.3 2.2 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4 111 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 IV 4.1 4.2 4.2.1 V 5.1 5.1.1 5.1.2 5.2 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 5.2.4 5.2.5 5.3 5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3

. . .

Purpose 1 Origins 1 Scope and limitations 1

. . . . . . . . .

Content 2

. . .

TEACHINGHYDROLOGY 3 Improvement of the learning process Motivation of learning

- - - ^. -

Educational technology

- - - - -

Teaching methods . . . Organisation of teaching activities Organisation aspects

. . .

Teaching aspects . . . Evaluation of the teaching process Study tours . . .

. . .

4

5 5 6 7 7 7 9 10 . . .

. . .

. . .

. . .

. . .

. . . . . . . . .

DATA AND DATA MANAGEMENT

. . .

13

. . .

Origin of data 14 Hydrological instruments 19 Transfer of data 19 Storing and cataloguing of data

. . .

20

. . . . . .

THE USE OF HYDROLOGICAL MODELLING

. . .

25

. . .

Basic statistical analysis 25 Principles of hydrological models

. . .

28

Basic deterministic concepts

. . .

31

VISUAL PRGSENTATION OF HYDROLOGICAL INFORMATION

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^*

- -

^*

- - - -

^*

- - - - -

⁴³

Graphical representation of hydrological variables

. . .

43

Coordinate dependent diagrams

. . .

43

Line diagrams, area diagrams and isometric diagrams

. . .

52

Hydrologicalmaps 56 Introduction 56 General classification of hydrological maps

. . .

58

Classification of fields of interest

. . .

58

Records 62 Hydrological mapping and interpretation from aerial photographs

. . .

63

Interpretation 63 Evaluation of results

. . .

65

Materials 65

. . . . . .

. . .

Technical points, cartography 57

. . .

. . .

. . .

V I AUXILIARY AIDS AND EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

. . .

67 6.1

6.2 6.3 6.3.1 6.3.2 6.4 6.4.1 6.4.2

Textbooks

. . .

67

Visual aids 67

Audio-visual aids 67

Video equipment 67

68

Computers 69

Computational facilities 69

Computers as teaching aids 71

. . . . . . . . .

Video techniques in the teaching process

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

REFERENCES

. . .

73

I. Introduction

1.1 Purpose

This Technical Paper has been prepared by the International Hydrological Programme (IHP) Working Group on Teaching Aids; it serves several purposes, all of which are geared to the production of successful technology transfer between teacher and student to the benefit of hydrological practice and mankind.

serves as a guideline to these Papers and the many other publications produced by Unesco in the field of hydrological education.

Thus, illustrative examples are interspersed in the text for the purpose of demonstrating how particular ideas can be conveyed from the teacher to the student. These examples emphasise the benefit of appropriate didactic tools, accompanying more traditional teaching methods and making use of the panoply of hydrological models.

practice and teaching is also emphasised and dealt with at some length. The collection, processing and dissemination of hydrological information is aast against the requirements of hydrometry, statistics, hydraulic/hydrological models, systems analysis etc. Where possible, guidelines for teaching and practice are outlined.

A curricular description of the basic hydrological sciences (mathematics, physics, chemistry, computer science, the biological and earth sciences) is not attempted within this Paper but can be found in the relevant Unesco publications.

The Paper is a companion to other Technical Papers produced by the Working Group and

It is also intended that this paper should stimulate interest in hydrology and its teaching.

The parallel between the evaluation and presentation of hydrological information in both

1.2 Origins

The Council of the International Hydrological Decade (IHD) initiated the steps which led to this publication when it established the Working Group on Education and Training. This Group produced the first version of the Unesco publication 'Teaching Aids in Hydrology'. When this went out of print the Intergovernmental Council of the IHP declined to reprint it and decided instead to replace it with a more up-to-date publication.

The IHP Working Group on Teaching Aids was entrusted with this task and for this purpose established a team of Authors consisting of Messrs Maniak (Chairman), Gilbrich, Jowitt, Kovsr, Lecher and Lindh. Mr Meijerink of the Netherlands contributed the material on photohydrologi- cal mapping and interpretation. The team of Authors held three sessions between 1979 and 1981.

The Federal Republic of Germany financed additional meetings and also the sheet of the International Hydrogeological Map of Europe annexed to this report.

1.3 Scope and Limitations

Hydrology is both a quantitative and qualitative science; it is multidisciplinary. In this Paper attention is concentrated on the quantitative aspects in the sense that qualitative methods are discussed only where they have a direct influence on the understanding of particular models of hydrological behaviour.

earth sciences is broached only to the extent necessary to understand the water cycle and the hydrological processes within it. Topics which, traditionally at least, have not been

regarded within the mainstream of hydrology are given only cursory attention. Water quality, Thus descriptive hydrology as part of the

1

for example, is covered by several other Unesco publications. The hydrologist is usually just a part of an interdisciplinary team concerned with problems in which water is the integrating feature. It is necessary that the hydrologist is aware of the role played by international organisations such as WMO, WHO, FAO and Unesco in specific parts of the water cycle.

1.4 Content

Despite the fact the hydrological character, level of water resource development and data availability range from region to region, the methods of water resource planning and operat- ion, in which teaching has to be expressed, enjoy a common basis. Understanding the hydrology of an area and the resolution of its water resources problems is achieved by a progression from data reduction, statistical analysis, hydrological modelling and systems analysis. Correspond-

ing to this is the requirement for the hydrologist to have equal facility with hand/graphical calculation methods and more sophisticated computer-orientated techniques. It is also vital for the hydrologist to understand how the principles of hydrology are connected and manifest within the hydrological cycle. This Paper is intended to reflect all of these aspects,

pointing out the prerequisites necessary for the study of applied hydrology; it is meant to be a teaching aid to inspire both teacher and student and not merely a learning aid for the sole benefit of the student.

data management and its relevance and availability for the teaching process.

logical modelling is detailed in Chapter 4.

learning and practice is the effective communication of hydrological information in various visual forms and so Chapter 5 describes at some length the variety of visual presentation meth- ods, ranging from simple graphical procedures to the highly sophisticated methods of photo- hydrology and hydrological map interpretation. Finally, Chapter 6 describes the role of auxiliary teaching aids and educational technology.

Chapter 2 describes the philosophy of hydrological teaching. Chapter 3 discusses data and The role of hydro- An important aspect of hydrological teaching,

11. Teaching hydrology

Education undoubtedly plays a most important role in the advancement of our capabilities to resolve hydrological problems. Earlier teaching methods in hydrology and water resources management mostly contained elements of the so called 'component approach'

-

describing single hydrological components in relative isolation. The present advanced teaching methods in hydrology should include these components within the systems approach, integrating the mutual interactions between various hydrological processes; the multidisciplinary character of modern, advanced hydrology must be stressed.

Hydrological training should be broad enough to convey sufficient knowledge not only of the natural sciences but also of the social sciences, enabling the hydrologists to communicate effectively in an interdisciplinary environment. The hydrologist should have a sound knowledge of modern operational mathematics; he should have basic training in operations research, systems analysis, statistics and probability, computer technology and management science.

In completing this Technical Paper, the Team of Authors have made some use of the ideas of experts published in the earlier publication, 'Teaching Aids in Hydrology' (Unesco, 1972a), as well as material published in the Proceedings of the International Seminar on Water Resources Education, Unesco/IWRA, 1975), Papers on the International Workshop on Hydrological Education,

(CSVH, 19811, and last but not least, the authors' own experience.

ledge are mentioned here for completeness and to draw attention to the fact that a definite strategy is needed. The successful use of water resources depends on the level of investment, the effectiveness of investments and the selection and application of appropriate technologies.

The constraints which will be faced are financial, the availability of industrial infrastract- ure and the availability of trained and motivated manpower. Financial and infrastructure constraints can often be overcome by the use of appropriate technology combined with proper education, training and motivation. Thus, the training and motivation of persons working in the field of water is, without doubt, the most important topic to be considered in meeting the goals of the IHP. That is to say, even if adequate funds are made available, the efforts can- not be successful without proper education, training and motivation.

The transfer of knowledge subsumes all of the sub-topics such as the training of experts, education, transfer of information, and the preparation of teaching materials and instructional manuals. In other words, it is an hbrella term which describes at the most general level the objectives of the IHP. Progress in this transfer of knowledge has been substantial in recent years and shows what can be accomplished using modern communications technologies as opposed to old methods of teaching.

the local level, it is believed that the problems of education and training can be overcome with great benefits for the achievement of the goals of IHP.

in general, hydrological science, educational technology, and the capability to make use of information (see Figure 2.1).

Whilst the teaching aspects have been dealt with above, aspects of the transfer of know-

By combining these modern technologies with well-planned training at

It is important to recognise the different rates of development associated with education

The figure tries to show that:

the art of teaching is older than the hydrological sciences but has been developing S O

slowly that, at some point, hydrological education will no longer be able to cope with all the knowledge available;

C - the need for transferring hydrological knowledge to developing countries became apparent

when they gained independence; technology transfer evolved slowly in the beginning;

nowadays communication technology is developing more rapidly than science so that more information can be transferred that can be absorbed;

a. the hydrological sciences are still developing and no upper limit can be envisaged;

b.

3

c

I

T

-

time

Fig. 2.1

-

Development of education and science in hydrology.

d. although the developing countries have increased their capability to receive and digest more information, they cannot yet cope with the increase in information and the gap becomes ever wider and wider.

The task of the future will be to harmonise the trends visualised in the four lines of the graph and in particular, to increase the capability of the developing countries to make use of the information at their disposal.

2.1 Improvement of the Learning Process

The aim of all teaching/learning activities is to improve the state of knowledge and level of understanding, though it is recognised that 'Teaching should be intended to promote learning by an individual, rather than doing something to an individual' (Unesco/IWFW, 1975).

teacher's influence, then it is possible to say that relations shown in Figure 2.2 express their mutual abilities to make themselves understood. Communication is the transfer of a message from one to another. Feedback is a secondary message indicating how well the first message was understood (Unesco/IWRA, 1975).

important to consider those factors which substantially affect the degree of success of the teaching process:

a. motivation of learning b. education technology c. teaching methods

When the teacher is the source of information, and the student is the object of the

Deliberating over the fundamental issue of how to improve the learning process, it is

COMMUNICATION

f

.

^r

[ S o ~ ~ c E H EDUCATIONAL I ^{-[ RECFIoPJ} 1

INFORMATION IN FORMATI ON TECHNOLOGY

Fig. 2.2

-

Diagram of the learning process.

2.1.1 Motivation of Learning

One of the most important roles of the teacher is to inspire and motivate the student to learn. The relevance of motivation to learning must not be overlooked. First of all, i't is important to emphasise the professional motives in the teaching of hydrology compared with other disciplines. From the teaching point of view, the professional interest of civil engineering students is different from that of pure science students. Obtaining good grades, avoiding failure and satisfying sponsors are always present as partial motives in teaching institutions, but as primary motives these should be replaced by more realistic ones which link the learning activity to potential career success. Even so, students must have frequent opportunities to experience success in learning.

realise the following important factors in a teaching /learning process (Unesco/IWRA, 1975).

-

Repetition

-

Repetition is an important factor in the learning of information and skills.

-

concentration

-

Concentration of the student is necessary to learning and a situation must be provided such that information is presented when the student is alert and attentive.

-

Association

-

Association of new material with other concepts known to the student is an important aid to learning. Few people have the capacity to remember or understand facts and concepts that are unrelated to some previous knowledge.

size of the unit depends on the type of material studied and on the intellectual capacity of the ztudent.

-

Use of a communication method appropriate t o the objective

-

A complex subject requires a variety of learning activities and the same method of communication cannot be effective for all aspects of the subject. It would be a waste of time to lecture students on how to develop laboratory skills which can only be developed by practising them. Clearly defined course objectives give important guidance to the choice of the learning activities for each part of the course.

In seeking guidelines for the development of effective education, the starting point is to

-

Unit Steps

-

Unit steps presented in a structured sequence have been found effective. The

-

Use of a multiplicity of approaches

-

People differ in their response to different approaches to a subject. With the current emphasis on technology in education there is an unfortunate tendency to seize upon one device and use it to the exclusion of all others.

Some people may learn best through a lecture approach, some through a video approach, and others through workshops or laboratories. It seems desirable that a variety of approaches be available so that students will have an opportunity to respond to the approach that most suits them.

2.1.2 Educational Technology

The principal communication medium, and so far the most efficient source of information available at any time to the students, is textbooks and reference books dealing with various topics in hydrology (see section 6.1).

incorporated into the teaching of hydrology. These include:

-

films

-

slide and overhead projection

-

closed circuit TV

-

audio techniques

-

interactive computer methods etc.

organised design and implementation of the learning system, taking advantage of, h t not ex- pecting miracles from, modern communication methods, visual aids, classroom organisation and teaching methods ^{I .} (Unesco/IWRA, 1975)

.

subject and the purpose of the teaching. The follodng two tests have bePn proposed to deter- mine whether or not any advanced educational technology should be used (Unesco/IWRA, 1975) :

The use of other communication media resulting from rapid technological advances is being

Education technology is not only a set of communication media and instruments but 'the

The choice of modern teaching methods must be well received, taking into consideration the

-

the teaching/learning task to be performed should be essential to the course of instruction to which it is applied;

-

the task could not be performed as well as , if at all, by the students without the tech

-

nology considered.

The application of these criteria will restrict the use of novel teaching methods to situations where they are of real benefit. Experience has shown that teaching efficiency is not always enhanced by the use of the most advanced educational technology. A commonsense appraisal of the type and complexity of the problem to be discussed and the standard of the

5

students will often suggest the most appropriate teaching medium. However, it is possible to recommend quite unequivocally, extensive use of slides, overhead projection and films. Over- head projection is a common and effective aid in teaching technology.

2.1.3 Teaching Methods

The starting point for considering the teaching methods used in hydrology should be a clear determination of the learning objectives;

assess the efficiency of the learning process and helps the students to monitor their own progress.

able time to help the student comprehend the subject matter. The teaching methods used in hydrology are either conventional (based on classical learning psychology) or use various advanced experimental teaching methods. These will be outlined fuxther here.

studies), the common form of study consists of lectures, exercises and projects, group discuss- ions and tutorials. Lecture organisation is primarily influenced by the number of students, the subject matter, and the technical facilities available in the lecture room. A well-planned and well-delivered series of lectures should offer the student not merely the essential knowledge, but a modification of what they find in their textbooks; when the lectures touch upon recent developments, they should serve as a source of stimulation and inspiration.

Conventional lectures should make adequate use of visual teaching techniques (Section 6.2).

A drawback here is that lectures usually do not allow for two-way communication or continuity of interaction. Compared to other forms of teaching, the degree of student activity in lectthres is usually very low. Exercises, group discussions, workshops, seminars and so on allow far more active forms of student participation in the teaching/learning process. The main objective of these activities is to encourage the students to identify the problems and recommend their solution. Such working sessions provide an opportunity for two-way communication and good learning experience. They undoubtedly require careful preparation and well-trained leaders.

The value of group discussion is well-proven, involving active student participation and with the advantages of good feedback between the teacher and his students. According to the authors' experience, the optimum number of students for a group discussion is usually between six and ten.

of tasks to be undertaken. However, the logical strucbure should grow from the same base:

a. definition of the problem;

b. identification of the possible solutions

C. choice of the optimum solution d. implementation of the solution e. solution assessment and discussion

a statement of these objectives makes it possible to

A whole host of existing methods share a common goal: to use the best means in an accept-

Regardless of the categories of education (undergraduate, postgraduate or post-experience

The teaching procedures used during exercises and workshops will again depend on the type

Audio-tutorial approaches are detailed in Unesco/IWRA, 1975 and are briefly reviewed here.

'The program of learning should be organised in such a way that the students can proceed at their own pace, filling in gaps in their background information and omitting the portions which they have covered at some previous time.

available and attempt to align the exposure to these learning experiences in a sequence which will be most effective and efficient. The kind, the number, and nature of the devices involved will be dependent on the nature of the subject matter under consideration.

In the audio-tutorial system,the instructor's voice is available to the student to direct and supplement his study effort. This does not mean that a taped lecture is given. It refers to an audio programming of learning experiences, logically sequenced to produce the most effect- ive student response. Each study activity has been designed to provide information or a skill leading to a proper performance of the next activity or else to build on the foundation of knowledge previously laid. The overall set of integrated experiences includes lectures, reading of test or other appropriate material, making observations of demonstration set-ups, doing experiments, watching movies, and/or any other appropriate activities helpful in under- standing the subject matter.'

(PSI) method summarised in Unesco/IWRA (1975). To implement the PSI method, course material is divided into units, each containing a reading assignment, study questions, references, study problems and any necessary introductory or explanatory material. The student studies the units sequentially at the rate, time and place he prefers.

The basic features of the PSI method are:

a, Self-pacing, which permits a student to move through the course at a speed commensurate with his ability and other demands upon his time.

It should make use of every educational device

A particularly well-structured system of learning is the Personalised System of Instruction

b.

C.

d.

e.

The unit-satisfaction requirement for advance, which lets the student go ahead to new material only after demonstrating mastery of that which preceded.

The use of lectures as vehicles of motivation, rather than sources of critical information.

The related strass upon the written word in teacher-student communication.

The use of proctors (tutors), which permits repeated testing, immediate assessment, almost unavoidable tutoring, and a marked enhancement of the personal-social aspect of the

education process.

This system of instruction has been used in junior and senior level courses in some universities with great success, as judged by student learning, motivation and enjoyment.

built upon established principles of learning theory. Examples of both the special teaching methods mentioned above and experience with their application are given in the literature

(Unesco/IWRA, 1975).

but it is as well to remember that regardless of all the effort towards designed learning systems, communications technology and behavioural motivation, one should not overlook the personal influence of an outstanding teacher (Unesco/IWRA, 1975).

It is believed that the personalised system of instruction is successful because it is

A common goal of all these methods is improving the learning atmosphere for the students,

2.2 organisation of Teaching Activities 2.2.1 Organisation Aspects

Teaching activities in hydrology and water resources may be classified according to:

a. the form used in the transfer of information b. educational status of the student.

-

university and college level training, either for degree or non-degree programmes

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short courses, for example domestic national courses oriented to specific needs, inter- The commonly accepted methods of direct transfer of knowledge include:

national and regional courses seminars

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conferences

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study tours

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^workshops

-

technical assistance programmes

-

practical or field training.

student, i.e. undergraduate, postgraduate and professional training/post-experience studies.

However, few universities offer education leading to a first degree in hydrology. In most in- stitutions hydrology is taught as a subsidiary subject within comprehensive courses such as:

-

civil engineering

-

forestry and agricultural engineering

-

^geology

-

geography

As a result the multidisciplinary character and complex nature of hydrology is often suppressed. In postgraduate teaching, many universities or colleges offer courses leading to a Master of Sciences degree, or other diploma in hydrology. In these courses, the participants are taught the modern analytical methods used in the solution of hydrological and water resources problems and emphasis is placed on the interdisciplinary character of hydrology.

graduate courses in hydrology, which are organised by universities and other educational establishments. The participants are awarded either a diploma or certificate of attendance on the basis of their satisfactory progress.

There are also universities and various institutes which offer post-experience courses or workshop facilities for re-training or advanced education in the professions. Educational programmes in hydrology require cooperation with various research and operational institutes and outside agencies. Such cooperation can be of particular value in the professional development of the students.

Three categories of teaching of hydrology are considered which relate to the status of the

In addition, Unesco and several other international organisations sponsor special post-

2.2.2 Teaching Aspects

A comprehensive survey of teaching activities promoting learning was given by Unesco (1972a) and is presented in Table 2.1. The table can be used to:

-

show the individual forms of teaching/learning process in the light of an assessment of the possibilities of their use as various teaching aids.

7

3lassif ication Method

L

a* Computer assisted learning

b* Teaching machines and programmed learning

2 a* Lecturing in class

b* Slides and overhead projection

C* Films and film loops

d* Laboratory and field demonstration

e* Diagrams and charts

3 a Classroom exercises

b Classroom discussion

C* Laboratory exercises

a*

Field exercises

e* Field trips

f Reporting by students on special topics

g Tutorials

1 a*

b*

Study of textbooks and lecture notes Study of reference books

j a Homework assignments

b*

C* Field and/or laboratory projects carried out by students

Solution of problems by students using computational facilities (in a computer centre)

5 a* Theoretical research

b* Laboratory research

C* Field research

* -

this method may be thought of a teaching aid applicable to some aspects of teaching activity Table 2.1 : Methods to promote learning (modified after Unesco/IWRA, 1975)

-

identify those forms of teaching which require more initiative and self-direction from the

-

show the relative effort required of teacher and student. Some forms of teadhing place learner (listed towards the bottom of the table).

increasing requirements on the preparation and planning of the teaching by the teacher while reducing the requirements on the initiative and activity of the learner.

The selection and application of a particular teaching method will first of all depend on the subject or problem and the objective being addressed. It also depends on the students, their previous theoretical or practical foundations, knowledge etc. The choice is also affected by the technical equipment and the facilities available in the lecture room.

The methods included in the table under classification 1 are those used increasingly in the teaching of hydrology. They involve a form of interaction with the computer by way of a terminal located in the lecture room. Shown on the display are simulations of some hydrological processes and their changes resulting from varying the process parameters (Nemec, 1972).

depends on both the available technical facilities and on the subject matter.

which are controlled directly by the teacher.

taught, lectures may be divided into:

-

introductorylectures

-

main lectures

-

application lectures

The objectives are formulated and the simple steps to achieve them are illustrated.

lectures should be the means of motivation for personal study. They should contain the mater- ial for solving problems.

matter including all important aspects.

The use of these methods is possible only after thorough teacher preparation and mainly Classification 2 includes those activities which take place mostly in a classroom and

According to the scope and depth of the matter

Introductory lectures relate the subject-matter to previous lectures and to other subjects.

Main These lectures have also to comprise an assessment of the subject

The application lectures represent the advanced

teaching process and require good co-operation with the students. Previous knowledge is necessary to solve the more comprehensive problems and to outline the solution to them. These lectures place the acquired knowledge in context so that structured knowledge aimed at specific problems is obtained. Case studies showing the students the application of basic theory as well as the methodology for problem solving are also sometimes given. The problem can be resolved later, either in exercises, individually at home, or in a computer centre.

Slides and overhead projection are very effective lecturing aids;overhead projection is more convenient than slides; overhead transparencies are more easily made, updated, supple- mented and annotated during the lectures. Films have been promoted successfully as teaching aids for many years and can be used to show students complex or unusual events which they nor- mally would not have the opportunity to see otherwise.

Laboratory and field demonstrations may be shown either directly or on film. Special la- boratory apparatus has been made for teaching purposes. Demonstration equipment is used for quantitative and qualitative studies of various hydrological phenomena (Unesco/IWRA, 1975).

Diagrams and charts of plotted information enhance retention by a student. Graphical procedures based on the systems approach, or flowcharts explaining the algorithm of a discussed problem are indispensable teaching aids, especially in computational hydrology.

learning process requiring more or less the same contribution from students and teachers alike.

In general, these activities are aimed at expanding the individual work of students.

Classification 4, incorporating textbook and reference book study, is undoubtedly the principal way of acquiring information and consolidating knowledge. This form is individual-

istic; the method of study of printed (or written) material depends on the individual student, his study habits and capabilities. It is important that the sought information is available whenever required. Often it becomes important to compare information or approaches in order to understand the complex relationships between the fields of study.

Classification 5, the assignment of problems to be done by students individually as home- work, is widely used with good results by many teaching institutions. The nature of the pro- blems assigned as homework depends on the subject-matter of the course and may range from very simple examples to complex problems taken from professional practice. Students are often given problems to be solved individually with the use of a computer. Program and data inputs to the computer are undertaken in a variety of ways:

-

batch reception of a deck of cards,

-

user-operated card reader facility,

-

interactively from a terminal.

Computerised problem-solving not only enhances the knowledge of students in the field of hydro- logy and related subjects but also stimulates their logical thinking in algorithm design and improves facility in computer programming.

The nature of hydrology itself also requires field and laboratory projects that can be performed by students. These establish the link between theory and practice. The main object- ive of field and laboratory studies is to acquaint students with the operation and maintenance of instruments and evaluation of experiments.

Classification 6 (research) can usually only be allocated to able students with special interest in the subject. For this reason it does not rate as a widely used method for teaching purposes.

the student's ability to grasp the subject-mattex. This control takes the form of tests, examinations and/or discussion of reports.

An outline of a typical postgraduate course is given in Figure 2.3 (CSVH, 1981). TWO phases of the study process are distinguished:

a. acquisition of the necessary special knowledge of the discipline;

b. demonstration of the acquired knowledge, application of the subject-matter in practical The activities classified under item 3 of the table comprise various forms of the teaching/

Naturally, any teaching method must be accompanied by feedback and the teacher must judge

examples, discussion within a team.

The basic elements of this study plan are those explained in the above text. The design of the teaching/learning process is very general and may serve as a basis for the determination of teaching plans for postgraduate hydrological courses.

2.2.3 Evaluation of the Teaching Process

The previous text shows that it is often rather difficult to select an appropriate teaching method to match the hydrological topic under discussion, the level of understanding of previous topics and the facilities in the teaching rooms and laboratories.

It is possible though to state the general principles involved in the selection of teaching methods which allow students to achieve the expected results. Undoubtedly undergraduate and

9

t-

^{1 .} P h a s e ( A c q u i s i t i o n ) 2. Phase (Demonstration o f proficiency, argumentation I -

E E

W AL EN

sp

ML

E - E

-

(a) independent problem solving (b) team work

and design work

(productive personnel study) D i s t r i b u t i o n o f

c o u r s e m a t e r i a l , r e f e r e n c e s , s t u d y p r o b l e m s , t i m e s c h e d u l e

IL ML A L RT 0 APS

Fig. 2.3

-

introductory 1 ecture main lecture application lecture readiness test

defence o f the paper o r design acquisition by personal study

TT tutoring, testing, supervision E exercises

W workshops

SP solving o f problems C consultation EN examination

General outline of the teaching/learning process (Modified after Dyck in CSVH, 1981).

postgraduate courses should both stimulate and guide students in independent work and study.

The teaching process should be controlled so as to motivate and develop creative ability. In the planning and management of students' independent work, it is important to set out specific and appropriate objectives and related tasks, time schedules and the methods of supervision.

The PSI method outlined earlier has produced good results but not without some justified reservations, especially with regard to the keeping of a time schedule within a syllabus and the confusion between the roles of tutors and lecturers. Nonetheless the system may be

recommended for application with the reservation that the study tasks are well-defined in terms of both time and structure.

unit, the level of prior knowledge required for its completion, a suggested study procedure and reference list, some means of self-assessment and, finally, an indication of how the lecturer will review and control the student's progress.

Each topic or sub-topic should be accompanied by an indication of the purpose of the study

2.2.4 Study Tours

Hydrological education is incomplete without study tours and field trips. These activities enable students to see various structures and processes in natural and existing conditions.

The main aims of the hydrologically oriented study tour should be to:

-

acquaint students with new techniques and recent developments in hydrology at research institutions and to see the results of research work and field experiments;

-

make students familiar with various aspects of the organisation of the hydrological services and their normal field practices;

-

show the multiple facets of water use by visiting various water resources structures and projects and to emphasise the interdisciplinary character of hydrology;

-

make personal contacts promoting the exchange of practical experience, etc.

The enormous advantage of study tours is the opportunity to observe the interrelationship of hydrological practice and research, and to combine them with personal experience.

other hand, in organising such study tours, the relatively high costs and long distances to be covered must be balanced against the educational benefits.

programme, the following aspects should not be neglected:

-

professional orientation of the participants relative to the course;

-

the uniqueness or representativeness of the site or location to be visited;

-

interconnection of theoretical aspects in lecture courses with the practical applications;

-

duration of the study tour, distances to be travelled, and costs.

On the In the planning of a study tour

Previous experience from field trips generally shows that participants are more receptive during a shorter trip (one or a few days only). An appropriate daily programme is equally important. In this respect, there can be no general advice on how field trips should be organised, but a realistic time schedule is a principal prerequisite for the success of any study tour or field trip.

The benefit of study tours can be enhanced when the participants play an active plart, as they should in any form of teaching/learning. A well-planned tour with clearly stated object- ives, together with a well-defined itinerary and time schedule(given to the participants in advance) brings positive results. The benefits are further increased if the participants write a report discussing the activities and hydrological problems of the sites visited.

11

111. Data and data management

The efficient and economic planning of water resources influences all aspects of national development. Satisfactory solutions to many water resources problems require readily access- ible and reliable observational data on the elements of the hydrological cycle and related factors. The collection, transfer and storage of such data is essential in providing inform- ation for developing and managing water resources.

This table shows the basic need for relevant data for the most frequent cases to be treated and resolved in water resources management. Figure 3.1 shows how the relative importance of

different types of data may change with the degree of development of the country.

Table 3.1 gives the primary use of hydrological data for various water management projects.

Table 3.1 : Primary use of hydroloqical data in particular water management projects

"

1930 1940 1950 1960 1970

Fig. 3.1

-

The changing pattern of data use for a developed country from 1928 to 1969.

(After Unesco, 1972 C).

The growing significance of water resources management and planning makes it imperative to design and use more ingenious systems for the collection, transmission and processing of

hydrological data. An example of such a sophisticated data system is given in Figure 3.2 (Unesco, 1972~). The data acquisition comprment of such a system presents two aspects: the network design and the instrumentation/sensor equipment. Both these aspects form the basic elements of the whole system and therefore should be kept at an interrelated technical level.

Temporary data logging is usually a component of the instrumentation in the form of a field logger. It should be noted that the sensor and the local field logger often cannot be consider- ed separately from the transmission (communication) system. The following elements of both components must be considered (Nemec, 1972) :

Sensors : physical element-sensing units, their range and accuracy, timing of observation output I digital (paper or magnetic tape), analogue (voltage, graphical, visual

Transmission: automatic or non-automatic

and transmission, display, power supply

The processing and dissemination phases should be related and will often depend on a particular computer, its hardware and software system.

Mention should be made of the efforts undertaken by the World Meteorological Organisation within the framework of the HOMS project (Hydrological Operational Multipurpose Subprogramme), which is a uniform proceduxe 'providing an international systematic framework for the integrat- ion of the many techniques and procedures in the collection and processing of hydrological data for use in water resources systems' (WMO, 1981).

3.1 Origin of Data

Data are required to define the input and output from the hydrological system. In addition, the analysis and prediction of the response of a catchment to an input requires information on its physical characteristics, including relevant human influences.

It is not the purpose of this section to describe the observational procedures applied in the collection of basic and special hydrological data; these instructions are treated exhaust- ively by the World Meteorological Organisation ( W O , 1971b).

these problems within the context of "aids for teachina data manaaement".

Here, in line with the overall aim of the present treatise, the task is rather to place

14

R E O U C T I O N S Y N T H E S I S

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EXPLANATION

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A R E A OF M U T U A L I N T E R E S T TO T H E DATA P R O C E S S I N G A N D DATA ACQUISITION ACTIVITIES

R E S O U R C E EVALUATION R E S O U R C E D E V E L O P M E N T R E S O U R C E M A N A G E M E N T

C O M M U N I CAT1 O N D I SS E M IN AT1 0 N

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Fig. 3.2

-

Diagram of the automatic data system. (After Unesco, 1972 c)

The appropriate classification of data depends on its intended purpose. In the teaching and modelling of hydrological processes it is often convenient to separate the data into those which measure the catchment inputs and outputs, the catchment's physical characteristics, and those that determine the nature and rate of processes within it.

in Table 3.2 (Fleming, 1975).

Typical examples of the type of information contained within each classification are shown

Class 1: Hydrological and Meteorological Data monitor the changes in water mass and energy in the atmosphere, land and the sea. These include precipitation, evaporation, river stage and discharge, groundwater levels, radiation, temperature, air kmmidity, vapour pressure, wind speed and direction, cloud cover, sediment transport, ice phenomena, etc. Some of the data may come from stations in networks set up to meet the daily needs of hydrological forecasting and water management.

Since hydrological processes, like all natural processes, are evolutionary, any selected sampling interval should be consistent with the time variability of the individual processes and take into consideration the purpose of the acquired data. For example, pan evaporation rate may be satisEactorily measured on daily interval. However, runoff measurement from a small mountainous catchment will, most probably, require streamflow measurement at one-hour time intervals, or less, in order to provide adequate information on the response.

Quantitative and qualitative properties of the measured hydrological and meteorological data are also influenced by the density of the observation network.

graphical conditions, together with the wide ranae of various water resources problems to be Heterogeneity of physio-

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solved, render impossible the design of a universally valid observation network, especially for precipitation and streamflow. Furthermore it is now commonly accepted that any theoretical app- roach must be supplemented by

an

element of judgement (WM0,1972). In general, stations of such Observation networks should be located so that the collected data will be useful in developing re- lations between the hydrological and meteorological factors, and the significant physical para- meters such as the slope, elevation, morphology, geology, land use and soil types. The minimum density of both precipitation and streamflow networks are indicated in the literature (WM0,1972).

Class 2: Physiographical Parameters consist of information representing the physiographical conditions of the river basin and which can be defined analytically or in geometric terms.

These data are required to define the retention characteristics of a catchment. Surveying the catchment to define the existing physical features of area, slope, drainage, network, vegetation, etc. will provide information on factors affecting its response. These data are incorporated into equations for calculating the rate at which water moves from the land surface. Table 3.2 shows examples of the physical parameters, which can be grouped as follows (Fleming, 1975):

-

land surface

-

natural drainage channel network

-

urban drainage channel network

-

reservoirs

Class 3: Process Parameters consist of information related to the processes influencing the movement and distribution of water in the land phase of the hydrological cycle. In many cases the data are difficult or impracticable to measure directly and have to be determined indirectly from other data. They represent the rates at which individual processes of the hydrological cycle take place (interception, infiltration, interflow, percolation and groundwater flow).

They may be monitored at various points but integral values for a non-homogeneous catchment may be established only with the use of more complicated and advanced simulation techniques. Some examples of process parameters are shown in Table 3.2.

The collection and processing of all three groups of data using a sophisticated automatic system is shown in diagrammatic form in Figure 3.3

In all data handling operations it is necessary to consider and monitor data quality.

Erroneous data can lead to errors of judgement or even cast doubt on inferences drawn from the more reliable parts of the record. In order to minimize sources of errors in sets of data collected from a network of stations, it is necessary to maintain (WMO, 1974):

-

proper instrumentation and network design

-

care in observation

-

quality control in data processing

-

data processing schedules.

station identification st or age time signal

- ^{- - - - - - - - - -} I - ’

periodic

1 continuous

-

data proces- ^sing 1 ^by

ondemand ^~ com pu ter ^I

parameter identification

t

^{feed back}

process parameters

process analysis

Fig. 3.3

-

Block diagram of the data system based on an automatic hydrometeorological station.

18

3.2 Hydrological Instruments

The hydrological equtpment listed fn Table 3.3 can be employed as a teaching aid in the classroom, the laboratory or in practical studies. Climate stations, lysimeters, flow measuring structures can usually be visited on study tours and are invaluable aids to teaching. Details of the

particular instruments and observation techniques are given in the forthcoming Unesco publication 'Experimental Facilities in Water Resources Education'. The application of this equipment for different hydrological observations is described in many manuals and textbooks on hydrometry.

In order to obtain comparable observations most of the observation techniques and types of instruments are standardised. Thus, the degree of instruction in instrumentation depends on the needs of the country and will reflect climatic conditions.

The accuracy, usefulness and operation of current meters, flumes weirs etc. is best appreciated by first-hand experience, just as the problems of sediment transport and sediment sampling are more easily understood by experimentation on a laboratory flume.

3.3 Transfer of Data

It is not always possible in the classroom to show the full spectrum of instrumentation, data collection and transfer. Thus, the demonstration of a measurement including data transfer and processing should be restricted to important hydrological variables, e.g. stage, discharge, rain and climatological data. By visiting meteorological stations and gauging stations, the major facets of data collection, transmission and storage can be appreciated. Experimental basins for water budget studies, erosion problems etc., together with lysimeters and further special hydrological equipment, should be visited either within the regular courses or occasion- ally during a study tour. An appreciation of measurement methods in the field can be supplement- ed by films, slides etc., in the classroom. It is of mutual benefit for the student and/or

technician if he becomes well acquainted with the handling of the instruments, data collection and processing. This fieLd-oriented teaching is an important link between hydrometry and use of hydrological data.

instrumentation or transmission systems should be emphasised, and where possible can be demon=

strated by appropriate instruction in the field.

Many hydrological networks have developed in response to particular local problems, without taking into account future data requirements. Although an immense amount of hydrometeorological data has been accumulated over the years, the quality, quantity and availability of hydrological data is generally inadequate for present development needs and particularly so for forecasting.

The transfer and processing of data can be used as a teaching aid if it is considered as the step from pure hydrometry to the quantitative description of the hydrological problems under study. In this figurative sense, the hydrological stations may be broadly classified in the following four categories (WMO, 1973) :

a. Non-recording stations, where manual observations are made occasionally or during selected time intervals.

b. Automatic hydrological observing stations, at which instruments make and record the observ- ations automatically.

c. Telemetering hydrolgical observing stations, where instruments make and transmit the observation automatically without recording them.

d. Telemetering automatic observing stations, at which instruments make, record and transmit the observations automatically to the receiving centre.

Stations in each of these categories are described in numerous textbooks on hydrometry or hydrology and a variety of illustrative examples on the design and operation of hydrological networks, standards of observations, data quality control etc. is given in several manuals and guides (WMO, 1971b, 1974).

itself and its purpose. It is beneficial to the student if the acquisition, selection and evaluation of data forms a part of the learning process.

The transmission of hydrological data depends on the demand of the user and may become quite sophisticated (Figure 3.4). In general, the factors affecting the choice of a trans- mission system are the speed with which data are required (e.g. for planning or operational purposes) and the accessibility of the measurement site; transmission techniques are becoming important as special teaching aids if analogue or digital transmission is used together with digital computers for the evaluation of (laboratory ) experiments. This on-line data processing requires checking of the data for completeness, correctness, errors etc.

The consequences of data loss or corruption through systematic or occasional errors in the

The type of data required for a particular hydrological model obviously depends on the model

transmission of data by

Interrogation of ou to mat ic a Il y recording instruments at (regular) time intervals by Central Office

JI

Automatically transmitted messages

Instantaneous Observations at spe

-

Observations at pre

-

observations cified unit of change determined time inter-

I Automatic transmission of continuous data I

Analogue trans

-

Analogue trans

-

Digital transmission mission by wire mission with frequency

Fig. 3.4

-

Data transmission systems.

3.4 Storina and Cataloauina of Data

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Standardised procedures for storing and cataloguing of meteorological data have been recommended internationally (WMO, 1973). Data banks of hydrological data are available in many countries.

The compilation of the data depends on the particular needs of the country, which is why inter- national standards for the compilation of hydrological data are not widely practised. Hydrolog- ical data may also be available at regional or national hydrological agencies/centres; national statistical bureaux or information centres may also provide hydrological data.

Data stored in data banks will be fully corrected and it is seldom possible to reconstruct raw data or autographic records. Autographic records are useful in the early stages of a study but effective use of data, both in the class and in practice, really requires data in computer compatible form; hard copies or microfilms are inadequate and time-consuming substitutes. The data stored at a bank must be available for quick, effective and economic retrieval and analysis.

In view of the fairly high costs of software development and data collection, most data banks serve the following objectives:

-

to standardise and make accessible the data derived from planning, construction and operat-

-

to integrate the actual collection of statistical and related data in a homogeneous form, The developing objectives are:

-

to expand and improve existing data files through the collection of complementary data

-

ion of water resources systems, from control and administration etc.

to prevent misuse of 'confidential' data.

to organise new data files and homogeneous partial data bank systems for special applicat- ions

to include these partial data systems within completely integrated water resources data banks.

-

20