Construction developments in the Soviet North

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Construction developments in the Soviet North

NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL OF CANADA

DIVISION OF BUILDING RESEARCH

CONSTRUCTION DEVELOPMENTS IN THE SOVIET NORTH

by G. H. J o h n s t o n DBR P a p e r No. 697 o f t h e : Divisior! o f B u i l d i n g Research Talk p r e s e n t e d a t t h e

Annual Meeting o f t h e Canadian C o n s t r u c t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n , S a s k a t o o n 29 January 1973.

CONSTRUCTION DEVELOPMENTS I N THE SOVIET NORTH by G.H. Johns t o n

AB S TRACT

The S o v i e t N o r t h , encompassing a b o u t 4 m i l l i o n s q u a r e m i l e s o r a l m o s t 50 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l l a n d a r e a of t h e S o v i e t Union, i s roughly comparable i n a r e a t o t h e t o t a l l a n d a r e a o f Canada. I t i s e x c e e d i n g l y r i c h i n n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s and development o f t h e s e n o r t h e r n r e g i o n s i s most i m p o r t a n t and n e c e s s a r y t o t h e o v e r - a l l development o f t h e S o v i e t Union. A s i n t h e Canadian N o r t h , l o n g d i s Lances, d i f f i c u l t a c c e s s , and s e v e r e c l i m a t e and t e r r a i n c o n d i t i o n s , n o t a b l y p e r m a f r o s t which u n d e r l i e s a b o u t one h a l f of t h e l a n d a r e a of b o t h c o u n t r i e s , p o s e many d i f f i c u l t e n g i n e e r i n g and c o n s t r u c t i o n problems. N o r t h e r n

technology i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same i n b o t h c o u n t r i e s , t h e r e b e i n g no b a s i c d i f f e r e n c e s . Large h y d r o - e l e c t r i c , mining, o i l and g a s , and i n d u s t r i a l p r o j e c t s have been o r a r e b e i n g developed. L i v i n g

c o n d i t i o n s a r e now b e i n g improved and m u l t i - s t o r e y d w e l l i n g s a r e b e i n g c o n s t r u c t e d i n new towns and a l s o d u r i n g redevelopment o f t h e i r o l d e r c i t i e s and communities i n S i b e r i a .

p a r G.H. J o h n s t o n .

Le n o r d s o v i 6 t i q u e q u i s ' 6 t e n d s u r e n v i r o n q u a t r e m i l l i o n de m i l l e s c a r r G s ou p r e s q u e 50 p o u r c e n t de l a s u p e r f i c i e t o t a l e de l a

t e r r e e n u n i o n s o v i g t i q u e , e s t approximativement comparable 2 l a s u p e r f i c i e t o t a l e de l a terre au Canada. C e t t e terre s o v i 6 t i q u e e s t extrzmement r i c h e e n r e s s o u r c e s n a t u r e l l e s e t l e dSveloppement de c e s

r 6 g i o n s du n o r d e s t t r S s i m p o r t a n t e t n 6 c e s s a i r e a u d6veloppement g l o b a l de 1'Union S o v i G t i q u e . Comme dans l e Nord c a n a d i e n de g r a n d e s d i s t a n c e s , l a d i f f i c u l t 6 d ' a c c g s , l e c l i m a t e t l e s c o n d i t i o n s de t e r r a i n r i g o u r e u x , p a r t i c u l i g r e m e n t l e p e r g G l i s o 1 s o u s e n v i r o n l a m o i t i 6 de l a s u p e r f i c i e t o t a l e de l a t e r r e des deux p a y s , p r 6 s e n t e n t p l u s i e u r s problgmes d i f f i e i l e s de gGnie e t de c o n s t r u c t i o n . La

t e c h n o l o g i e dans l e Nord e s t e s s e n t i e l l e m e n t l a msme dans l e s deux p a y s , s a n s d i f f Grences fondamentales. De g r a n d s p r o j e t s h y d r o - S l e c t r i q u e , d ' e x p l o i t a t i o n m i n i s r e , d ' h u i l e e t de gaz e t des p r o j e t s i n d u s t r i e l s o n t G t G o u s o n t a c t u e l l e m e n t dGveloppSs. Les c o n d i t i o n s de v i e s o n t m a i n t e n a n t am6liorGes e t des immeubles 2 logement 2 p l u s i e u r s 6 t a g e s s o n t m a i n t e n a n t cons t r u i t s dans de n o u v e l l e s v i l l e s e t a u s s i dans l e nouveau dSvelopp.ernent des v i l l e s e t des communautGs p l u s v i e i l l e s e n S i b 6 r i e

.

CONSTRUCTION DEVELOPMENTS IN THE SOVIET NORTH b Y

G . H . J o h n s t o n

Every Canadian i s aware o f t h e g r e a t i n c r e a s e i n a c t i v i t y t h a t h a s t a k e n p l a c e i n Canadaf s North i n t h e p a s t few y e a r s a s o u r " l a s t

f r o n t i e r " i s b r e a c h e d i n t h e s e a r c h f o r g a s and o i l . The USSR, t o o , h a s a v i t a l i n t e r e s t i n h e r North and h a s been v e r y a c t i v e i n t h e development o f t h e v a s t n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s i n h e r f r o n t i e r a r e a s , b u t f o r a l o n g e r p e r i o d o f time t h a n we have, and on a g e n e r a l l y l a r g e r s c a l e . E v e r y t h i n g a b o u t t h e S o v i e t Union i s "big"; t h e t o t a l l a n d a r e a i s a b o u t two and a h a l f t i m e s t h a t o f Canada; t h e p o p u l a t i o n i s more t h a n 10 t i m e s t h a t o f t h i s c o u n t r y ; and some o f t h e i r r e s o u r c e developments, f o r example, dams, a r e t h e b i g g e s t i n t h e w o r l d .

The S o v i e t North i s a l s o b i g . I t c o v e r s a b o u t 4 m i l l i o n s q u a r e m i l e s (10.4 m i l l i o n km2) and i s t h e r e f o r e r o u g h l y comparable t o t h e t o t a l

l a n d a r e a o f Canada. The n o r t h e r n r e g i o n o f t h e USSR h a s been d e f i n e d i n s e v e r a l ways b u t i n g e n e r a l i t s s o u t h e r n e x t e n t f o l l o w s a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e 63"N l a t i t u d e w e s t o f t h e Ural Mountains i n European R u s s i a ; i t t h e n d i p s

s h a r p l y a s t h e U r a l s a r e c r o s s e d and f o l l o w s t h e 5 8 " ~ l a t i t u d e t h r o u g h w e s t e r n a n d c e n t r a l S i b e r i a and f i n a l l y d r o p s even f u r t h e r s o u t h t o a b o u t

t h e 55" p a r a l l e l i n e a s t e r n S i b e r i a . Although t h e S o v i e t North c o v e r s a l m o s t h a l f o f t h e USSR i t c o n t a i n s o n l y 2.5% o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n o r a b o u t 5 t o 6 m i l l i o n p e o p l e , o f whom a p p r o x i m a t e l y one m i l l i o n a r e n a t i v e s . I t does have a number o f l a r g e c i t i e s , however, f o r example, Yakutsk, N o r i l Isk and I r k u t s k w i t h p o p u l a t i o n s e x c e e d i n g 100,000, 150,000 and 500,000 r e s p e c t i v e l y . Compare t h a t w i t h Canada where a b o u t 58,000

geople

l i v e n o r t h o f l a t i t u d e 60" i n 1 . 5 m i l l i o n s q . m i l e s ( 3 . 9 m i l l i o n km )

(39% o f t h e t o t a l l a n d a r e a o f Canada) and where t h e l a r g e s t c e n t r e s a r e Y e l l o w k n i f e and Whitehorse w i t h p o p u l a t j o n s o f 7,000 t o 1 1 , 0 0 0 .

Many s i m i l a r i t i e s can b e n o t e d i f we compare t h e n o r t h e r n c l i m a t e , t e r r a i n and physiography o f t h e two c o u n t r i e s b u t t h e r e a r c a l s o

s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s . A1 though mean annual a i r t e m p e r a t u r e s a r e s i m i l a r i n b o t h c o u n t r i e s , S i b e r i a e x p e r i e n c e s c o l d e r w i n t e r s and warmer summers. I n S i b e r i a mean J a n u a r y t e m p e r a t u r e s a r e g e n e r a l l y below - 4 0 " ~

(-40°C) ; i n Canada t h e y a v e r a g e a b o u t -30°F (- 3 4 ' ~ ) . The c o l d e s t r e g i o n s i n t h e n o r t h e r n hemisphere a r e i n Y a k u t i a around Verkhoyansk and Oymyakon where t h e mean f o r t h e c o l d e s t month i s below -55°F' ( - 4 8 " ~ ) . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , mean J u l y t e m p e r a t u r e s o f a b o u t 6 0 " ~ (16°C) c o i n c i d e r o u g h l y w i t h t h e A r c t i c C i r c l e i n S i b e r i a d r o p p i n g t o l a t i t u d e 5 0 " ~ i n t h e f a r e a s t . I n Canada t h i s i s o t h e r m l i e s c o n s i d e r a b l y s o u t h o f t h e A r c t i c C i r c l e e x t e n d i n g from G r e a t S l a v e Lake s o u t h e a s t w a r d t o t h e s o u t h end o f James Bay a t l a t i t u d e 5 1 ' ~ . S e v e r a l f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e

more c o n t i n e n t a l n a t u r e o f t h e c l i m a t e i n S i b e r i a . The l a n d mass i s much l a r g e r t h a n i n North America and t h e r e a r e no l a r g e w a t e r b o d i e s compar- a b l e t o Hudson Bay which e x e r t s a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f l u e n c e on Canada's n o r t h e r n c l i m a t e . In a d d i t i o n , t h e e a s t e r n mountains of S i b e r i a p r e v e n t P a c i f i c d i s t u r b a n c e s from moving i n l a n d , p a r t i c u l a r l y d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r , r e s u l t i n g i n a g e n e r a l l y lower s n o w f a l l o v e r t h e i n t e r i o r . Annual snow- f a l l s , a l t h o u g h low, a r e g e n e r a l l y g r e a t e r i n n o r t h e r n Canada t h a n i n S i b e r i a ; snow a c c u m u l a t i o n i s p a r t i c u l a r l y h i g h e a s t o f Hudson Bay b e f o r e i t i s i c e covered.

The h i s t o r y o f c o n t i n e n t a l g l a c i a t i o n , and t h e r e f o r e o f s o i l d e p o s i t s , i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t . I c e c a p s and g l a c i e r s covered a l l o f Canada d u r i n g t h e P l e i s t o c e n e e x c e p t f o r t h e western Yukon and p o s s i b l y t h e n o r t h w e s t s e c t i o n o f t h e A r c t i c I s l a n d s , whereas o n l y a few small l o c a l i c e c a p s formed i n S i b e r i a . Thus much o f t h e Precambrian S h i e l d i n Canada was s c o u r e d c l e a n by t h e g l a c i e r s and g l a c i a l s o i l s o f v a r y i n g o r i g i n and p a r t i c l e s i z e were d e p o s i t e d i n many p a r t s o f t h e c o u n t r y . On t h e o t h e r hand, r e s i d u a l s o i l s a r e widespread i n S i b e r i a and t h e numerous l a r g e r i v e r s have wide f l o o d p l a i n s and w e l l developed t e r r a c e s . Exposed bedrock i s l e s s w i d e s p r e a d i n t h e u n g l a c i a t e d a r e a s .

The c l i m a t e and g l a c i a l h i s t o r y have i n f l u e n c e d t h e development o f v e g e t a t i o n and f o r e s t c o v e r . Canada h a s a much l a r g e r a r c t i c t u n d r a o r t r e e l e s s a r e a , c a u s e d i n p a r t by t h e p r e s e n c e o f Hudson Bay, whereas t h e t u n d r a o f n o r t h e r n Russia e x t e n d s i n a narrow band a l o n g t h e A r c t i c c o a s t . Heavy f o r e s t s a r e r e l a t i v e l y widespread i n S i b e r i a and a r e b e i n g e x t e n s i v e l y e x p l o i t e d f o r p u l p , p a p e r and t i m b e r .

Both Canada and t h e S o v i e t Union a r e w e l l "endowed" w i t h p e r m a f r o s t which u n d e r l i e s a b o u t 50% o f t h e t o t a l l a n d a r e a o f b o t h c o u n t r i e s . The p e r m a f r o s t r e g i o n o f t h e USSR, however, i s more than t w i c e a s l a r g e a s

t h a t o f Canada. I n S i b e r i a , p e r m a f r o s t e x t e n d s southward t o a b o u t l a t i t u d e 4 7 ' ~ in c o n t r a s t t o Canada where t h e most s o u t h e r l y p e r m a f r o s t i s found around James Bay a t l a t i t u d e 51°N. The s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n g l a c i a l h i s t o r y , c l i m a t e and t e r r a i n a l s o c o n t r i b u t e t o v a r i a t i o n s i n p e r m a f r o s t c o n d i t i o n s . P e r m a f r o s t i s much t h i c k e r i n t h e USSR. A t t h e boundary o f t h e d i s c o n t i n u o u s and c o n t i n u o u s zones t h e t h i c k n e s s o f p e r m a f r o s t r a n g e s from 200 t o 300 f e e t (60 t o 90 ~ n ) i n Canada and from

750 t o 1,000 f e e t (200 t o 300 m) i n S i b e r i a . The t h i c k e s t known perma- f r o s t i n Canada i s a b o u t 1,800 f e e t (550 m) i n c o n t r a s t t o more t h a n 3,000 f e e t (950 m) i n p a r t s o f S i b e r i a . ( I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t r e l a t i v e l y few d e t a i l e d o b s e r v a t i o n s o f p e r m a f r o s t t h i c k n e s s have been made i n t h e n o r t h e r n r e g i o n s o f b o t h c o u n t r i e s . ) The c o n s t r u c t i o n

problems p o s e d by t h e p r e s e n c e o f p e r m a f r o s t a r e , o f c o u r s e , t h e same i n b o t h c o u n t r i e s .

Although S i b e r i a h a s a long h i s t o r y o f s e t t l e m e n t d a t i n g back more t h a n 300 y e a r s , development o f t h i s v a s t remote a r e a was r e l a t i v e l y slow up t o t h e Second World War. About 1940, major d e c i s i o n s were made t o d e v e l o p t h e r i c h m i n e r a l , o i l , gas and w a t e r r e s o u r c e s of t h e i r l a s t f r o n t i e r b e c a u s e of t h e needs o f t h e n a t i o n a l economy and a l s o because

o f t h e b a s i c d e s i r e and p o l i c y o f t h e S o v i e t Union t o be e n t i r e l y independent and s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t .

The Russian North i s e x t r e m e l y r i c h i n n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , un- doubtedly u n e q u a l l e d by no o t h e r c o u n t r y i n t h e c i r c u m p o l a r world. S i b e r i a p o s s e s s e s some 75% o f t h e energy r e s o u r c e s o f t h e USSR i n c l u d i n g o i l , g a s , c o a l and w a t e r power and w i l l soon become t h e main power b a s e f o r t h e c o u n t r y a s a whole. I t a l r e a d y accounts f o r most o f t h e diamonds and a l m o s t a l l o f t h e a p a t i t e c o n c e n t r a t e s , and a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n of t h e gold, t i n , tungsten, mica and n i c k e l p r o d u c t i o n , n e a r l y one h a l f o f t h e logged t i m b e r and more t h a n 25% of t h e p a p e r o u t p u t . Extremely l a r g e r e s e r v e s o f gas and o i l have been found and t h e r e a r e tremendous

p o t e n t i a l r e s e r v e s o f i r o n o r e , c o k i n g and f u e l c o a l s and a v a s t , and a s y e t mainly untapped, h y d r o - e l e c t r i c p o t e n t i a l .

The f u t u r e economic growth o f t h e USSR w i l l c a l l f o r i n c r e a s i n g l y g r e a t e r amounts o f raw m a t e r i a l s and power s o u r c e s . Thus t h e development of i t s North i s i m p o r t a n t and n e c e s s a r y t o t h e o v e r - a l l development of t h e S o v i e t Union a s r e s e r v e s o f n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s a r e d e p l e t e d i n t h e a l r e a d y developed p a r t s o f t h e c o u n t r y . The economic importance of t h e i r n o r t h e r n r e g i o n s w i l l t h e r e f o r e i n c r e a s e s u b s t a n t i a l l y and d i r e c t l y .

As _{i n Canada, t h e c o s t s o f developing t h e s e n o r t h e r n r e g i o n s and} r e s o u r c e s a r e tremendous. E x p l o i t a t i o n h a s been undertaken on a very l a r g e s c a l e and w i t h g r e a t c a p i t a l i n v e s t m e n t . A member o f GOSSPLAN, a s e n i o r Government Committee f o r N a t i o n a l Planning, who i s a l s o Chairman, of t h e USSR I n d e r d e p a r t m e n t a l Committee on Problems o f t h e North, h a s s t a t e d t h a t t h e development o f n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s i n t h e S o v i e t Korth can b e j u s t i f i e d economically i f one o f two f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s e x i s t s :

(1) when t h e s p e c i a l v a l u e o f t h e s e r e s o u r c e s j u s t i f i e s t h e h i g h o u t l a y s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e development and e x p l o i t a t i o n , t h a t i s , t h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f t h e r e s o u r c e s i n t h e North i s economically no l e s s e f f e c t i v e t h a n i n o t h e r r e g i o n s w i t h more f a v o u r a b l e c l i m a t i c and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s , o r ( 2 ) when t h e r e s o u r c e s i n q u e s t i o n a r e g e n e r a l l y s c a r c e i n t h e c o u n t r y and t h e development i s e s s e n t i a l f o r t h e primary nccd o f t h e n a t i o n a l economy and f o r s t r e n g t h e n i n g m i 1 i t a r y p r c p a r c d n c s s

.

S i b e r i a i s most i m p o r t a n t t o t h e economy o f t h e USSR and has long h a d s p e c i a l p r i o r i t y i n S o v i e t p l a n n i n g . Great emphasis i s p l a c e d on s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h t o i n v e s t i g a t e and p r o v i d e

s o l u t i o n s t o t h e many problems e x p e r i e n c e d i n t h e North. I n t h i s r e g a r d c o n s i d e r a b l e s u c c e s s h a s been achieved. C a r e f u l p l a n n i n g w e l l i n

advance o f a c t u a l development i s always s t r e s s e d t o a v o i d h a v i n g t o cope w i t h major problems on s i t e and, o f c o u r s e , t o keep c o s t s w i t h i n reason- a b l e limits. P l a n n i n g may always be s t r e s s e d b u t r e p o r t s i n d i c a t e t h a t s u c c e s s i s n o t always a c h i e v e d . For a number o f major p r o j e c t s o r when p a r t i c u l a r l y d i f f i c u l t problems have been e n c o u n t e r e d , s p e c i a l s t u d y groups have been e s t a b l i s h e d t o i n v e s t i g a t e and p r o v i d e s o l u t i o n s on t h e s i t e .

A l l a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e S o v i e t Union a r e a d m i n i s t e r e d t h r o u g h a

number o f S t a t e Committees o f t h e Council of M i n i s t e r s o f t h e USSR. A l l p r o p o s e d developments must b e c o n s i d e r e d by t h e S t a t e Committee f o r P l a n n i n g (GOSSPLAN)

.

G o s s t r o y , which i s t h e S t a t e Committee f o r C o n s t r u c t i o n , i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a l l c o n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e S o v i e t Union and c o - o r d i n a t e s and d i r e c t s a c t i v i t i e s c a r r i e d o u t by v a r i o u s m i n i s t r i e s and d e p a r t m e n t s . I t e s t a b l i s h e s s t a n d a r d s f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n , s u p e r v i s e s a l l c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o j e c t s , and u n d e r t a k e s and d i r e c t s work a t v a r i o u s r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t e s w i t h i n i t s s p h e r e o f o p e r a t i o n . S e v e r a l m i n i s t r i e s have an i n t e r e s t i n , o r a r e d i r e c t l y concerned w i t h , c o n s t r u c t i o n . For example, t h e M i n i s t r y o f T r a n s p o r t C o n s t r u c t i o n i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a1 1 major c o n s t r u c t i o n f o r highways, r a i l w a y s , b r i d g e s , h a r b o u r s and

communication; t h e M i n i s t r y f o r Energy and E l e c t r i f i c a t i o n i s respon- s i b l e f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n and o p e r a t i o n o f b o t h hydro and t h e r m a l power g e n e r a t i n g s t a t i o n s . There a r e a l s o M i n i s t r i e s f o r each o f t h e gas a n d o i l i n d u s t r i e s and a M i n i s t r y f o r I n d u s t r i a l C o n s t r u c t i o n and a number o f o t h e r s which have t h e i r own c o n s t r u c t i o n a g e n c i e s

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a l l o f which come under t h e o v e r - a l l d i r e c t i o n o f Gosstroy. C o n s t r u c t i o n management and o p e r a t i o n s a r e conducted, t h e r e f o r e , t h r o u g h a v e r y complex system which i s w h o l l y S t a t e c o n t r o l l e d .

Development o f t h e USSR North i s e x p e n s i v e , c o s t i n g 3 t o 4 t i m e s more t h a n i n more t e m p e r a t e r e g i o n s . C o n s t r u c t i o n c o s t s a r e s a i d t o b e h i g h e r by from 2 t o 8 t i m e s , v a r y i n g w i t h l o c a t i o n , t h a n f o r s i m i l a r c o n s t r u c t i o n i n European R u s s i a . T h i r t y p e r c e n t o f t h i s i n c r e a s e d c o s t i s t h e r e s u l t o f c o p i n g w i t h t h e s e v e r e n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s and 70 p e r c e n t i s t h e r e s u l t o f such economic f a c t o r s a s f u e l , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and l a b o u r .

The s e v e r e c l i m a t e d r a s t i c a l l y a f f e c t s c o n s t r u c t i o n o p e r a t i o n s : i n some a r e a s o f t h e i r F a r North t h e r e a r e 350 days o f b e l o w - f r e e z i n g

t e m p e r a t u r e s and i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o p r o v i d e h e a t t h e y e a r round. Outdoor a c t i v i t i e s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n workers and equipment a r e s e v e r e l y hampered n o t o n l y by low t e m p e r a t u r e s b u t a l s o by s t r o n g winds and d r i f t i n g snow which c r e a t e o t h e r h a z a r d s . I n some a r e a s , c o n s t r u c t i o n o p e r a t i o n s a r e c u r t a i l e d o r s h u t down c o m p l e t e l y d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r months. The l o n g p e r i o d s o f d a r k n e s s and p r i m i t i v e l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s a l s o r a i s e psycho-

l o g i c a l and p h y s i o l o g i c a l problems. Many o f t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s a r e f a m i l i a r t o us i n terms o f t h e Canadian North.

T r a n s p o r t a t i o n and a c c e s s have long been major problems c o m p l i c a t i n g t h e development o f t h e i r n o r t h e r n a r e a s and t h e movement o f c o n s t r u c t i o n m a t e r i a l s , equipment and o t h e r s u p p l i e s . Today, t h e S o v i e t European North i s c o n n e c t e d t o t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t s o f t h e c o u n t r y by a r e a s o n a b l y w e l l developed l a n d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n network and, o f c o u r s e , t h e r e i s t h e a l l - y e a r s h i p p i n g r o u t e n o r t h o f S c a n d i n a v i a t o t h e p o r t o f Murmansk. I n S i b e r i a t h e y a r e b l e s s e d w i t h a number o f v e r y l a r g e r i v e r s which a r e u s e d e x t e n s i v e l y f o r n o r t h - s o u t h communication. The r i v e r s y s tcms

,

i n c l u d i n g t h e Ob, Yenisey, Lena, Aldan and many o t h e r s , a r e l i n k e d t o t h e T r a n s - S i b e r i a R a i l r o a d i n t h e s o u t h e i t h e r d i r e c t l y o r by s h o r t branch l i n e s o r r o a d s and i n t h e n o r t h by t h e N o r t h e r n Sea Route a l o n g

t h e A r c t i c c o a s t . C o n t r a s t t h i s w i t h t h e Canadian North where t h e Mackenzie R i v e r i s t h e o n l y n a v i g a b l e r i v e r and a c c e s s t o o u r F a r North, i n c l u d i n g some Hudson Bay p o i n t s , i s o n l y p o s s i b l e by s e a f o r a v e r y , s h o r t p e r i o d each y e a r .

Movement o f m a t e r i a l s and equipment i n l a n d from r i v e r p o r t s t o new r e s o u r c e developments i n S i b e r i a i s u s u a l l y o v e r w i n t e r r o a d s which can b e u s e d f o r 7 t o 9 months o f t h e y e a r . Permanent highways which a r e c o s t l y t o b u i l d and m a i n t a i n o v e r p e r m a f r o s t a r e c o n s t r u c t e d o n l y where e c o n o m i c a l l y w a r r a n t e d and around t h e major c e n t r e s o f a c t i v i t y . A i r

t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , however, p l a y s t h e most i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n p r o v i d i n g a c c e s s t o t h e i r remote a r e a s c a r r y i n g e v e r y t h i n g from p a s s e n g e r s t o o i l r i g s anywhere i n t h e i r North. Large h e l i c o p t e r s and f r e i g h t e r a i r c r a f t a r e w i d e l y u s e d f o r t r a n s p o r t o f m a t e r i a l s and equipment. The a i r s y s t e m h a s been e x t r e m e l y w e l l developed and even t h e most i s o l a t e d communities a r e s e r v e d r e g u l a r l y by a i r c r a f t . D i s t a n c e s t o be t r a v e r s e d a r e

tremendous even by Canadian s t a n d a r d s . For example, t r a v e l by modern j e t

a i r c r a f t from Moscow t o Yakutsk i n e a s t e r n S i b e r i a t a k e s a b o u t 8 h o u r s a c t u a l f l y i n g t i m e . One c r o s s e s 6 time zones and even t h e n i s o n l y a b o u t two t h i r d s o f t h e way a c r o s s S i b e r i a . T r a n s p o r t a t i o n s t i l l c o n s t i t u t e s a s e r i o u s b o t t l e n e c k , however, d e s p i t e t h e g r e a t improvements t h a t have been made i n r e c e n t y e a r s and c o n s i d e r a b l e emphasis i s p l a c e d on c o n t i n - u i n g r e s e a r c h and development t o f a c i l i t a t e a c c e s s t o t h e n o r t h e r n a r e a s . P r e p l a n n i n g i s v i t a l and i s always s t r e s s e d b e c a u s e , i n many c a s e s , by

t h e time m a t e r i a l s and equipment a r e moved by r a i l , r i v e r b o a t and f i n a l l y o v e r l a n d , i t may t a k e a s l o n g a s 2 y e a r s t o g e t them t o a p a r t i c u l a r c o n s t r u c t i o n s i t e .

Another major r e c e n t problem i n t h e USSR North has been t h e high

t u r n o v e r i n t h e l a b o u r f o r c e . The l o c a l i n h a b i t a n t s a r e few i n number and many a r e u n s k i l l e d o r a r e f o l l o w i n g t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l p u r s u i t s o f f i s h i n g , h u n t i n g o r t r a p p i n g . A l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e work f o r c e must t h e r e f o r e be brought i n t o t h e p r o j e c t s i t e from o t h e r a r e a s . To a t t r a c t and s t a b i l i z e t h e s k i l l e d work f o r c e v a r i o u s wage i n c e n t i v e s a r e p r o v i d e d . I n f a r n o r t h e r n r e g i o n s , workers r e c e i v e i n c r e m e n t s o r bonuses, which may be a s much a s t h e b a s i c wage, a s w e l l a s c o s t of l i v i n g a 1 lowances which, i n extreme n o r t h e r n c o n d i t i o n s , may a l s o be e q u a l t o t h e b a s i c wage. In a d d i t i o n , t o make l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s more a t t r a c t i v e t o t h c l a b o u r f o r c c , g r e a t e r a t t e n t i o n i s now given t o p r o v i d i n g a d c q u a t c housing, amcni t i c s and e d u c a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s a t t h e job s i t e .

Development o f t h e S o v i e t North i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s proceeded very s l o w l y . B u i l d i n g s were s m a l l and b u i l t o f l o g s ; f o u n d a t i o n s were s i m p l e . B u i l d i n g movements due t o f r o s t heaving o r thaw s e t t l e m e n t o f p e r m a f r o s t were n o t of major consequence. I n t h e l a t e 3 0 ' s and e a r l y 4 0 ' s some

l a r g e r s t r u c t u r e s , mainly o f wood, were e r e c t e d b u t a p p a r e n t l y , b e c a u s e o f l a c k o f communication and e x p e r i e n c e , u n s a t i s f a c t o r y performance and f a i l u r e s were f r e q u e n t . A f t e r t h e war, however, when v e r y l a r g e - s c a l e r e s o u r c e developments were u n d e r t a k e n , major emphasis was p l a c e d on r e s e a r c h , development and p l a n n i n g i n an a t t e m p t t o e l i m i n a t e , o r a t l e a s t subs t a n t i a l l y r e d u c e , t h e problems e n c o u n t e r e d and t o o p e r a t e more

Development o f t h e e x t r e m e l y l a r g e h y d r o - e l e c t r i c p o t e n t i a l o f t h e i r numerous r i v e r s h a s been a prime o b j e c t i v e o f t h e S o v i e t p l a n n e r s . Power i s e s s e n t i a l f o r t h e many i n d u s t r i a l and mining complexes t h a t a r e

s p r i n g i n g up t h r o u g h o u t t h e i r North and t h e y a r e e x t r e m e l y f o r t u n a t e i n h a v i n g many n a t u r a l hydro s i t e s a v a i l a b l e f o r development. I n c o n t r a s t , Canada h a s o n l y a few p o t e n t i a l s i t e s and t h e s e do n o t compare i n

c a p a c i t y t o t h o s e o f S i b e r i a . Thermal s t a t i o n s u s i n g d i e s e l f u e l , gas o r c o a l a r e secondary s o u r c e s o f power. Some d i f f i c u l t and unique

problems have been overcome by Russian dam c o n s t r u c t o r s . A t C h e r n y s h e v i s k i y , f o r example t h e impermeable c o r e f o r t h e main e a r t h and rock- f i l l dam was p l a c e d d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r t o t a k e advantage o f low r i v e r f l o w s . Clay f o r t h e c o r e was b r o u g h t t o t h e s i t e i n i n s u l a t e d t r u c k s , mixed w i t h c a l c i u m c h l o r i d e and s t o r e d i n l a r g e p i l e s t o p r e v e n t f r e e z i n g . The c o r e m a t e r i a l was h e a t e d w i t h e l e c t r i c p r o b e s t o allow placement and compaction a t t e m p e r a t u r e s a s low a s -40°F (-40°C). A t t h i s same s i t e , t h e dam was p l a c e d on bedrock which c o n t a i n e d i c e i n f i s s u r e s . As t h i s i c e would m e l t due t o t h e w a t e r i n t h e headpond, a t u n n e l was c o n s t r u c t e d on t h e r i v e r bottom u n d e r t h e dam t o a l l o w d r a i n a g e o f t h e m e l t w a t e r and t o p e r m i t g r o u t i n g o f t h e v o i d s s o a s t o s e a l o f f t h e f o u n d a t i o n .

Another example i s t h e dam c o n s t r u c t e d on a r i v e r t o s u p p l y w a t e r t o t h e diamond c e n t r e a t Mirny. A system o f d u c t s , through which c o l d w i n t e r a i r i s c i r c u l a t e d , was c o n s t r u c t e d i n t h e dam t o m a i n t a i n t h e c o r e a n d t h e i c e - r i c h f o u n d a t i o n s o i l s i n a f r o z e n c o n d i t i o n .

There a r e v e r y l a r g e proven r e s e r v e s o f o i l and gas i n t h e S o v i e t Union; it a p p e a r s t h a t t h e u l t i m a t e p o t e n t i a l i s much l a r g e r t h a n t h a t o f Nortli America. A t p r e s e n t o n l y two gas l i n e s , which a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o be e x p e r i m e n t a l , have been b u i l t on p e r m a f r o s t . These a r e a 20-inch (50 cm) l i n e , 250 m i l e s (400 km) l o n g i n Y a k u t i a and a 28-inch (70 cm) l i n e , a b o u t 150 m i l e s (240 km) l o n g t o N o r i l ' s k . P a r t s o f t h e s e l i n e s a r e b u r i e d , p a r t s a r e on t h e s u r f a c e and p a r t s a r e s u p p o r t e d on p i l e s above t h e ground. Few d i f f i c u l t i e s have been e x p e r i e n c e d , a p p a r e n t l y , w i t h e i t h e r cons t r u c - t i o n o r o p e r a t i o n . Design and c o n s t r u c t i o n o f l a r g e - d i a m e t e r gas and o i l l i n e s (up t o 4 f t ; 122 cm) on p e r m a f r o s t a r e planned. I n t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p i p e l i n e s i n p e r m a f r o s t h a s been underway f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s .

I n t h e p a s t v e r y l a r g e l a b o u r f o r c e s have been used on c o n s t r u c t i o n jobs i n t h e S o v i e t North b u t i n r e c e n t y e a r s g r e a t e f f o r t s have been made t o mechanize a l l o p e r a t i o n s a s much a s p o s s i b l e . As was r e p o r t e d i n t h e New York Times, a s e n i o r m i n i s t e r o f t h e USSR s t a t e d t h a t "Our problem i s n o t t o a t t r a c t p e o p l e t o s e t t l e i n t h o s e i n h o s p i t a b l e a r e a s . I f we c o u l d h e l p i t , we would n o t want t o s e n d anyone t h e r e . We a r e l o o k i n g forward n o t t o t h e e r a o f mines under a i r - c o n d i t i o n e d p l a s t i c domes b u t t o

i n c r e a s i n g mechani z a t i o n and automation t h a t w i l l reduce t h e r e q u i r e d man- power t o t h e a b s o l u t e minimum." U n f o r t u n a t e l y , c o n s i d e r a b l e d e l a y s on c o n s t r u c t i o n jobs and very c o s t l y r e p a i r s were e x p c r i c n c c d when a t t e m p t s were made t o u s e equipment d e s i g n e d f o r t e m p e r a t e zones. Consequently, t h e S o v i e t Government h a s made a c o n c e n t r a t e d e f f o r t in t h e p a s t f i v e y e a r s t o p r o v i d e v e h i c l e s and equipment d e s i g n e d t o w i t h s t a n d t h e low t e m p e r a t u r e s o f t h e North.

Based on r e p o r t s i n t h e Russian l i t e r a t u r e and a l s o on o b s e r v a t i o n s made by t h e i n c r e a s i n g number o f v i s i t o r s t o t h e S o v i e t North i t i s obvious t h a t t h e r e a r e no b a s i c o r e s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n n o r t h e r n technology between o u r two c o u n t r i e s n o r i n t h e s c i e n t i f i c a p p r e c i a t i o n o f p e r m a f r o s t problems. I t i s a l s o c l e a r t h a t t h e c o s t o f developing t h e n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s o f o u r r e s p e c t i v e n o r t h e r n r e g i o n s i s and w i l l be more expensive compared w i t h more s o u t h e r l y a r e a s . C a r e f u l p l a n n i n g , d e s i g n and e f f i c i e n t u t i l i z a t i o n o f men, m a t e r i a l s and equipment by t h o s e c o g n i z a n t o f , and e x p e r i e n c e d i n , n o r t h e r n c o n d i t i o n s and o p e r a t i o n s a r e v i t a l , f o r mistakes can b e d i s a s t r o u s and extremely c o s t l y .

E n g i n e e r i n g and c o n s t r u c t i o n achievements i n t h e S o v i e t North a r e most i m p r e s s i v e . The l a r g e s c a l e o f many o f t h e i r developments i n a most i n h o s p i t a b l e and remote r e g i o n and under extremely a d v e r s e condi- t i o n s , t h e problems they have encountered and t h e manner i n which they have overcome them, i n c l u d i n g t h e i n t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h and development a c t i v i t y they have undertaken, a r e o f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t t o us. Many Russian books and p a p e r s d e a l i n g w i t h p e r m a f r o s t e n g i n e e r i n g and problems o f t h e n o r t h have been t r a n s l a t e d by and a r e a v a i l a b l e from t h e N a t i o n a l Research Council i n Ottawa which h a s maintained c l o s e l i a i s o n with S o v i e t workers f o r a number o f y e a r s .

On t h e o t h e r hand, S o v i e t e n g i n e e r s and c o n s t r u c t o r s a r e anxious t o l e a r n and g a i n from o u r e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e Canadian North. They a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t e d i n o u r methods o f o b t a i n i n g and m a i n t a i n i n g h i g h s t a n d a r d s and q u a l i t y o f c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e use o f l i g h t w e i g h t b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s , which a r e more economic, e a s i e r t o t r a n s p o r t and s i m p l e r t o e r e c t , and mechanization o f c o n s t r u c t i o n o p e r a t i o n s i n c l u d i n g t h e design and o p e r a t i o n o f heavy c o n s t r u c t i o n equipment and v e h i c l e s f o r c r o s s - c o u n t r y t r a n s p o r t i n t h e North.

Canada and t h e S o v i e t Union have l a r g e n o r t h e r n f r o n t i e r s t o develop. T h e i r s i s f u r t h e r advanced t h a n o u r s , i n some r e s p e c t s , b u t we each have been a b l e t o g a i n v a l u a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n and i n s i g h t i n t o common problems

through r e c i p r o c a l v i s i t s and exchanges o f i n f o r m a t i o n . The development o f t h e v a s t p o t e n t i a l o f t h e North i s and w i l l c o n t i n u e t o be v i t a l t o t h e economy o f b o t h c o u n t r i e s .