African technical capabilities for exploration, exploitation, development and management of the resources of the sea

Resources of the Sea Unit Natural Resources Division 13 May 1966

FOHEHOHD I.

II.

INTRODUCTION

POTENTIAL ~mRINE RESOURCES

1 2 A.

B.

C.

D.

Living resources Non-living resources 1. Minerals in solution 2. Solid minerals

3. Petroleum oil and gas Energy sources

l . Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

. . ^. .

2. Wave energy

3. Tidal energy

. . ^. .

4. Salinity energy

. . . . . . . . . . . .

Marine transportation

2 3 3 3 6 6 6 7 7 7

o

! I I . BASIC TECHNOLOGIES AND CAPABILITIES NEEDED FOR EXPLORATION

AND EXPLOITATION OF ~ffiRINE RESOURCES • • • • • • • • • • •

o

A.

B.

C.

Fishery resources Mineral resources

Existing situation in Africa

nU

9 11

D.

1. Narine technology 2. Research and training 3. Marin~ resources

(a) Living resources (b) Mineral resources Constraints

11 12 13 13 15 17 IV. NATIONAL POLICIES AND PLANS FOR MARINE RESOURCES

DEVELOPMENT • • • • • • • • • 17

A.

B.

Fisheries • • • • • • •

Non-living resources • • • • .

- i i -

17 20

A.

D.

C.

D.

E.

F.

G.

H.

1.

Economic Comm.is aLon for Africa (ECA) • • . . • • Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) • • . . • • . . • • ^{0 • • 0 •} United Nati~ns Environment Prcgramme (UNEP) International Maritime Organization (IMO)

The Ocean Economics and Technology Branch (OETD) United Nations Industrial Development Organization

( UNIDO ) • • ^{0 • • • • • • • • 0 • • • • 0 • •} World Meteorological Organization (WMO) ° 0, °

International Hydrographic Organization (IHO)

20 21 22 23 21 2 2 2 27 1.

V 1.

CONCLUSION RECOMl4ENDATIONS

2' 30 DID OGRAPHY AND REFERENCES

- i i i -

importance marine resources could play and the far-reaching impact of marine resource development of member States especially with the adoption of the Convention on the Law of the Sea, is giving particular attention to assist African States to take up this new challenge. ECA has been instrumental in carrying out a series of studies and holding a number of intergovernmental meetings on marine science and technology in Africa. This paper describes the potential marine resources and basic technological capabilities needed for their exploration and exploitation, assesses their existing situation in Africa and the constraints hindering African coastal States to take full advantage of their marine resources. National policies and plans for marine resource development are reviewed and information given on international organizations and agencies which are assisting and could assist African States in marine affairs. Recommendations are made on how African States could build up and strengthen their capabilities in exploration, exploitation, development and management of marine resources as rapidly as possible.

- iv -

Since very ancient times the sea has been an area which prompted hu n curi sity. Interests in marine resources were first for food and as a medium for -r a n s p o r t a t i o n . Thus coastal waters were fished and used for transport.

Soon peoples in different parts of the world navigated across the ocea s and settled on new land. [·1arine transportation thus became of cruci 1 importance in travel and trade for the whole world.

Living and non-living resources of the sea began to be more intens ly expl ited as nations developed the capabilities of doing so. It could oe fore; ee n that conflicts would arise among coastal States for sovereign ty over marine resources. Declarations and treaties were thus proclaimed to saf ua r d national interests. However, the need to have a law which wou d cov r all the oceans of the world and acceptable to the world communi y was .ncreasingly being felt. The United Nations thus began a series f Conf rences on the Law of the Sea which culminated in the adoption of t e Con tion on the Law of the Sea in 1982. This Convention sets the bas s for new regime of the seas and rational development and management f

marin~ resources.

!\lthough the Convention has not yet entered into force, its work d adop io n has had and is continuing to have lasting impacts on national and inte r at i o n a l law. Nost States are in the procna s of adopting nat.Lone1 poli y and legislation consistent with the provisions of the Convention.

he main provisions of the Convention concern the sovereignty of coastal Stat over a l2-nautical mile territorial sea; a contiguous zone of 4 naut al miles wherein they may apply customs, immigration, fiscal, a d sani ry lawsi an exclusive economic zone and a continental shelf where they ha v e sovereign rights for exploring, exploiting and managing all living and non-living resources. Islands generate their own territorial sea, exclu ive economic zone and continental shelf just like any other Ian territory.

Land-locked and geographically disadvantaged States of transit to and from the sea. They have the right to resources of coastal States under certain conditions.

have the surplus

rig ht livi

not l

is b know bed esta acti

11 parts of the sea that are beyond the exclusive economic zones an de r national jurisdiction form ,..hat is known as the "Area". The "Are "

oug h t under the jurisdiction of an International Sea-bed Authority"

as the "Authori ty" for the management of the resources of the sea- s the "common heritage of mankind". A Preparatory Commission was

is h e d to prepare the ground for the Authority for managing sea-b ti e s .

rine scientific research is regulated by appropriate provision rela t ng to the territorial sea, exclusive economic zone and high seas Provi io n s are made for development and transfer of marine technology, espec. lly to developing States, including land-locked and geographically disad' ntaged States. Preferential treatment is accorded to developin

States with regard to allocation of funds, technical assistance and specialized services of international organizations. coastal States would take all practical measures to prevent and control marine pollutiGJl.

Disputes over interpretation or application of the Convention have to be settled by peaceful means through mechanisms set up Convention or by other peaceful means agreeable to parties concerned.

II. POTENTIAL l·lARINE RESOURCES

would by the

In the offshore areas under national jurisdiction lie an estimated 95 per cent of presently exploitable fishery resources, about 87 per cent of all known and estimated hydrocarbons under the sea and most of the future petroleum resources. Africa is well situated both in relation to living and non-living resources. Living resources comprise mainly fishery and sea-weed resources. Non-Ii ving resources are constituted by petroleum oil and natural gas, salt, sand, gravel, shells and dead corals, placers and other mineral deposits found on the sea-bed, its subsoil and the waters above it. The oceans also represent sources of non-conventional energy of which the most important are ocean thermal energy conversion, waves, tides and salinity. Besides, oceans are extensively used for transportation.

A. Livinq resources

Fish production in the sea ultimately depends on primary productivity:

phytoplankton and algae which form the base of the food chain. Greater fish production would be expected to be concentrated in areas where environmental conditions favour high primary producti vi ty. Such conditions are usua'Lf.y found in upwelling areas of the estuaries, coral reef formations and are favoured by other oceanographic phenomena. S-;aweed production is favoured by availability of essential nutrients: phc sphates and nitrates in sufficient concentration£ (as is needed for phytoplankton productivity);

and shallow areas where sufficient light penetrates the water to favour its growth.

Exploitation of fishery resources is given priority in a number of African countries mainly because i t provides a valuable source of protein supply to the population and its economic importance. The latter has many aspects: decreased dependence on food imports1 export of f ish and fishery

produ~ts enabling countries to get valuable foreign exchange1 multiplier effects of fisheries activities in the economy relating to boat building and repair, processing, marketing, gear manufacture and maintenance, etc.

All these activiti~s increase employment opportunities for people living in rural as well as urban areas and contribute to raise their standards of living.

Aquaculture

Aquacul turc is seen in many countries as a means of increasing fish production, making optimal use of water resources and creation of employment in the rural sector. The importance of aquaculture has been highlighted in a number of international workshops starting in the mid-1970s which culminated in the technical conference organized by FAO in Kyoto, Japan,

in the mult for had

1976. Six regional aquaculture Centres have been created througho ut wo r l d between 1978 and 1981 to train specialists and carry out di s c i p l i n a r y research in the field. The Regional Aquaculture Cen e Af r i c a is situated in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. By 1983, this Cent e tra i n e d 40 aquaculture specialists.

A number of considerations should be taken into account before embarking on any aquaculture development project. These include the sui tabili ty f proj ct site for aquaculture activities, availability of unpolluted wa r

reso~rces, availability of appropriate species for culture and suitable for cho local conditions, easy production or procurement of seed, chc p sour s of feed where intensive culture is envisaged, marketing and manageme t asp ts and the overall economics of aquaculture projects.

whic Aqua but and

elem shel occu as view 1.

whic can evap

been fro Extr is n 2.

cont depo of of be c

larine aquaculture is relatively new to African countries, most of have not yet realized the potential existing for its development.

Iture development can possibly be promoted in certain coastal are 5

uo considerations should be taken with regard to environmental impac 5

he economics of projects before launching into large-scale activities.

B. Non-livinq resources

~on - l i vi ng marine resources can be grouped into three categori nts in solution, minerals on the sea-floor (placers, sand, gravel and

5, phosphates and manganese nodules and polymetallic crusts> and mineru s ri n g in the subsoil such as coal, tin and iron, and oil and gas deposi s 11 as polymetallic muds and brines. The figure below gives a generaliz.d of the possible minerals available from the ocean.

linerals in solution

Se a water contains a number of elements in the form of salts in soluti <Jn can be concentrated and extracted. Common salt is one resource whi :h ost readily be extracted from the sea. All tropical countries u e rat i o n ponds to concentrate sea water and form salt.

ec o v e r y of bromine, magnesium and potassium salts from sea water have xperimented within a few countries. Bromine is reported to be extrac t d sea water in India. tJlagnesium is successfully produced in Irela n ct i o n of trace elements and metals such as uranium, gold and silv r

t yet economical.

Soli d minerals

he similarity of geological history and rock types extending to ttc ental margin with those of the land may possibly suggest that miner 1 it s typical of the land can be buried below the sea-floor. The presence ta l sulphides along present mid-oceanic ridges suggest the possibili y nding such deposits away from the ridges. These deposits can onl y

luated by drilling under the sea-floor.

.. ,

I I I

I I I I

~~~..._ __~~..._J.~

-.i---...:-

I t I

I I I

L

Red clayend carbonate oozes

/

Mo nlJonese nodules ~

_~-..J,--",,"

~

--I-Abyssal Plaln_}-Oceonic Rise

I I I I Elements dissolved

In sea walerI

I

Coal or Iron deposits

Conlinents ,'... Continental shelf --' Slope

4-

I

I ,

I

Iplacer

%

Oil? and gas?

Source: Ross, 198!.

Figure A generalized view of the major possible minerals available from the ocean.

urface sediments found on the continental shelf have been repeated y work upon by waves and currents following the rise and fall of sea lev 1 duri the past million years. Sea-level has risen by about 130 met.rc s in the last 15,000-20,000 years. The beach which was at the edge of the cont ne n t a l shelf has, therefore, moved landwards to its present day position.

(a) Placers

conc on on t

ilme the Sout

The effect of the rise and fall of sea-level has been to continuously trate heavy mineral components of sediments forming mineral doposits ern and submerged beaches , Such concentrations of minerals near or

~ sea-bed arc called placers. Placer deposits include magnetite, rutile, te, zircon, platinum, diamonds and gold. Known placer deposits along fr i c a n coast are diamonds off south-west Africa, and phosphorites of

Africa.

(b ) Sand. qravel. shells and corals

and , gravel, shells and corals come second in value, after hydrocarbon , as n ne r a l s obtained from the ocean. Sand and gravel are mainly used in the co n s t r u c t i o n industry and other uses include beach replenishmen , indu rial abrasives and landfill. Large amounts of marine sand and grav 1 are xp l o i t e d in countries such as Japan, the United States, France, th Neth lands, Thailand and Sweden.

rc ) Phosphorites

80nes of most vertebrates are composed mainly of the mineral apati whic is a form of calcium phosphate. Sinking of bone debris would be exp ed to form phosphatic deposits on the sea-floor but this is not oft the se as physical and biological processes can prevent preservation of bone of the phosphatic debris during their descent through the water. J area of upwelling or high biological productivity, accumulation of phosphat ic depo ts may be favoured and the material becomes reorganized to form phoapho ri te deposits. These minerals have qualities close to those soug t

for in fertilizers and can be mined, but water depths and problems of reco ry, transportation costs and more competitive land sources have be majo obstacles for marine phosphorite mining. Phosphorite deposits ar foun on the continental margin off South, South-west and West Africa wate as shallow as 20 metres or deeper than 1,100 metres. Occurrenc are Ls o reported off Somalia. However, so far, exploration results ha demo trated that grade is often too low to justify economic exploitation.

fd ) _f~nqanese nodules

I anganese nodules are a common feature of the deep-sea floor occurri in d pt hs between 3, 000 and 6, 000 metres. They noema Ll.y range in diamet r from 1 to 20 em or as coatings on minerals and other objects. They a form by accretion of manganese and iron in concentric layers, sometim mi.xe with foreign materials such as clay, calcium carbonate or volcani.c debr They arc most common in areas with low accumulation rates of clay and lcium carbonate and mostly outside the continental margin. Nodul forme ion is less than 5 millimetres per million years. Nodules also contaOn a nu or of other elements such as copper, nickel and cobalt.

[.Ianganese nodules have not attracted much interest mostly due to economic reasons and the technology required to recover the metals have not been fully established. Recovery of metals from manganese nodules may not compete wi th land-based sources according to information available, uoweve r , the strategic values of minerals contained in manganese nodules and the long- term reliability or depletion of traditional land-based sources of minerals have spurred industrial countries to keep an interest in deep sea-bed minerals.

(e) Mineralized manqanese crusts

Recent scientific research near the Hawaiian islands has shown the presence of mineralized cobalt-rich manganese crusts at depths ranging from 800 to 2,400 m, Although explorations in this direction are still sparse, crusts could offer more interests than deep-sea nodules as they would be technologically easier to recover and mining operations would be less capital intensive.

(f) Polymetallic sulphides and brines

Exploi table minerals are known to occur in polymetallic sulphides and brines. One such area which has been assessed is in the Red Sea through the Saudi-Sudanese Red Sea Commission. Eighteen basins of mineralized brines and polymetallic sediments have been identified at depths of about 2,000 m along the Red Sea [Jjedian Ridge. Tho most promising mining target extends over an area of about 65 km² with sediment thicknesses of 2 to 30 m. Metal contents of the site are estimated at 2 million tonnes of zinc, 500, 000 tonnes of copper, 80 _~onnes of gold, and 40,000 tonnes of silver. Mining operations could extend over a period of 15 to 20 years.

3. Petroleum oil and qas

Petroleum formation is favoured by high sedimentation rates of organic material generally in m3rine basins, where burial and transformation of the organic material into petroleum take place. The latter is then concentrated and trapped under specific geological conditions and the products can be in the form of oil and gas. Sediment layers being relatively thin (300-600 m) and sedimentation rates being quite Im\1 in the deep sea, oil and gas formation in this area is not normally expected. Oil is rarely found in rocks younger than 2-3 million years old although i t can be found in rocks hundreds of millions of years old.

C. Enerqy sources 1. Ocean Thermal Enerqy Conversion

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) is a way of converting solar energy absorbed by the ocean into electric power. The thermal resource is the difference in temperatures between warm surface ocean water (0-100 m) and the deep cold water (500-1,000 m) underlying the surface layer.

Such S.

is p

Co s t - e f f e c t i v e operations need thermal gradients of at least 20⁰

c .

co n d i tions arc usually found in tropical waters between 20⁰ Nand 20⁰ e cold deep water should be close to the shore and economic feasibili y di c t e d at present upon a maximum distance of 25 km from shore •

deve of p.

.esearch in operation pment is directed at nts and increasing the

of OTEC plants is continuing and decreasing capi tal costs, improving thermal efficiency of the system.

technolo g y reliabili y

Side products of OTEC plants are production of fresh water, and water for coo l i n g and refrigeration. The deeper cold waters which are nutrient- rich co u l d also be used for marine acquaculture.

Afr l4ad

ilot OTEC projects have been demonstrated in Hawaii and Nauru.

n countries with potential OTEC resources are the Comoros, sca r , Mauritius, Mozambique and Seychelles.

So e Keny ,

2. av e enerqy

ave energy has been used for almost a century and is used to pow r many buoys and lighthouses. However, commercial production of energy fr wave has not yet been demonstrated. Even though wave energy is renewabl~,

wave ower is intermittent and wave amplitude is very variable and seasonal, whic are drawbacks in smooth wave power supply.

3. id a l onerqy

he only form of ocean energy which is commercially exploited at prese is t da l energy. The largest operating plant is located in France wit

a Cil city of 240 megawatts and smaller plants have been installed in Chin~

and a Soviet Union. Tidal energy plants operate on the same principl as h roelectric ones and are economically feasible in areas where the tidal range ex c e e d s 2-3 metres.

4. -al i n i t y enerav

,a l i n i ty power depends on the salinity gradient which exists be twa fzosr and salt water. The power is represented by the osmot.Lc pres su r.::

diff on c o between two solutions of different salt concentration separated by ,1 emi - p e r me a b l e membrane. Water flows from the less concentrated s i.do

(fr~c water) to the more concentrated side (salt water) until the rais level of tho concentrated solution is equal to the osmotic pressu _ d Lffe ren o e , The elevated salt water can be discharged through a turbin to 9 er a t e power. Various models to extract salinity power have be 1

exper me n t e d with, but more research and development work remains to done in this field to make such systems less capital intensive. Beside s . fresh water is not always an abundant resource.

D. Marino transportntion

One of the major challenges facing African States in marine resource devclopmollt is th~ development of their capabilities in marine transportation.

The development of the shipping industry depends on a number of factors such as fleet development, port development, ship-building and repair facilities and maritime training.

During the colonial period, shipping activities were controlled by colonial powers and services were directed from Africa to Europe. After achieving independence, African countries perceived the need to develop their own shipping, industries. This demand could only be mot by the establishment of shippers' councils and national lines, development of port facilities, ship-building and repair facilities and maritime training.

Neasures taken at international levels through UNCTAD and I~ID gradually resul ted in the acceptance by developed countries that developing countries should have an cqui.table share in world shipping. The share of developing countries in world trade amounts to 60 per cent of exports or to about 40 per cent of world trade (imports and exports) and hence their demand for a larger share in world shipping can be appreciated.

The United Nations General Assembly through its Second Development Decade (1970-1980) envisaged the acqisi tion of a minimum of 10 per cent of the world shipping tonnage by the developing countries. The strategy for the Third Development Decade was to achieve 20 per cent of the shipping tonnage by th8 developing countries. Thus the share of the developing countries in world shipping tonnage increased from 6.3 per cent in 1970 to 15.3 per cent in 1983. Expansion of the African fleet was from 1.1 million DWT (Dead Weight Tons) in 1970 to 7.7 mi Ilion DWT in 1983 compared to 10.7 million DWT in 1970 to 73.4 million DWT in 1983 for Asian countries.

Even though there is a large ovor-supply of shipping tonnage existing in the world at present, which has adverse effects on the developing countries trying to develop their own shipping industry, African countries should make efforts to obtain a greater share of shipping tonnage for their imports arid exports. Port development should be made on a rational as well as regional basis taking into account the far-reaching impact of technological and eommercinl changos in shipping. In the field of maritime training, aet t Lnq up of regionnl training institutions could provide cost-benefits, especially where large investments are needed in equipment and institutions and promoting co-operation among countries of a gi von region. As manpower training is of crucial importance to expansion of national fleets, i t should be given the highest priority.

III. BASIC TECHNOLOGIES AND CAPABILITIES NEEDED FOR EXPLORATION AND EXPLOITATION OF l~~RINE RESOURCES

A. Fisherv resources

In fishery resources explorution, normally a trawler or purse-seinor or other appropriate fishing vessel is used in surveys. The vessel should be equipped with echo-sounders to locate fish schools and get information on depths in which i t is working. Biological and plankton samples are

co l l.cct.cd for on-board or later analysis in onshore laboratories. Physi('o- chemical parameters such as temperature, oxygen concentration, salini y, can nt r a t i o n of nutrients, etc. arc measured to complement biologi al inf rma t i o n . Well-equipped laboratories are essential for analysis ;~nd

trc. tmcnt of samples and data collected ~t sea.

Exploitation of fishery resources require appropriate vessels such as trawlers, purse-seiners and longliners in particular areas and accord ing to spe c i e s to be fished. In addition, trained master-fishermen, fisher en and crew are essential for the success of fishing operations. Import nt sup rt infrastructure such as harbour, and facilities for stora pro ssing, marketing and distribution arc also needed. In the artisa 1 fis ry boats powered by sail and/or motors are of prime importance for fis 1n g activities.

B. Mineral resources

be res Ian rotor bed.

near offs usin det

Minerals on or under the sea-bed on the continental margin can oft n _t e c t e d by the same techniques used for marine geological and geophysic~l

rch , Exploration of offshore marine resources involve assessment f geology, offshore bathymetry and regional environmental conditions.

detailed surveying is later needed and include sampling of the ae1-

Knowledge of the occurrence of placer-type minerals on land especial y rivers draining in a given sea area and along the coast is useful in

or e exploration of placers. Often such exploration can be done by small boats. Sand and gravel deposits can be identified throuqh ti o n of submerged topographic ridges and hills.

bathymetric chart is essential to start any marine exploratio • Seis 1c studies will give an idea of subsurface structure, and acoust~c

stud ~s give information on sediment composition. Other characteristi s whic are useful include gravity and magnetic field measurements.

Char to 1 on r syst

of t iron info a 1 cxte

feat water phot can also

very accurate chart is needed prior to exploration of marine resourc ' • ng of the nearshore region can be done by posi tioning wi th zespe t

d-based features whilst positioning out of sight of land would dep d

ional navigation aids such as DECCA or LORAN or on satellite navigation s.

magnetometer is used to measure variations in the magnetic fie c ocean bottom and can help to detect deposits of magnetic or oth r

.Lc h minerals. Exploration with the use of a marine gravimeter giv s

tion on a regional basis on the presence of oil and gas. It requir s ge vessel and accurate navigation. Seismic reflection profiling i.s

ively used in oil and gas exploration.

ot t om topography can be studied by side-scan sonar which can delineate es on either side of a vessel's track. Direct observations in shalll

can be made by scuba divers. Other techniqucs include underwat ra phy and television, the latter having the advantage that its im ^q

videotaped. Sophisticated manned and unmanned submersibles hav ee n developed but their costs are high.

Sampling of potential mineral resources are usually done by underw~ter

grab samplers (for sand), covers (mainly for soft sediments), dredgers (for rocks, phosphorites and nodules) and other drilling devices and tcr~niques.

One of the most important pieces of equipment neoded for cxpl.o.rot i.on of marine resources is a vessel. In addition well-trained scientists and technicians arc needed to carry out ~ny exploration programme.

sensing. It on un object is collected expLorat i.on is remote

collecting information Uaue^Ll.y information A new tool in marine environmental

can be defined as the technical method of at; a given distance from t he observer.

digitally from space or aircraft platforms.

Weather satellites, which can be geostationary or orbiting, collect information in the visible, noar-d nf r a-erod and infra-red regions, primarily of meteorological interGst but which is also useful for oceanographic purposes, i.e., mapping of surface water temperature 2nd turbidity. Satellite microwave sensors can provide an understanding of waves, currents, tides and even sea-floor topogrnphy. Analysis of SEASAT datu shows that the sea su rfacc reflects deep sea-floor topography such as sea-mounts, mid-oceanic ridges, deep-ocean trenches and transverse faults. Satellites can also be used to relay surface d~ta from automatic platforms to ground stations.

The LANDSAT earth resources so t.eLl.Ltes can collect information on the cOi1stal zone for geological nnd morphologicul mapping and for detection of environmental conditions such as temperature, turbidity, chlorophyll and different types of pollution. Oil spills and flares from burning have been successfully mapped from satellites.

Three other satellites planned for marine use ~ro expected to be luunched in the next few years: the Japanese Maritime Observr.tion Satellite 1'10S- 1, the European ERS-l and the Canadian RADARSAT. Countries which would have coverag8 from these satellites should make appropriate arr~ngements

for receiving and handling data on their offshore activities from the satellites.

Air- and ship-borne sensors have also been developed and could be used for coastal surveillance and pollution control. Other types of systems used are the: laser bathymcter which can theoretically penetrate 50 metres in water und the side-scan sonar.

An institutional basis for profitable use of remote sensing should be created to receive and disseminate information. Appropriate hardware and sof twaz e equipment should be provided for the above tasks. Personnel needed would be meteorologists, oceanographers, systems and application engineers and programmers.

Land-based technology has been used in the exploitation of a number of marine resources such <'IS coal, iron, tin and some offshore oil and gas deposits which extend from land to sea. However, exploitation of marine deposits and placers require more specific marine technologies. Sand, gravel, shells and placers are generally exploited by mechanical and hydraulic / dredges.

A number of developed countries carry out resenrch on recovery of man nose nodules from the sua-floor. Two basic methods have been develop d:

the co n t i n uo us line bucket and hydraulic systems using either air or water.

The con t i n u o u s line bucket system is a purely mechanical means of r ecovo ry and con s i s t s of a series of buckets attached to a cable which are lowe red to the sea-floor, and which scrape off the nodules from the bottom and br g them back to the ship continuously. The hydraulic system uses air or wa r whic.:h is injected into a dredge on the sea-floor carrying with i t nodules up c pipe to the surface vessel. In some systems, the nodules are crush d before being brought to the surface.

two rig to Pro(

pla witt

Offshore oil and gas exploration and exploitation involve principally cypes of rigs: one for drilling and the other for production. Drill'ng can be either towed to the site or self-propelled. They can be attach d he sea-floor or be semi-submersible or mobile (drilling ships).

ct i on is an acti vi ty carried out from platforms which can either e d on the sea-floor or anchored to it. such platforms should be provid~d

adequate transport, storage and oil transfer facilities.

A lot of research and development work has already been done on mariue

min~ral resources exploration and exploitation. There is, therefore, 0

nee for African countries to start from scratch. Strategies should c

devtlop~d which will enable Africn countries to acquire the necess y t.cc ol og y both from developed and developing countries which are engi3 g d in ~ rine mineral resources exploration and exploitation.

expl cou can info a co with

1.

but of coun stil

fish whil indu unde,

Existing data have to be assessed as an initial step in mari e

rat.Lon , These can be widely distributed in institutions in differ t

ri.os , The Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNE 0

us s i s t by providing advice. One way of acquiring capability a d ation in marine ^re s our-ce s exploration and exploitation could be [ r nt r y to have a co-operative programme with another country or instituti n necessary arrangements for training local scientists and technicians.

c.

ttari.no technology development in Africa differs from country to count y s mostly at; a very low level. This situation may reflect the degr c

ri o r i t y placed on development of marine resources by the different ri e s or a lack of awareness of the potential of marine resources, rr , low capabilities in marine science and technology.

~ith regard to the fisheries sector, a few countries have well-develop d ng industries which contribute significantly to the national econ y

t a number of countries have moderately developed artisanal d tr i a l fisheries. About one third of the African coastal States h e

evelopcd or poorly developed fishing industries.

nost of the countries have plans to modernize, expand or build new harbours as existing facilities are insufficient to support both the fishing and shipping industries. Emphasis on harbour dovcLopmcnt; is qui to understandable: ~s harbours not only are important for marine resource:

development but also for development of th~ hinterlnnd.

Dry-dock facilities are only availnble in a few const~l States and small boat and repair yards are available in about one third of the African coastal States. A few countries have plans to improve existing and/or build new infrastructure for boat building and repairs.

Concerning non-living resources, only a few countries are at present extracting salt from the sea. About 10 countries on the African west coast are either engaged in ~xploration or exploitation of offshore oil resources and one country is extracting offshore placer deposits. The technology for exploration and exploit~tion of petroleum and natural gas resources cannot be said to be; in the hands of African countries presently engaged in these activities. The manpower involved is largely foreign and few nationals are really engaged in the industry and transnational staff manage most of the operations.

No detailed information is avai LabLe on training of marine technicians in seamanship and fishermen, but such training is known to be carried out at varying levels in a number of countries. Lack of proper facili tics, institutions and qualified staff are major constraints in this field.

2. Research ~nd traininq

r'iarinc resources development and management cannot be implemented in any country without the necessary back-up by research and training.

University education is relatively new in most African countries and priority was placed on training of manpower mainly in public adm~.nistration,education, agriculture nnd medicine to suit the immediate post-inde Jendencc period.

With the adoption of the Convention on the Law of the Sen, marine science has gained importance and many countries throughout the world are consolidating their marine science research and training f~cilities or building up new capabilities in these fields. Fishery resources have been traditionally exploited in all African coastal States and are the most readily accessible marine r eaour ce s by traditional means of exp Loi tation in inshore areas. Hence training and research in marine sciences have obviously developed in fisheries sciences in a number of African countries. Thus 13 coastal States have research institutes and centres dealing mainly with fisheries science. ~arine science research and training arc most developed in Egypt which has e i.qht; institutes dealing with different disciplines of oceanography and fisheries. The Faculty of Science of the University of Alexandria includes a Department of Oceanography. There is a hydrobiology/fisheries units exist in several Universities in Nigeria.

The Congo, Cat~ d^IIvoire and SenegClI have collaboration with ORST0I4 (Office de la recherche scientifique at technique outre-mer of France) mninly in fisheries research. ORSTOI·1 scientists are also assisting in fisheries research in Seychelles and at the Albion Fisheries Research Centre of nauritius. Eighteen African coastal States have no institutions dealing with either fisheries or oceanographic research and training.

3. Ila r i n e resources (a) Livinq resources

I·jarine fish production in the world was in 1983. Out of this, countries in Africa per cent of the world fish catch.

67,611,300 HT (metric to s ) produced 2,924,500 r·1T or .3

Table 1 gives a breakdown of marine f ish production for the period 190 -1 9 0 3 and imports and exports of fish products for 1982 for Afri n coo al States. Najar fish producing countries are Algeria, Angola, Ghan , [jn u tania, I-lorocco, Nigeria and Senegal. Najor upwelling areas off e wes and south-west coasts of Africa favours high fish productivity in th se reg ns especially of sardines and other pelagic fishes. Another import.nt upw ling also occurs off Somalia during the south-west monsoon but t e fis ry resources in this region remain underexploited for the time being.

Fish production increased in 22 of the 37 African coastal States duri ng

tho> er i o d 1980-1983, highest increases by volume being noted in Algeri ,

Ang a, Gabon, Cote d'rvoire, Morocco, Namibia and Nigeria. During e sam period fish production decreased in five countries and stagnated in 10 her countries.

Table 1 shows that volumewise, 19 of the coastal States were n t imp rt e r s of fish and fish products, the largest ones being Egypt, ' t .e d'Ivoire and Nigeria. Ten of the countries were net exporters of fis , the largest ones being I"Iauri tania, Morocco and Senegal and two countri the -,ambia and Kenya more or less balancing imports and exports. The tabl e sho that Hauri tania exported more fish than was produced in 1982. This coul be due to a substantial part of fish catches being made by fore gn ves Is and landed abroad. Even though Nigeria and Cote d^JIvoire are Larqe pro uce r s of fish, they are also big importers of fish products as dema s fro fairly large populations have to be satisfied.

vall I·laUT agr

Export of fisheries products accounted for in Senegal in 1982, 13 per cent in the tania. In Morocco, fishing comes third ultural producc and ores.

22 per cent of total export Gambia and 11 per cent in among export scctors af r

Fisheries play important roles in a few African countries due to th e co ries being well placed with regard to the resources and having .f a i rl y devl _o p e d fishing industries. However, in many African countries t e pot tial of fishery resources is not being fully exploited; for exampl e, Gab , with an estimated fisheries potential of about 370,000 HT of pelagic and deme r s a l fishes, only attained 15 per cent of this potential in its pro ction. Constraints facing fisheries development have been lack of infr st r u c t u r e support, preservation and marketing problems and lack of t.zaLned manpower. Gabon has fishing agreements with Cameroon and the Congo and number of distant-water fishing nations.

NOIUNAL FISH CATCHES (in metric tons)

- - - -~ - _..--~.-

1982

1980 1981 1982 1983 ^{T ....}Hl~:'....,~. '-.;:)^• Exports

l. Algeria 43 000 56 000 64 500 70 000 20 219 16

2. Angola 77 585 123 457 104 414 104 414

3. Benin 3 390 3 560 3 519 4 050 7 384 57

4. Cmneroon 39 283 3n 951 40 223 44 277 14 312 1 800

5. Cape Verde 8 837 11 105 10 381 13 205 1 1 455

6. Comoros 4 000 4 000 4 000 4 000 256

7. Congo 19 570 17 415 17 934 19 926 23 765 730

8. Cote d'Ivoire 62 680 64 880 77 469 79 280 125 252 29 652

9. Djibouti 251 385 426 426

10. Egypt 32 249 33 564 29 594 25 090 104 991 384

1l. Equatorial

Guinea 2 500 2 500 2 500 2 500 3 342 0

12. Ethiopia 407 328 350 400 4 12

13. Gabon 26 417 38 675 50 005 50 005 7 880 1 422

14. Gambia 10 565 11 3Gfl G 512 8 953 6 505 6 955

15. Ghana 184 121 . 190 593 199 119 185 000 19 500 32 100

16. Guinea 17 453 17 453 17 453 17 453 9 233

17. Guinea-Bissau 3 777 2 GG9 3 937 2 617 70 1 162

18. Kenya 5 403 5 967 7 116 6 393 971 911

19. Liberia 7 791 9 004 9 553 9 553 11 220 17

20. Libyan Arab

Jamahiriya 5 200 6 418 7 425 7 500 10 639

2l. i'ladagascar 10 142 10 000 9 001 12 307 26 3 989

22. Mauritania 10 132 52 779 48 143 42 849 179 871

23. i·jaur i t i us 6 389 7 337 9 537 9 512 7 433 2 346 24. I".lorocco 329 520 307 764 360 556 438 544 31 108 296

25. Ho aamb.i quo 30 350 37 130 34 680 37 440 15 221 5 900

26. Namibia 237 542 254 130 201 790 340 931

27. Nigeria 292 320 313 070 323 435 390 306 544 221 738 28. Sao Tome &

Principe 417 2 158 2 688 4 050

29. Senegal 250 186 206 728 212 895 212 895 15 036 90 776

30. Seychelles 4 676 5 221 4 045 3 854 13 619

3l. Sierra Leone 34 205 35 300 36 55e 36 558 6 539 940

32. Somalia 14 330 14 993 14 800 15 500 100 1 161

33. Sudan 950 870 1 050 4 450 813 600

34. Tanzania 39 374 39 577 23 669 35 518 1 000 150

35. Togo 5 634 6 825 11 030 13 856 16 727 39

36. Tunisia 60 154 57 468 62 853 67 145 300 5 479

37. Zaire 615 640 700 1 000

Source: FAC Yearbook of Fishery Statistics, 1983, vols. 56 and 57.

It is estimated that 1,100,000 MT of fish are caught in Moroccan wat rs but only 430,544 MT was reported having landed in I>iorocco in 1903. he pot nt i a 1 fishery resources of Guinea is estimated to range from about 200,000 to 00 , 0 0 0 MT per year. Fish production in 1903 was less than 10 per c nt of hi s potential. Moreover, Guinea has fishing agreements with the Euro n Economi,c Community to authorize member vessels to fish in its waters.

Madagascar, Morocco, Senegal and the United Republic of Tanzania re the 'lllly countries submitting statistics on seaweed production to FAD. Whi st pzo: uc t i o n in Madagascar and the United Republic of Tanzania are repor ed to e nil during the period 1900-1903 and negligible in Senegal, product ion

is rs t Lmat.ed to be 5,127 I>iT in !'1orocco (table 2). It would appear t t

tho full potential of seaweed resources is not being exploited and there

is .om for significant increase in production from these countries.

Table 2

PRODUCTION OF SEAWEEDS AND OTHER AQUATIC PLANTS (in metric tons-MT)

country 1980 1981 1902 1983

l-1adagascar 0 0 0

a

Morocco 5 127 5 127 5 127 5 127

Senegal 51 51 51 51

Tanzania 0 0 0 0

Source: FAD Yearbook of Fishery Statistics, 1983, vols. 56 and 57.

aqu to wat the snak Moll Tuni bays cult on

Data on marine fish aquaculture is not available in detail; tot 1 Iture production in a number of African countries increased due main y rcshwat.er aquaculture activities. However, i t is known that brackis - r aquaculture is practised in Nigeria where the cultured species e Jrey mullet (Mugil cephalus, the catfish (chrysichthys species), e eel (Sphogebranchus species) and jewel fish Hemichromis fasciatus • sc s are farmed in Sierra Leone (oyster), Angola (mussel), Senegal d ia , Fish farming is carried out in a number of enclosures of s 11 with dry-stone walls on an extensive basis in Mauritius. Marine shri p re is carried out in Kenya and a project for marine shrimp pr-oduct.d «n

)ilot-scale will soon be implemented in Mauritius.

(b ) Mineral resources

sand petr pzor Nari.

Ja r i n e mineral resources exploi ta tion in Africa concerns mainly sale, gravel and corals. Exploration and exploitation of placers le um oil and gas are under way in some coastal States. Major salt-

'i n g countries in Africa arc North African countries and South Afric. • salt plants are also operated in East Africa in Madagascar, Mauritiu ,

Kenya and Mozambique. Total salt production in Africa in 1982 amounted to 3.4 million tonnes, of which 75 per cent came from evaporation ponds.

The high cost of energy in refining salt appears to be the main constraint for further salt processing in Africa.

Data on extraction of sand and gravel in African councr i.e s are hard to obtain possibly because mining is carried out by small-scale operators.

In 1982, extraction levels were 885,165 tonnes in Cote d¹Ivoire and 80,000 tonnes in Sierra Leone. Marine sand resources can be enormous but its under- utilization can be due to a combination of factors such as high extraction and transportation costs and availability of cheaper sources on land.

Environmental considerations should also be taken into account when extracting sand and gravel from beaches and adjacent marine areas as i t may cause serious erosion problems. Corals are known to be mined from the lagoon in oceanic islands for making lime for the construction industry; but special attention should be paid to this activity due to importance of corals and coral reefs in lagoon ecosystems. Coral r e ef s not only protect islands from oceanic waves but contribute to lagoon fish production. Besides, coral reefs usually enclose lagoons, so valuable for fishing and recreational purposes. Stress should, therefore, be placed on conservation rather than exploitation of corals and coral reefs.

Exploration for placer deposits in the African coastal zone has up to now been minimal. Recent explorations from Sierra Leone show tho following reserves: ilmenite: 1,800,000 tons; rutile: 2,300,000 tons; zircon:

230,000 tons; and monazite: 25,000 tons. Diamond is ~lso suspected to be found in the deposits. Rutile is being exploited in Sierra Leone at the rate of 72,000 tons per year.

Marine-submerged beaches in Nigeria have been found to contain deposits of garnet, rutile, ilmenite, staurolite, zircon, silimanitQ, gold, platinum, monazite, titanium and cassiterite probably in mineable concentrations.

Activities related to petroleum oil and gas ~xploration and exploitation are mainly concentrated in the West African region at present. Exploration of the eastern Atlantic continental margin has revealed the presence of large basins showing sediment thicknesses of more than 4 km in a belt associated with the Congo and the Niger rivers off Angola and the region north of i t as far as Ghana. The total area of offshore oil and gas basins of Africa is estimated at 1,560,000 km² of which about 45 per cent is found along the West African coastline. Oil companies have permits covering 36,000 km² of offshore area in Gabon, and a substantial quantity of oil produced by the country comes from offshore wells. Offshore oil exploration and exploitation is also under way in Liberia.

Ethiopia is launching a programme to start petroleum exploration which will be financed jointly by the International Development Association (IDA), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the Government of Ethiopia. Exploratory surveys were carried out offshore in the United Republic of Tanzania. Gas was discovered but no oil found. Seismic reflection data show that one of the most promising hydrocarbon provinces in· East Africa lies in r,Jozambique¹s Southern Basin. Itozernbi que has signed contracts with foreign companies for further exploration in the area.

African countries will have to increase their exploration efforts in ord r to utilize their domestic sources of oil and gas for ene qy req' ir e me n t s . Th8 development of oil and gas resources will encour ge dev Lo pme n t of other small industries, thus contributing to the over 11 nat ona l economy in indirect ways. Availability of alternative energy sour as will also decrease demand for fuelwood and hence help to diminish prob.lems of forestation. The latter is a major problem facing many African countries and ay lead to irreversible environmental changes.

D. Constraints

Carrying through research and training programmes in the marine sciences depend a priori on availability of trained manpower in the various fiel s, facili ties (laboratories and research vessels) and equipment, mar ne tech nicians and, most important, funds for implementing the programmes.

Facilities for exploration and exploitation of marine resources r c oft ill-equipped where they exist and cannot properly carry out work th y arc ea n t for. An essential equipment such as a vessel is often brok n dow or not repaired due to lack of spare parts and funds. Besides, runn' g ze se rc h vessels is an expensive activity and not within the means of rna y Afd n coastal States. Relatively large sums of money are needed to ca r y out mar i n e science research and development programmes. Foreign exchan o is od e d to buy boats, machinery, scientific equipment and fishing ge Lac of financial resources is, therefore, a serious impediment to mari ne rese rc e exploration and exploitation.

There is an acute shortage of trained manpower in African countri s in ri n e science and technology such as in geological, physical, biologica , che ca l and fisheries oceanography, fisheries science and technology end oco engineering. This is due to marine science and technology being a rele ive l y new field in African States and woz'k in the few countries which have marine resources development activities being carried out by fora i n per onn e l . Therefore, there is an urgent need to train marine scientis s and tec h n o l o g i s t s to face the challenge posed by new opportunities provi d by t e realm of marino resourcos. Appropriate incentives should be provid d to a tr a c t and retain trained manpower in marine science and technology.

Inadequate port and harbour facilities and boat-building and rep r yar are also major constraints hindering development of marine sci n e and te c h n o l o g y as without these important support structures and train d man ^rer i t is difficult to visualize any serious development in mar e res rc e s exploration and exploitation.

IV. NATIONAL POLICIES AND PLANS FOR ~mRINE RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT A. Fisheries

mana stan thro

tost countries have policies and plans for fishery development ^c d me n t , the main objectives being increased fish production and raising rrds of living of fishermen. Such development can only take place gh logistical and organizational support, infrastructure development

(harbours, processing plants, boat-building facilities, etc.) and approprinte incentives to fishermen. Plans should aLao make provisions for mcnaqomerrt and conservation of the fishery resources for optimum fish production.

some countries rely on local resources to implcm _dcdr fishery development and management plans whereas others may have bilaternl and multilateral arrangements with other countries and organizations for carrying them out.

In Cape Verde, industrial fisheries development is being given priority but more attont.Lon should be given to art.LsaneI fisheries through credit facili ties to enable fishermen to buy equipment and spare parts. llajor constraints in fisheries development are dispersion of islands, poor trilnsportation nnd communication infrastructure and inadequate port facilities. In Djibouti, the aLm of the fisheries sector is to increase fish production from about 500 to 3,000 tonnes annually.

In [·lauri tnnia who r e joint-venture companies now account for 70 per cent of recorded annual catch in IID.uri tan ian wa t.e r s , the Government has set the following objectives for fisheries dev~lopment: formation of Ilauri tanLm-controlled joint ventures, creation of a national fishing fleet Clod estnblishmcnt of a ilauritanian-controlled fish processing plant. t'lith t.he exception of cephalopods, i t is believed that most species a.re heavily exploited and assessment of fish stocks are of utmost importance in the management of fishery r eaour ce s , Ilajor constraints to fishories development are high costs of fish processing in Nouadhibou, lack of boat-repair facilities, spare parts and equipment and lack of proper telecommunication and freight services.

By cz-eat Lnq the llinistry for I-larine Fisheries and Shipping, Uorocco has placed gr~at importance on development and management of fishery resources. The objectives of the 19G1-19D5 Five-Year Plan in [·lorocco have been to Lmprovc the nutrition standard of the popuLa tion and regulation of supply of fish destined for consumption. These objectives woul.d be met by having vessels which can icc and freeze their ca cch on board, providing cold storage and freezing facilities on shore, ic~-making plants in the harbour, and a cha.in of cold storages in ci tics in the interior which can be serviced by trucks with refrigeration units.

A State Secretariat for I·larine Fisheries has been created in Senegal.

In azt.Laana L f::~heries, the objectives arc to group fish<;;r::"es into co-operatives as a basLs for fisheries development, maintain motorization of vessels and modernize the sector. In industrial fisheries, the objectives are to disengage State involvement in fishing companies and to give Senegalese nationals the opportunity to participate in the fishing industry by giving appropriate financial and technical incentives.

The objectives of the fisheries sector in:o:.e dIIvoirc are to increase fish production, develop export-oriented fishing companies for processed fishery products ~nd givG nationals the opportunity to take control of certain subsectors of the fishing induscry. In Togo, the policy is to organize und improve fish marketing, cmlargc the fishing port, build icc-making plants and carry out rese~rch on the continental shelf to support fisheries

dev lo pme n t and management. In Sierra Leone, the goal is to achi ve

ind pend e n t national capability in industrial fisheries in the next f w

y In Cameroon, the overall objectives are to assess marine resourc s, int ns i f y research and training activities in fisheries and set up a dat a bank for marine resources. The plan for fisheries in Gabon inclu s dev lo pme n t of resources to supply the local market, export of tuna in processed form, national management of resources, development of coastal and la g o o n fisheries and fish marketing organization.

In the last few years the surface tuna fishery in the central westarn

Ind" n Ocean has witnessed a big expansion. This new development has prompted

the Seychelles to adopt a strategy with respect to tuna resources and to make i t the main base for tuna fishing in that part of the Indian Ocean.

The strategy includes licensing of foreign flag vessels fishing in t e Seychelles exclusive economic zone (EEZ) and getting benefits through licence fees and trans-shipment acti vi ties. There are also plans to upgrade e demecsa.l fishing fleet, develop national tuna pole and line and purse-sei e fis .r i e s together with having joint ventures in the tuna fishery. T e fis ng port is to be developed to meet these objectives.

up poli obt;

has tunn to b

are the colI for line and also in t

liau r i t i u s has given special attention to marine resources by sett i 9 National Committee on living and non-living marine resources. The y in Iv1auritius is to develop and manage marine resourc,es in order :0

optimum benefits. An action plan for short, medium and long t.erms een developed with respect to the artisanal fishery, the banks d fisheries, aquaculture, non-living resources and research and traini g ck up development and management in these areas.

[sland States in East Africa namely the Comoros, ~Iadagascar and Mauriti us aking part in a regional tuna fishery project with assistance fr m uu r o p e a n Economic Community in which all the member countries will

bo r a t e to implement various parts of the project, including exploration una re sour ce s and test fishing with various types of gear (pole a d purse-seine and fish-aggregating devices), tuna biology and statisti s raining of manpower in tuna fisheries. Seychelles and Reunion wiI I o-operate in collection and analysis of data for tuna fishery managemont

region.

dev fish Lndur or stor orga Ce rt.e of f aqua for p

;o s t coastal African States have policies and plans for fisheri s pme n t and management. In general, they include plans to increase rod u c t i on ; to have greater participation of nationals in the fishing ry; emphasis on either artisanal or industrial fisheries developme t th ; provision of new or better facilities for fish preservation 11

e both on board vessels and ashore; development of appropria o, zntions and distribution systems for fish and fish products; etc. n countries also pny particular attention to management and conservatio sh e r y resources. A few countries have plans to develop coasta Iture as a means to supplement fish production and create employmcn op l e in rural areas.

B. Non-livinq reso~rces

Priority appears to be given to policies and plans for explor~tion

nnd exploitation of oil and gas resources. Various countries (such as Kenya, Liberia and Sierra Leone) encourage private investment tb~oD~~ contracts with trunsnationnl companies for their ~xploration and exploit~~ion.

The plan in Gabon is to manage more effectiv~ly the petroleum resources of the country and to get maximum returns from a given well. Nigeria plans to expand its activities into petrochemicals and liquified natural gas industries.

Guinea-Bissau has accelerated offshore exploration activities recently and a second seismic survey of the country's coast is being carried out.

It approved a new petroleum law and draf t.ed El model petroleum exploration and production contract to replace laws dating bElck to colonial days.

Nozambique plans to explore its entire continental shelf for oil and i t has extended submission of bids to several compani.e s for offshore oil exploration. Zaire and Cameroon are expanding offshore oil exploration and exploitation. Further offshore oil exploration and exploitation are planned by the national oil company in Angola. Angola is expected to produce 250,000 of oil in 1986 from offshore areas. The National Oil Company plans to carry out an offshore seismic survey covering all Angolan waters between 200 and 1,500 metres deep.

Concerning solid minerals both Ethiopia and the Sudan plan the rational exploitation of the Red Sea mineral deposits. Sierra Leone, which presently exploits rutile deposits, plans to exploit placer deposits for other minerals.

Nigeria also has plans along the same lines.

Information on policies and pLans for expLorot i.on , exploitation, development and manugement of non-living mar-Lne reaoucces is quite scanty for African countries. It may, on the one hand, be due to the st rctcq Lc importance of such minerals in the national economy .xnd some countries do not publicize such information. On the other hQnd, i t should be taken into account that non-living marine resources development is reln.tively new or unknown to a number of African countries and hence the lack of information on the SUbject.

V. INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS ACTIVE IN 1-7ARINE SCIEHCE

A number of international orqan Lz nti ons are ac tLve in the promotion and development of marine science on tl globnl besi s , Their work proqrammes pay particular attention to developing and cnhLlncing marine science and technology capabilities of developing countries. The following gives brief descriptions of the activities of some intcrnatione.l orgc.nizntions which could assist African coastal States in their endeavour to cxp.Lorc , exploit, develop and man~ge marine resources.

A. Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) The

emphasis

Economic Commission for Africa has since several years placed on mar Lne r e source s in Africa as a result of the pr epar at.Lon and

ador tion of the Convention on the Law of the Sea. It has been instrumen 1 in rrying out studies in collaboration with UNESCO on marine science nd tec ology in Africa. ECA has also hosted African Intergovernmental Meetin gs on sp e ct s of Application of the Provision of the Convention on the L \11

of e Sea in 1984 and Aspects of Exploration and Exploitation of Sea-i d Res rccs in 1985.

The medium-term plan for the period 1984-1989 has as programme elements (i) the development of capabilities in the exploration, exploitat"o deveLopmcnt; and management of resources of the sea; and ( Li ) institution 1 support and training. Two subprogrammes are designed to be implement d in 198 6 - 1 98 7 : (1) development of capabilities (manpower, technology ~ d institutions) for the exploration, exploitation, and management of mari e resources: and (2) policies and legislation for resources of the s Assi tance will be given to member States in order to enable them acqui e

SOVe ei g n t y and jurisdication over their territorial seas, exclusive econom c zone ~nd continental shelf.

B. Interqovernmental Oceanoqraphic Commission (IOC)

bec<:l a n Ocean seer its dev the

Indi pub and Ocea the

Inv Its on t

curr

co~s

and Isla bi oL.

and in a the Ocen reso Keny

The Office of Oceanography of UNESCO was created in 1960 and its Direct r the Secretary of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commissio , ly founded autonomous body within UNESCO. In 1971, the Office ,f graphy was split into the UNESCO Division of t-Iarine Sciences and te ar i a t of IOC. The Division of Marine Sciences was to concentrn e ff o r t s in marine science development in member States, particular]y

ping countries whereas the secretariat was to manage the affairs mmission.

The first task of IOC was to set up and carry out the Internation, l n Ocean Expedition (I IOE) which took place during 1960-1965. Numer ous ations issued from the extensive international co-operative expedition lot of information in marine science was thus collected on the Endi.a n and along the East African coast. One major outcome of the IIOE w s udy of the Somali current generated by the south-west monsoon.

Tn Africa, IOC has the Programme Group for the Co-operati e ti g a t i o n s in the North and Central Western Indian Ocean (IOCINGWIO).

rogramme includes co-operative regional marine scientific research following projects: ocean dynamics and climate, i.e., study of coast 1 ts, winds, and the related upwelling along the Somali-Kenya-Tanzani

the study of circulation and water masses in the r.10zambique channel n the region between Madagascar, the Mascarenes and the Seychell s s~ development of an observing system for sea level: and under marin e y and living resources, the st udy of the distribution of fish eg

rv a e of commercially important species. A project for participati n ar i n e pollution monitoring system in the region is also proposed whil t ro d u ct i.on of an International Bathymetric Chart of the Western Indi

is under way. Training courses on the marine biology and livin ces and sea-level measurements components have already been held and the United Kingdom respectively for scientists of the region.

A similar organization as the IOCINCWIO has been created for the west coast of Africa, the Programme Group for the Central Eastern Atlantic. It developed a programme for regional co-operation in the J'larine Sciences in the Central Eastern Atlantic, during a workshop held in Tener- - . 1983.

The IOC has adopted a Comprehensive Plan for a Major Assist~nce Programme to enhance the marine science capabilities of developing countries regarding the New Ocean Regime set by the Convention on the Law of the Sea. It provides for the development of marine science country profiles, of national oceanographic committees or similar bodies on request by member States and preparation of regional or subregional technical assistance projects to develop marine science capabilities.

The UNESCO Division of I·larine Sciences whose objectives are to develop marine sciences at the national and regional levels and the global promotion of marine science has a number of programmes and projects which could benefit African countries. It provides a number of international fellowships up to nine months' duration, short-term study grants, travel grants and support for scientists to attend training courses and workshops either totally or in co-operation with other national and international organizations. UNESCO can provide consultant services or advisory missions upon request to member States to give advice on particular problems, to make feasibility studies or to write up project documents.

The UNESCO General Conference, 1980, established the UNESCO Major Interregional Project on Research and Training leading to the Integrated f<lanagement of Coastal Ecosystems whose objectives are to promote training and research on coastal ecosystems, their interactions and exchange of energy and material with the sea and land.

UNESCO organized a regional training course on the ?pplication of remote sensing techniques as applied to oceanography for coun :.ries of the Eastern African region jointly hosted by Reunion and Mauritius in December 1985.

C. Food and Aqriculture Orqanization of the United Nations (FAO)

FAO's activities in relation to fisheries have been all along to support and develop fishery resources in Africa. The potential yield of fish production is estimated to be about 11 million tonnes, both in inland and marine fisheries in Africa. In 1982, the catch by African countries amounted to 3.3 million tonnes and that by non-African countries totalled 3.5 million tonnes.

Fish production varies from country to present between fish producing and consuming for intraregional trade and for better fish and in African countries.

country and disparities are areas. There is thus scope distribution facilities among

For several years now FAO has recognized that countries could be grouped in subregions and regions with similar situations as regards fisheries and where collaboration and co-operation in fisheries development and management efforts could be fostered. It is with this in mind that FAO has created