A number of international orqan Lz nti ons are ac tLve in the promotion and development of marine science on tl globnl besi s , Their work proqrammes pay particular attention to developing and cnhLlncing marine science and technology capabilities of developing countries. The following gives brief descriptions of the activities of some intcrnatione.l orgc.nizntions which could assist African coastal States in their endeavour to cxp.Lorc , exploit, develop and man~ge marine resources.
A. Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) The
emphasis
Economic Commission for Africa has since several years placed on mar Lne r e source s in Africa as a result of the pr epar at.Lon and
ador tion of the Convention on the Law of the Sea. It has been instrumen 1 in rrying out studies in collaboration with UNESCO on marine science nd tec ology in Africa. ECA has also hosted African Intergovernmental Meetin gs on sp e ct s of Application of the Provision of the Convention on the L \11
of e Sea in 1984 and Aspects of Exploration and Exploitation of Sea-i d Res rccs in 1985.
The medium-term plan for the period 1984-1989 has as programme elements (i) the development of capabilities in the exploration, exploitat"o deveLopmcnt; and management of resources of the sea; and ( Li ) institution 1 support and training. Two subprogrammes are designed to be implement d in 198 6 - 1 98 7 : (1) development of capabilities (manpower, technology ~ d institutions) for the exploration, exploitation, and management of mari e resources: and (2) policies and legislation for resources of the s Assi tance will be given to member States in order to enable them acqui e
SOVe ei g n t y and jurisdication over their territorial seas, exclusive econom c zone ~nd continental shelf.
B. Interqovernmental Oceanoqraphic Commission (IOC)
bec<:l
The Office of Oceanography of UNESCO was created in 1960 and its Direct r the Secretary of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commissio , ly founded autonomous body within UNESCO. In 1971, the Office ,f graphy was split into the UNESCO Division of t-Iarine Sciences and te ar i a t of IOC. The Division of Marine Sciences was to concentrn e ff o r t s in marine science development in member States, particular]y
ping countries whereas the secretariat was to manage the affairs mmission.
The first task of IOC was to set up and carry out the Internation, l n Ocean Expedition (I IOE) which took place during 1960-1965. Numer ous ations issued from the extensive international co-operative expedition lot of information in marine science was thus collected on the Endi.a n and along the East African coast. One major outcome of the IIOE w s udy of the Somali current generated by the south-west monsoon.
Tn Africa, IOC has the Programme Group for the Co-operati e ti g a t i o n s in the North and Central Western Indian Ocean (IOCINGWIO).
rogramme includes co-operative regional marine scientific research following projects: ocean dynamics and climate, i.e., study of coast 1 ts, winds, and the related upwelling along the Somali-Kenya-Tanzani
the study of circulation and water masses in the r.10zambique channel n the region between Madagascar, the Mascarenes and the Seychell s s~ development of an observing system for sea level: and under marin e y and living resources, the st udy of the distribution of fish eg
rv a e of commercially important species. A project for participati n ar i n e pollution monitoring system in the region is also proposed whil t ro d u ct i.on of an International Bathymetric Chart of the Western Indi
is under way. Training courses on the marine biology and livin ces and sea-level measurements components have already been held and the United Kingdom respectively for scientists of the region.
A similar organization as the IOCINCWIO has been created for the west coast of Africa, the Programme Group for the Central Eastern Atlantic. It developed a programme for regional co-operation in the J'larine Sciences in the Central Eastern Atlantic, during a workshop held in Tener- - . 1983.
The IOC has adopted a Comprehensive Plan for a Major Assist~nce Programme to enhance the marine science capabilities of developing countries regarding the New Ocean Regime set by the Convention on the Law of the Sea. It provides for the development of marine science country profiles, of national oceanographic committees or similar bodies on request by member States and preparation of regional or subregional technical assistance projects to develop marine science capabilities.
The UNESCO Division of I·larine Sciences whose objectives are to develop marine sciences at the national and regional levels and the global promotion of marine science has a number of programmes and projects which could benefit African countries. It provides a number of international fellowships up to nine months' duration, short-term study grants, travel grants and support for scientists to attend training courses and workshops either totally or in co-operation with other national and international organizations. UNESCO can provide consultant services or advisory missions upon request to member States to give advice on particular problems, to make feasibility studies or to write up project documents.
The UNESCO General Conference, 1980, established the UNESCO Major Interregional Project on Research and Training leading to the Integrated f<lanagement of Coastal Ecosystems whose objectives are to promote training and research on coastal ecosystems, their interactions and exchange of energy and material with the sea and land.
UNESCO organized a regional training course on the ?pplication of remote sensing techniques as applied to oceanography for coun :.ries of the Eastern African region jointly hosted by Reunion and Mauritius in December 1985.
C. Food and Aqriculture Orqanization of the United Nations (FAO)
FAO's activities in relation to fisheries have been all along to support and develop fishery resources in Africa. The potential yield of fish production is estimated to be about 11 million tonnes, both in inland and marine fisheries in Africa. In 1982, the catch by African countries amounted to 3.3 million tonnes and that by non-African countries totalled 3.5 million tonnes.
Fish production varies from country to present between fish producing and consuming for intraregional trade and for better fish and in African countries.
country and disparities are areas. There is thus scope distribution facilities among
For several years now FAO has recognized that countries could be grouped in subregions and regions with similar situations as regards fisheries and where collaboration and co-operation in fisheries development and management efforts could be fostered. It is with this in mind that FAO has created
sub >g i o n a l and regional fisheries bodies throughout the world. In Africa, the are the Central Fisheries Council for the Mediterranean (GFCM) grouping No h African countries and other countries bordering the Mediterran the Fishery Committee for Eastern Central Atlantic (CECAF), the Commit e for the Development and ["lanagement of the Fisheries of the South-West In ia n oce n (SWIO) and the Committee for Inland Fisheries of Africn (CIPA). AO has ~ Rugional Office for Africa (RAFR) based in Accra, Ghana, which givos addi t ional support to fisheries development and management in Africa.
The fisheries bodies concerned with marine fisheries devote part Lculer att nt i o n to FAO' s comprehensive programme for development and managem nt of is h e r i e s in the exclusive economic zones (EEZ). Assistance progra s incl de fields of policy and planning, EEZ moni toring, control and sur il l a n c e , fisheries legislation, support for national and regional fis l ries development and management projects. In addition, FAO has a Tee ni c a l Co-operation Programme (TCP) to meet short-term unforeseen or cri ca l assistance whenever needed by member countries. FAO cantin s to ss i s t many African countries in training of personnel at all lev s, boa -b u i l d i n g , fish technology, fishery management and fish processing imd mar ting. Conclusions of the FAO World Conference on Fisheries held in 198· have particular significance to African countries. A global strat gy for fi s h e r i e s development and management was adopted in the light of he Con ntion on the Law of the Sea. It included five action programmes which rel e to planning, development and management of fisheries; developm~nt
of ma l l - s c a l e fisheries, aquaculture development; international trade in fis and fishery products; and the role of fisheries in alleviating under-nutrition. Financial provisions were made for continued activities of the regi,mal fisheries bodies in Africa. Among others special resolutions w re ado, ed for greater assistance to land-locked countries, in particular th so of he Sahel region, and greater technical and economic collaboration in fish rics management and development among developing countries.
D. United Nations Environment Proqramme (UNEP)
The United Nations Environment Programme has four main progra s di r, tly relevant to the Convention on the Law of the Sea in relation to
"Pz: ect i o n and preservation of the marine environment" and other relev t sec 10 n s , namely: the Regional Seas Programme; the Environmental Law Pro ra mme , the Conservation Programme; and the Global Environmental Monitor 9 Sys em (GENS).
UNEP, under its Regional Seas Programme, has developed a number of Act n Plans for environmental assessment, management and legislation in
Afr " The Action Plan for the Mediterranean Region was adopted in 1975,
tha for West and Central African Region in 1981, the Red Sea and Gulf f Ade Action Plan in 1982, and that for the East African Region, includi g
th~ ce a n i c Islands, in 1985.
The Environmental Law Programme provides principles and guideli ~s
on on s c r v a t i o n and rational utilization of national resources and le 1 asp ct s concerning the environment related to offshore mining and drill"ng in y",ters under national jurisdiction.
The Conservation Progrnmme has been involveo in the preparation of the marine component of the Worl~ Conservation Strategy and actively supports other organizations involved in conservation such as the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the convcntion _.Itcrnational Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), etc.
The Globnl Environmental Monitoring System activities for the collection and evaluation of environmental assessment on a global scale.
(GEMS) will co-ordinate datu for monitoring and
E. International Maritime Orqanization (IMO)
The International Maritime Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations which started its activities in 1959. It is responsible for developing technical and related standards for the s~fety and efficiency of international shipping and the rrevention and control of marine pollution from ships and by dumping. II40's treaties and other international instruments have set up an indispensable framework for the safe and efficient transport of goods and passengers by sea and the protection of the seas from pollution arising from marine transportation.
Il<IOIS current acti vi ties and future programmes of work are geared to assist all countries, especially developing countries, to improve marine transportation and other maritime activities in accordance with accepted international standards on safety and the prevention of marine pollution.
Standards of safety referred to in the Convention on the Law of the Sea are generally agreed to be those established by IMO. One of the most important treaties dealing with safety of shipping is the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) of 1~74, as subsequently amended, which provides for general safety standards on board ships, for navigation and carriage of goods. SOLAS entered into force in 1900.
Another Convention which reinforces maritime safety is the International Convention on Standar(~s of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers, 1978, which provides for international minimum professional standards for seafarers. This Convention goes a long way in bringing about uniformi ty in the above fields which previously differed from country to country.
Increasing international attention has been paid to marine pollution during the last 25 years. Although most of the pollution comes from land-based sources, a significant amount is caused by shipping and maritime activities. Substances involved vary enormously in quantities and their potential harm to the marine environment. IMO has been instrumental in the adoption of a number of international conventions on oil pollution and the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973",
Training of manpower is essential to any development proce s s , It s in is spirit that IMO established the World Maritime University (W ) base in Malmo, Sweden. WHU is to provide training to senior personn 1 from developing countries involved in maritime activities. IMO has al deve loped its technical co-operation programme to ensure that developi 9 coun ie s are able and ready to incorporate international standards concerni 9 mari me safety and prevention and control of marine pollution in the r nati na l programmes.
F. The Ocean Economics and Technoloqy Branch (OETB) Th e Ocean Economics
under the Department of of tn~ United Nations.
and Technology Branch of the United Nations fal s International Economic and Social Affairs (DIES
The objective of the Ocean Economics and Technology Branch (OETB) is to ov i de assistance at the international level to introduce marine resource deve opme n t in development planning. The OETB sees to it that ocean policy and nagement aspects are properly reflected in international co-operati e fram wo r k s being elaborated in the United Nations, namely, the N w International Development Strategy, the New International Economic Orde , and he Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States.
more tech acti
whic prov data mine mang on n
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'JETB undertakes studies in several areas of marine research at t specific level: marine minerals, coastal zone management and marine
logy. Support is provided to a limited extent on technical co-operation ti e s in coastal zone management and development.
n ongoing project in OETB is the Marine Minerals Data Base Proje t is designed to provide the United Nations with the capability of ing member States and international organizations with basic scientific on marine minerals for the purpose of assessing offshore and deep s
~l occurrences. The data base at present contains information n ese nodule geochemical data for the deep sea. Collection of da <"l
~r s h o r e areas is also planned.
Under a joint programme on Ocean Science in Relation to Non-livi 9 ces (OSNLR) of IOC of UNESCO and the OETB, a report has recently be n re d on a resource search methodology on inconsolidated mineral deposits EEZ and its application to the West African coastal zone. It repor s
·oba b l e areas of significant offshore potential for mineral resourc s er r a Leone, Liberia, Ghana and Gabon.
G. United Nations Industrial Development Orqanization (UNIDO)
UNI DO was established in 1967 and since then, has undertaken a numb r of oj e c t s related to marine resource development such as salt producti mini ] of non-metallic ores, fisheries development, seaweed producti boat construction and repairs and marine mechanics.
UNIDO has organized seminars and conferences on the implications of marine industrial techniques and made studies thereon especially in relation to developing countries.
Under the Convention of the Law of the Sea, UNIDO is brought to play a vi tal role in marine affairs. It has, in this connection, developed a technical co-operation programme among countries and regions on prospects of LndustrLeI mining of marine resources, increased research in mining of marine resources, collection and dissemination of data in the field of marine industrial techniques, assistance to de veLopd.nq countries for training in relevant industriill skills, and exchange of experience in mining of mineral resources between industrialized and developing countries.
UNIDO has recently proposed the establishment of an International Centre for Marine Industrial Techniques which should consolidate its actions in this field.
H. World MeteoroloGical Orqanization (WHO)
Information on meteorology is of great importance to the community at large. Mariners throughout the ages have tried to understand and forecast weather as aids to navigation. The first conference on marine meteorology was held in Brussels in 1053 to agree upon a uniform way of collecting nautical and meteorological observations on board ships. Ocean navigation was in need of wino regimes, ocean currents and occurrences of storms.
Weather forecasts began regularly to be broadcasted to shipping with the coming into operation of radio communications and governments agreed to share responsibilities for these broadcasts over the oceans. The requirements for marine meteorological services developed rapidly for both scientific and operational purposes since 1960. They now include much specialized marine meteorological information, forecasts and advice for use in the planning of coastal development projects. In recent years, meteorological information in support of offshore and gas drilling operations, coastal and offshore engineering works, platform tows, harbour traffic, cilrgo care, etc. have become of crucial importance.
The World Meteorological Organization through its Commission for Marine Meteorology keeps abreast of these new requirements and provides appropriate services as demands evolve. A new environmental services programme was launched in 1971, called the Integrated Global Ocean Services System (IGOSS) by the WMO and IOC of UNESCO. The objectives of IGOSS are to promote, develop and co-ordinate arrangements necessary for global acquisition and exchange of ocean data, provision of ocean services 3.nd ocean products to user groups.
The Marine Meteorology Programme involves collection, dissemination anc processing of marine meteorological and physical oceanographic data, development and co-ordination of marine meteorological and oceanographic services and education and training activities in marine meteorology.
The programme is implemented by the WMO Voluntary Observing Ships Sche e which is the main source for surface observations over the ocean Collections of ships' weather reports are made through coastal radio station I of whi c h there were 10 on the Indian Ocean side of Africa in 1905. Increasi ng USe is also made of satellite systems in transmission of marine meteorolo y
observations.
I. International Hydroqraphic Orqanization (IHO) The International Hydrographic Organization
in e principality of Monaco. It has 52 member serv·c es have in the past six decades been in the in hy rography contributing to exploration and
reso~rces from the sea-bed.
was established in l~ ~l
States whose hydrograp c forefront of developme n s recovery of non-liv~ng
Until the 1920sI site-specific water depth measurements were the only info tion available to make visual representation of the sea-bed but during the la s t six decades new techniques have been developed with increasing accu cies for mapping the sea-bed. These are echo-sounding, long-range low rcq ue nc y sonar, multi-beam sonar enabling total coverage of large are s of c sea-bed and satellite radio-altimetry which indicates changes in grav ty and hence topography of the sea-bed. Navigation is much more accurate with positioning from satellites than using sextants and chromometer.
Hydzoq z aph.i c survey vessels can now carry out bathymetric mapping, provi e grav ty and magnetic data, physical data on the water column and sea-bed samp ~s , etc.
at hyme t r i c swathe surveying systems can present the morphological feat re s of the sea-bed such as continental slope, canyons, ridges, rift zone , sea-mounts, submarine fans and other submarine topographic featur 5
in r)al time. Long-range sea-bed imaging systems which can sweep patl up t 1 60 km in width have been developed, which can detect morphologic 1 featlres of the sea-bed. They can be used for surveying the exclusiv econ c zone in relation to non-living marine resources.
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"he IHO, as the world bathymetric data centre, collects bathymetric
n a global scale and makes them available to all users. It has produc ~
es of 18 separate sheets on a scale 1:10,000,000 covering the world' known as the General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans (GEBCO) jointly th e IOC. The fifth edition of GEBCO was completed in 1982. The IHO pared to co-operate with other countries in marine surveying and mak
es of 18 separate sheets on a scale 1:10,000,000 covering the world' known as the General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans (GEBCO) jointly th e IOC. The fifth edition of GEBCO was completed in 1982. The IHO pared to co-operate with other countries in marine surveying and mak