Recognition Task and Funnel Debriefing

Prime recognition tests conducted at the end of our experiments revealed that participants’ prime discrimination did not differ from chance level (50%). As in our previous affect priming studies, the prime recognition rates in these present studies were at chance level, suggesting that participants processed the masked facial expressions without awareness of their affective content. Moreover, the prime effects occurred without any effects on consciously experienced mood. However, as already mentioned, we need to be careful with the interpretation of such zero-effects.

In order to avoid zero-effect testing, we added (except for Study 2,) a funnel debriefing procedure just before the prime recognition tasks (Rohr, Degner, & Wentura,

122 2012). Participants had to report if they had perceived emotional faces or not, guessed their hypothesis concerning the aim of the studies and were asked to describe one trial of the task. Only one participant (Study 4) reported having seen a facial expression presented before each trial of the task. Participants were not able to describe the emotional faces presented in trials of the d2 or Sternberg tasks. These results corroborate the hypothesis that the affect primes were processed implicitly.

123 III.2. Perspectives

Our main results confirmed our predictions. The central point of this work was the influence of implicit anger on effort. Results found a moderating influence of implicit anger primes on effort mobilization similar to the influence of happiness primes (Freydefont & Gendolla, 2012; Freydefont et al., 2012; Gendolla & Silvestrini, 2011).

Studies conducted in this thesis confirmed the specificity of implicit anger’s effect on behavior (Adams & Kleck, 2003). Anger stimuli influence effort intensity in a different way than sadness-another negative affect. Moreover, we confirmed the facilitating impact of implicit anger as predicted by the IAPE model. In the following part, we discuss our conclusions and integrate them into the recent literature. Then, we present some limitations of this research, which may motivate future studies.

III.2.1. Implicit Anger and Effort Intensity

Anger is a particular affect. Although categorized as a negative affect, numerous studies have found that anger shares motivational properties with positive affect (Carver

& Harmon-Jones, 2009; Harmon-Jones, 2003b; Putman, et al., 2004; van Honk et al., 2001). Based on this psychological literature, this thesis investigated the specificity of implicit anger’s impact on the intensity aspect of motivation. Results of the present work confirm the IAPE predictions concerning the specificity of anger and show that its influence on effort mobilization is similar to the influence of implicit happiness.

Knowledge about anger is represented in memory (see Niedenthal, 2008). Anger primes, like happiness primes, activate the corresponding concept of ease. These primes provide information for the evaluation of task demand. As demonstrated in this work and supporting the IAPE model, implicit anger leads to lower effort-related cardiac response than implicit sadness under “do your best” conditions. Some studies from our laboratory (Gendolla & Silvestrini, 2011; Lasauskaite et al., 2012; Silvestrini & Gendolla, 2011c) have found that participants who were primed with sadness reported after the task to have experienced higher subjective demand than those who were primed with anger or happiness. However, the role of subjective demand needs to be further investigated.

In order to investigate the role of subjective demand in effort mobilization, self-report assessed at the end of these present studies seems to be inappropriate.

Retrospective judgments are vulnerable for a number of biases (Robinson & Clore, 2002)

124 and thus, more direct measures of the accessibility of the ease vs. difficulty concepts in response to masked affect primes with implicit measures are necessary (see De Houwer et al., 2009).

III.2.2. Conscious or Unconscious Influences of Affect

Terms like “unconscious” or “implicit effects” of affect stimuli are largely used in psychological research. Numerous studies have reported zero effects on prime recognition as evidence for unconscious effects of affective stimuli on judgment and behavior (Aarts, 2007; van Honk & De Haan, 2001). In the present work, affect ratings assessed at the beginning and at the end of the experiments revealed no significant effects of affect primes on affective states. These results suggest that the affect primes activated concepts in memory, but below the threshold of participants’ awareness. Moreover, results from recognition tasks and funnel debriefing conducted in this thesis found no evidence for the recognition of affective stimuli. Indeed, none of our participants were able to correctly report the emotional facial expressions flashed during cognitive tasks, and nobody was able to make a link between affect primes and effort intensity.

Nevertheless, without evidence that participants are able to discriminate affect stimuli or experienced changes in affective states, numerous authors conclude that there are unconscious effects of implicit affect primes on behavior (Aarts, 2007; Aarts, Custer,

& Holland, 2007; Bijleved, Custer, Aarts, 2009; Custer & Aarts, 2005a, 2005b; van Honk

& De Haan, 2001). As already mentioned, it is important to exert great caution when interpreting zero effects. A null finding indicates the absence of evidence rather than evidence for the absence of the effect. We note that we have at least not found any evidence that primes induced conscious affective states or full-blown emotions. At present, there is no procedure or statistical analysis that soundly permits providing evidence for an unconscious impact of affective stimuli on judgment and behavior.

III.2.3. Duration of Implicit Priming

Effects on cardiovascular response in Study 1 showed significant time effects on PEP, and SBP. Although we cannot posit clear predictions concerning time effects in our studies, the investigation of time effects will permit a deeper understanding of affect priming mechanisms on behavior. Indeed, studies from our laboratory found significant

125 effects of affect primes on effort-related cardiac response on entire task performance periods (Freydefont & Gendolla, 2012, Gendolla & Silvestrini, 2011, Silvestrini &

Gendolla, 2011a, 2011b). However, others studies have shown that the influence of implicit affect prime decreases with time and habituation (Murphy, Monahan, & Zajonc, 1995; Winkielman, Zajonc, & Schwarz, 1997; Wong & Root, 2003).

Wong and Root (2003) showed a decrease of priming efficiency due to repetitive presentations of affective stimuli. This can explain why Study 1 revealed significant effort effects only during for the first minute of task performance. However, results of Study 1 were fragile and need replication. The non significant effect of affect primes in the next minutes of task performance could be explained by others variables. For example, the absence of strong results could be explained by the affective stimuli used in this experiment. The Radboud faces database (Langner et al., 2010) used for the affect primes is composed of facial pictures with high contrast, which could interfere with the emotional expressions. Moreover, presentation time and proportion of emotional faces differed from previous studies of our laboratory, which used the AKDF database (Lundqvist & Litton, 1998).

126 III.3. Limitations and Suggestions

With the absence of significant effects on affect ratings, prime recognition, and funnel debriefing, we are not able to conclude that there is an unconscious effect of implicit priming. As non-significant results have to be interpreted with caution, this work does not indicate that there is an unconscious impact of affective stimuli. With these results, concluding directly that there is an unconscious impact would be incorrect. We can only conclude that it seems that implicit affect stimuli influence effort mobilization below the threshold of awareness.

One limitation of this work is that we presented implicit affect primes with the same duration for all participants: 26 ms. This point may be a limitation, because there is evidence that the thresholds for subliminal presentation may differ between individuals (Perugini, Conner, & O’Gorman, 2011). For future studies investigating the question of the “non-conscious” influence of affective stimuli on effort mobilization, we therefore suggest evaluating the threshold value of stimuli detection separately for each individual.

Another point of discussion is the material used for affect primes. All the studies used only facial expressions as affect primes. In order to generalize the effect of implicit anger on effort-related cardiac response during cognitive tasks, we conducted an additional study using affect words. Based on a recent study from our laboratory showing that masked action cues and inaction cues directly influence the intensity of effort exerted in the performance of a task (Albarracín et al., 2008; Gendolla & Silvestrini, 2010), we aimed to replicate these findings with emotional words. Unfortunately, this study revealed no significant effects. It is thus unclear if the present findings can be generalized to other category of affect primes that facial expressions.

Moreover, to further test the idea about the task-context dependency of affect prime effects on effort-related physiological adjustments, future studies could enlarge the range of objective task difficulty levels. Motivational intensity theory (Brehm & Self, 1989) provides predictions for extremely high task difficulty. Thus, it could be interesting to investigate the influence of implicit anger on effort intensity on extremely high difficulty levels.

127 III.4. Conclusions

The results of this thesis confirm our hypothesis about the moderating influence of implicit anger on effort-related cardiac response. With the present four studies, we can provide evidence for the influence of implicit anger on effort mobilization. This thesis provides replicated evidence for the facilitating effect of implicit anger primes during task performance in term of effort-related cardiovascular response. Although some results are still fragile, there is little doubt about the moderating effect of implicit anger on effort mobilization.

Moreover, the work realized for this thesis contributes to the elaboration of a new model, the Implicit-Affect-Primes-Effort model (IAPE, Gendolla, 2012), explaining the influence of implicit affect on effort mobilization in active coping. This thesis, focusing on the influence of implicit anger, provides evidence corroborating this new model.

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