Thematic background
Drainage basins can be assimilated to a metaphor for the integration of hydrological processes occurring in the soil-plant-atmosphere system, as well as the coupling of disciplines such as hydrology, geochemistry and ecology (Sivapalan et al., 2003). Beside their basic function of collecting, storing and releasing water (Black, 1996) they also have an ecological function, which expresses through countless biogeochemical reactions, as well as habitat for flora and fauna (McDonnell et al., 2007). In this context, the
IAHS-PUB (Prediction in Ungauged Basins) initiative aims at thriving new knowledge from approaches focusing at eco-hydrological couplings, hydro- biogeochemical feedbacks, hydro-geomorphological controls, etc. (Sivapalan et al., 2003).
Focusing on hydrological and biogeochemical processes, the EURO FRIEND 5 project eventually contributes to the currently ongoing paradigm shift in contemporary hydrology, moving from one that is dominated by ‘hydrograph mimicking’ to one based on ‘process understanding’. This new knowledge is ultimately to improve the performances of modeling tools that are to be used within the framework of new guidelines emerging at European level for the qualitative and quantitative management of water and soils, as well as the challenges induced by future climate and land use changes.
Since 2006 the project members have presented the results of their research a.o. in the framework of joint
workshops and conferences organized in collaboration with the ERB (Euro-Mediterranean Network of Experimental Research Basins) network: 5th Inter-national Conference on FRIEND, Havana, Cuba (2006), ERB FRIEND 5 conference in Luxembourg (2006), EURO FRIEND 5 workshop in Brno, Czech Republic (2007), ERB FRIEND 5 conference in Cracow, Poland (2008), International Workshop on Status and Perspectives of Hydrology in Small Basins, Goslar-Hahnenklee, Germany (2009).
Streamflow generation processes
Within the EURO FRIEND 5 project, research has been focusing a.o. on the study of streamflow generation processes in experimental catchments of various sizes and different physiographical characteristics.
Dominant controls on streamflow generation have been increasingly investigated via a combined application of geochemical and isotope tracers. Over the past decades, new insights into spatial sources and flow pathways of water have thus been gained in experimental hydrology.
These techniques are widely used among the FRIEND 5 project members.
Continuous measurements at the Jalovecky creek catchment (area 22.2 km², altitude 820 – 2178 m a.s.l.) outlet showed that water conductivity responded only to a few big runoff events (Holko and Kostka, 2008 a).
Isotopic data collected at several scales (river basin, small catchment and its mountain part) helped to determine mean residence times of water in the catchments of the upper Vah river basin (Holko et al., 2008). Evaluation of short data series (2.5 years) using the sine-curve method indicated a negative correlation between mean residence time and catchment area.
Within the Integrated Catchment Approach (ICA;
developed in the Lange Bramke Basin; Germany, Herrmann et al. (2001) the combination of environmental isotope and artificial tracer studies revealed that a fast mass transfer takes place from basin input to ground-water (based on isotopic indications) parallel to the mainly pressure induced rise of the piezometric table.
Additionally, by the use of the artificial tracers, it was proven that mass transport in the basins is bound to pronounced subsurface drain lines within the fractured aquifer which adjoin the fractured system to the porous aquifer and subsequently to the flood hydrograph.
In recent years, the conventional geochemical and isotope tracers have revealed limitations (unstable end
member solutions (Burns, 2002), temporally varying input concentrations (McDonnell et al., 1990), need for unrealistic mixing assumptions (McGuire and McDonnell, 2006)). In this context, preliminary investigations in the Attert River basin in Luxembourg have been focusing on the potential of drift diatoms for providing information on surface streamflow generation processes that are complementary to the insights given by existing isotope and geochemical tracers, e.g. distinguishing between old and new water and determining water flow paths (Pfister et al., 2009).
Hydrological and biogeochemical processes in a changing environment
The combination of currently ongoing and future land use and climate changes is likely to have considerable consequences on streamflow generation and biogeo-chemical processes. This aspect has been investigated within EURO FRIEND 5 through several case studies.
Analyses of before- and after-windfall measurement data from small catchments (areas 17 – 315 km²) of the upper Poprad River basin located in the High Tatra Mountains, e.g. discharge (Figure 2.20), precipitation, water balance, various runoff characteristics, did not indicate significant impacts due to the deforestation (Holko et al., 2009). In a related study, a flashiness index was used to investigate the relationships between land use and runoff regime (Holko and Kostka, 2008 b). Very good correlations among some land use characteristics (percentage of arable land, forestation) and the flashiness index were found in small catchments of the upper Poprad, upper Vah and upper Hron rivers. Hydrological time series analyses, based on 60 years of measurements in the Lange Bramke basin, revealed that the discharge regime of the Lange Bramke has changed towards a more frequent occurrence of long summer (May to October) low water periods (Schumann et al., 2009).
0 10 20 30
Runoff [mm]
Poprad-Štrbské Pleso A=17km2, def=0%
0 10 20 30
Runoff [mm] Velický creek
A=58 km2, def=20%
16-Mar-01 15-Sep-01 17-Mar-02 16-Sep-02 18-Mar-03 17-Sep-03 18-Mar-04 17-Sep-04 19-Mar-05 18-Sep-05 20-Mar-06 19-Sep-06 21-Mar-07 20-Sep-07 21-Mar-08 20-Sep-08
0 4 8 12 16 20
Runoff [mm] Slavkovský creek
A=43 km2,def=32%
Figure 2.20 Daily runoff before and after the wind-induced deforestation indicated by the grey vertical line in three small catchments; A is catchment area, def is wind-induced deforestation.
Tesař et al. (2008) have documented extremely small diurnal temperature fluctuations in catchments covered with mature forest, in comparison to areas where dead forest causes temperature to rise systematically down to a depth of 15 cm (catchments located in the National Park of the Šumava Mountains, 1105 – 1130 m a.s.l., Czech Republic).
Studies focusing on the impact of climate change reveal that the long term variability of soil water storage in the 20th century has undergone a slight decreasing tendency, which has been significant during the last two decades (Somorowska, 2009). Monthly mean values for the period 1960 – 2000 were compared to values projected for the period 2060 – 2100. The analysis of the potential evolution of the seasonal cycle of soil water storage showed that considerably drier conditions may appear in summer months under future climate conditions. The amount of soil water storage may decrease in the future, as evaluated by the difference between control values and those projected for the 21st century.
Surface and groundwater quality issues are increasingly investigated with respect to the targets of the European Water Framework Directive, which are to be met by 2015. Nitrate concentrations in surface and drainage runoff have been evaluated in the agricultural experimental micro-basin Rybarik (Slovakia) from 1987 to 2005. Nitrate concentrations appeared to be highest during spring, with snow melt largely contributing to runoff generation (Pekarova et al., 2008). Moreover, concentrations were significantly higher in the drainage runoff (40.57 mg.l -1), in comparison to the surface runoff (29.31 mg.l -1).
In the Hupselse Beek catchment (The Netherlands), van der Velde et al. (2009a) have documented water
and solute travel times and flow paths at various spatial and temporal scales. These observations have led to the formulation of a spatial averaging approach for each of these flow paths, ultimately enabling to upscale field-scale storage discharge relationships and the prediction of flow path distributions to total catchment discharge (van der Velde et al., 2009 b).
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3.1 Introduction