1-5 Total 1-5 6 & over
'l'bt!U1-5 6& OVer Total
No.
%No.
%No.
% No. % No. %No.
% No. % No. % No. },20-29
M52 35.4 25 5.8 77 13.4 18 40.9 10 4.9 28 11.2 275 47.3 35 6.8 310 28.4
F
20 51.3 7 23.3 27 39.1 6 66.7
61.133.3 7 58.8 14 53.8 2 7.7 16 30.8 Both 72 38.7 32 7.0 104 16.1 24 45.3 11 5.2 35 13.4 289 47.5 37 6.9 326 28.5 30-39
t143 29.3 157 36.6 200 34.7 20 45.4 89 43.2 109 43.6 195 33.5 218 42.6 413 37.8
F 13
33.3 11 36.6 24 34.8 3 33.7 - 3 25.0 6 23.1 8 30.8 14 26.9
Both 56 30.1 168 36.6 224 34.7 23 43.4 89 42.6 112 42.7 201 33.1 226 42.1 427 37.3
OJ 040-49
M33 22.4 152 35.4 185 32.1 4 9.1 80 38.8 84 33.6 72 12.4 183 35.8 5 23.3
F
6 15.4 8 26.6 14 20.3 2 66.7 2 66.7 4 15.4 11 42.3 15 28.9
Both 39 21.0 160 34.9 199 30.8 4 7.5 82 39.2 86 32.8 76 12.5 194 36.1 270 .6 50-59
M15 10.2
8419.6 99 17.2 2 4.6 24 11.7 26 10.4 32 5.5 63 12.3 95 8.7
F 4
13.3
45.8
:27.7 4 15.4 6 11.6
Both 15 8.1 88 19.2 103 16.0 2 3.8 24 11.5 26 9.9 34 5.6 67 12.5 101 8.8
60+
M4 2.7 11 2.6 15 2.6 3 1.5 3 1.2 8 1.4 12 2.3 20 1.8
F
3.8 1 1.9
Both
42.1 11 2.4 15 2.3
31.4 3 1.2 8 1.3 13
2.4 21 1.8 Total
M141 100.0 429 100.0 576 100.0 44 100.0 206 100 250 100.0 582 100.0 511 100.0 1093 100.0
F
39 100.0 30 100.0 69 100.0 9 100.0 3 100 12 100.C 26 100.0 26 100.0 52 100.0 Both 186 100.0 459 100.0 645 100.0 53 100.0 209 100 262 100.0 608 100.0 537 100.0 1145 100.0
"
- 81
-Table 13b: Distribution o£ heads of household by age, sex and by size o£ household, rural Keembe
HOUSEHOLD SIZE
Age Group Sex 1-5 persons 6 or more iJersons Total Number Perceent Number Per cent Number
2022929 Male 50 32.0 6 2.2 56
Female 6 9.2 6
Both 56 26.0 6 2.0 62
30-39 }4ale 26 16.9
55
20.4 81Female 14 21.5 7 23.3 2l
Both 40 18.3 62 20.6 102
40-49 Male 26 16.9 75 27.13 101
Female 31 47.7 10 33.4 41
Both 57 26.6 85 28.2 142
50-59 Male 25 16.2§ 85 31.5 110
Female 10 15.4 6 20.0 16
Both 35 16.0 91 30.2 126
60 and Male 27 17.5 49 18.1 76
over
Female 4 6.2 8 26.0 12
!loth 31 14.2 57 18.9
88
Total Male 154 100.0 270 100.0 424
Female 65 100.0 31 100.0 96
Both 216 100.0 301 100.0 520
Per cent 13.2
6.2 11,9 19.1 21,9 19.6 23.8 42.7 27.3 26.0 16.7 24.2 17.9 12.5 16.9 100.0 100.0 100.0
Table 14: Distribution of head of households by educational level for urban (Lusaka) and rural (;:eembe) areas of ZaI'1uia
:_G2.0 of Couseholc, Level of Education
lIALE F:2:1lt,LE
No. % :,To 0 % 110.
:Hone 63 -;7.5 9 12.5 72
Primary 27J ~0.6 'J.S: 9.4 307
Secondary and Teacher 'fraining 135 ~,7 .7 ?0 12.3 211
Post secondary 50 90.9 5 J.l 55
Total 576 89.3 6':' 10.7 GL},J
:r...U=i>!.'J. 10" DEnSITY
j'-'!one 6 100.0 6
Primary 37 S7 .1, 1. 2.6 3(> v
Secondary and Teacher Training 131 93.6
c,
G ./, 140Post secondary 76 97./, ,. 2.6 7~
Total 250 95.4 1:.0 4.6 262
TOTllL
% 11.2 47.6 32.7
"h,)
100.0
2.3 11, .5 53.l:
~9o,.
100 Q~)
V"j,-::AYJ. GWATTER AREAS
{Tone 175 0G.2 .•• --i 13. r; 203 17.7
Primary 666 S6.9 ;,1> :Ll Ge7 GO.O
~econdary and '1'eacher Trainin(3 152 " :/'-JoU ,
"
1.2 ~55n.]
Post secondary
Total 1093 05.5 5:~ 1:.5 1145 100.0
PJTl~AL ( :a:ElIU; )
":-one 125 61, .1, rr ,) -" ?5.6 19/; 37.3
Primary 273 91.1 r ' " .7 29S 57.:'
Seconl~ary anel Teacher Tr,qinin~ 26 06.3 1 3.7 27 5.2
Post secon~'ary
Total 424 ~~l. 5 ( " , '
-1:: . 5 510 100.0 '"
---_.---_ .... ,"
lB2 (a) con-sidering that both are mutually inter-dependent in that height influences weiEht ;md vice versa. Thus, to obtain the stanc"ll,dised heiEht for e~ch
i I
i i
I I I
I I I I I
,
.,- 8;3
c,onc'usion
The analyses undertd,en in this paper shotl that "bout 113lf of tlle 16500 persons covert::!d in this survey in Lusal:a e.nd ~~c.embe lived in households of seven or more members. A quarter of dw 7.5/0 Lus"[,,, and
":~~embe households coveren. in the. survey had ten or more 'l2:mtlcrs. The average household size 'Has 6.1\ for Lusaka and 6.6 for ruraJ Eeernbe. In Lusaka average household size "as hi8hest (3.1) in t:.12 10" density areas and lowest (5.6) in the squatter a.r~2S. l~ouslnr. cOfl(Jitions an(~ income levels are higher in the for!.ner areas ll1hich tend to il2Vr-,,: jl10re relatives in households thnn is the case in tin? squntter aree.:; ~Yii:c, poor living conditions, absence of SOJT\e pul,lic utili tics and services arid lOHer incomes. Tbus Hhile rt::lativ:~s constituted 19.0 per c2nt of" the
ropulation foun1 in households in the lov density are2S they accounted for only 10.1 per cent of the 00pulation in the squatter are~s.
This situation results in relatively lareer houscho~.'s in lo~, de[1sity tL.3u squatter or high density areas of Lusaka. Cons 2f]U02.nt ly ~ hlhile one fifth of the persons in 1m.' density areas lived in house:lolcis of 12 or more mcmbers~ less th.:ln five per cent of the popula::im.1 of S0untter areas lived in such hou6eholds.
Although) as i t ,·las to be expecten., sons and dcu.":i1tero constituted over half of all members of households in Lusa1·~a, (5~;, 1 per cent), t~le
louer r3te for Keembe (50. ~ per ce'lt). sUf!,ests tlwt a si~nHicant rercent3Cc of these chil~:ren leave their Dun parents to ·ceside as
~lrelativesn ,·lith members of t~-!8 extended family el.'3euL~yeo This ex-plains the reason ,.,hy the perceutc:'~e of the urban population c~_ 3ssified in their respective househoLls 8S relatives (ll:.0 per cent) 'Jao lC';12r than tilose (20.3 per cent) recorded for rural l:eembe.
Tids study (lcmonstrates blat most househoL~s it: r-''::Jr.lbir!l1 society nre headed Ly 'Qen. Althoup-l' hea,'~shii) rates increase rcwi/l1~7 for mer~ from 20 years on \"lards) the evi-iencp. sU2sests that urbaI' males establish independent ~1ouseholdG relatively earlier in life than re.ral m.2.r. .•
rmj)loyment~ llousin[,; and th2. n~~cleated pattl2rn of livii.1~~ in urban areas facilitate. the creation of ne\f households in urban areds than is tLe C:3se in rural areas w!ler2 llea(lship is very T'1uch associateo ~.,i th advancing age.
It is also eviuent in i:!:is analysis ttlat Homen ~'(~I -=rnlly uecome i1ousehold he3ds only when their marriages are term.inct(.;:~ l.y separation, divorce or by .lcath of husban.fJ~ Even in urban are:3.S~ llllere an increasine nUIP-her of Homen is employer!. in the. modern economic sector and is thc.rcfore~
econor.lically rzlatively in(~epeEGent\l very fen Tiomea 2re ~l;=ac\s of househol(:s pxcept in Most cases as a resu)t of tennination of maTri8~::;~, or in a very fe't·! cases, ~}ul'ip..S" a short prcluue prior to marriage.
The evidence f ron, this tudy sug?,es ts tha t al thou~h it is generally stated livin~ standards are lil::.ely to improve.. it:' couples limit the number of children they have, these improvements ~re not likely to be significant in a society "here the extend",:' family system permits persons to seek residence in the homes of relatively richer members of their extendec1 family. Such behaviour r2stores
~-.]i thin each household the number of meT!lbers reduced throurh
contraception. f.'her~ un0:t'1ployment is bigh~ schoolin: facilitaties arc concentrated in th" city and >Ihere the traditional bon6s of the
e~"tended family system are unbroken} the size of the nuclear family does not 31"aY8 equal th" size of the household.
Consequently~ \vhile employ".uent opportunities for school leavers are limited anu the rural economy stagnates ~ the exodus 0:( people to tm·ms 't,;rould increase the depc:n{ence of many people Oil ':21atives. This trend sustains the predar.,iu[lucc of larGe households especially in urban areas 't:Jhere housin~ con:litions anti the hope for employment are considered better than else;:.'hereo
---_._---, .'
Introduction
The \.Iorld Population Plan of Action recognized t:1e "emily ~s the basic unit of society anc emQh2aized its importance in tFO r~801utions
which amon~ other things recommended that the fatlily be protected Ly appropriate leeislation and that marria[,e l:e enterecl. into only [,lith the free and full consent of intending spouses. l-1.arital st.?l:.ttS 1185 long ueen recognized as a most it!lportant fac~:or in population dyual-dcs 8A i t affects fertility tremendously and mortality Cln~ migration to a L~sser extent.
li~.rital status is a demographic characteristic involving biolo~ical
characteristics related to social~ economic, legal and i:r_ rila:..~y cases religious aspects. Its effects on other social and econm,lic ch~racteris
tics such as school attendance aud labour force participat:-on are very important in late adolescence and young adult are groups~
The timing and frequency of flarriage are, therefore~ i,,--,)ortapt aspects in mechanisEis for re:3ulatine rep'l'oduction. Tl)e int2:raction of gross e)(pectation of marital life and the p:ross expectatio_l of ~ecvnd
life are very important for esttITLatinE the total effect 0::: T_urriaee on fertility. This is particularly the case because in al",ost all knm:n
societies, the marital unio::! is seen as the social institut5_ol.'! Hithin which re;)roQuction is Sup~}osed to taLe place. Althoup;h er~piric2~_ ~vider,ce from societies of fI.1ffering econOt,dc ~ social" racial and p;eo'3t'a)l\ica1. tacl:~rounds
shm'7s that chi III hearing is not in practice a monopoly of eLf! lTlPrriec1 couple an(1 that a significant number of children are born out C( ocdlocL
_!/)
tl.le marital union is still consirlered 28 the ri~htful place F:or ',"'rocreation in ne.::lrly all hUFlan societies.Consequently, investigations on fertility differenti:-.lo aluays viel7 stu.-'l.ies iu marital patterns a~c1 differences in age at firc'c E~U~" suusequent
ma~crisges as a prerequisite for in.~::-i'?pth analysis. Studies o~, C1'pe ;)t first m2rriar;e and the influence of e.ducC!tion on a~e at first m:::z-:ria~~'?: provide flseful tnforrnation on the Cleter,,1i!"'ants of levels of ferti!i.ty 9 Similarly the frequency and ti!'l.ine of chanl?eS in marital state influ.ence uonen is total lenEth of exposure to pree-uar1CY and childbearill~:.
A filajor problem related LO stuciies on rnarria?;e is t~!Q var~i .. -:;ltion in practices anti concept:;;: of uhat cOLGtitutes a marital Ul1ioc'~ ar,,-~ 1'-'hen exac tly i t starts. l1any types of marriage
r
ractices coexis t 1::, I:f rican societies G l'here is the cilurch \'Je'.:~dine aJTlong christians ~ tLe :.>..e,:-al ue(1ding involving legal proce~urcs ane the acquisition of T"CI,~ri2.[recertificates and the trrl-::1itional 1l13rriage -';·,7hich is nost COl·,;JT,OP. 2.POlll? bot~
rural alill urban populations in African countries 0 The lR.ttc.i.' accommodates both monoramous an'} polYRamous U":.110hfJ. 11
11
Central IJureau of Statistics, I,Tairobi, ~~enya f'ertilit/ ~~urvey 1977·-19r~.~:'irst Peport Vol. 1 pa.c:;e 93" 1"~ds study sho~jed t~lat >,:, per cent of all Zenya 'Homen reported premarital birth.
- 8~ atterpt to understand the deter:rninants of fertility especi"lly irl societies
\>1il.:re t~e onset of rnarria:~e signale the. start vi: childL~arL::.f? •
ur.certakir.g fertility determinants in "amLia.
l~J:1cn:, the 1',2:2 lfO'Men ~=rl ~l:2 ~0 year3 intervietiTed c~urin~ the first
_...::.i.',""a::r"r,,~o.:· e::.L"" _____ "l"'lu:c'n"'L="=..r Per ~ent ~:umber :':'er cen=t_"-H",n",l'.::;L<"e=,r"-_::..l'",e,,r,-,c::;:e:;n;:.t,,-_
Toto.l
Table 2. Distribution of women by marrital status and a~e for urban (Lusaka) and rural (Keembe) areas in Zambia
LUSAKA URBAN KEEMBE RURAL
(in Never Sepa- Divor- Wido- 'Io-:: s1 Never Har- §l'P~i'-
Oil!sr-:t:ears ) Married Married rated ced wed Tot ,,1 Married ried e~:tied 9€'1ic Ijgg~ed Total
12-14 509 6 515 149 4 1 154
15-19 538 210 2 6 1 757 119 41 1 2
e
16320-24 153 479 9 25 1 667 22 66 2 13 103
25-29 26 430 2 21 4 483 6 72 3 9 1 91
30-34 7 364 3 17 9 400 81 2 16 3 102
35-39 3 265 3 15 9 295 1 79 7 4 91
40-44 1 159 5 7 172 1 61 2 10 7 81
45-49 1 85 4 4 13 107 1 73 15 13 102
Total 1238 1998 23 93 44 3396 299 477 10 72 29 887
Percentages
Proportion - l OJ
Ever-married Urban Rural
12-14 98.8 1.2 100.0 96.8 2.6 0.6 100.00 1.2 2.3
15-19 71.1 27.7 0.3 0.8 0.1 100.0 73.0 25.2 0.6 1.2 F'O.OO 28.9 27.0
20-24 22.9 71.8 1.3 3.8 0.2 100.0 21.4 64.1 1.9 12.6 100.0 77 .1 78.6
25-29 5.4 89.0 0.4 4.4 0.8 100.0 6.6 79.1 3.3 9.9 1.1 100.0 94.6 93.4
30-34 1.8 91.0 0.7 4.3 2.2 100.0 79.4 2.0 l§.'T
?9
100.03~'~
100.089.8 100.0 1.1 86.il
'(" #:!J 1:&&:8
;i8~. 935-39 1.0 1.0 5.1 3.1 :1 99:0
40-49 0.6 92.4 2.9 4.1 100.0 1.2 75.3 2.5 12.4 8.6 100.00 99.4 98.8
45-49 0.9 79.4 3.7 3.7 12.2 100.0 1.0 71.6 14.7 12.7 100.0 99.1 99.0
Total 36.5 58.8 0.7 2.7 1.3 100.0 33.7 53.8 1.1 8.1 3.3 100.0 63.6 66.3
These cata shm'7 tliat ; .... O~ 'J per cen-t of all ever-married Y'"'O"leE a.~ed
12-50 years l;-;ho ~<1ere studied in this survey had been marrieci DIlly once~ 1/
A significant proportion of these l;'JOrreC (19.2 per cent) had bee'11 marrie'Y tl;<1ice and 1.7 per cent of them hao, been married nore than t\]ice~ It is apparent from these data tltat marital instability tJ'as hisher in rural than urban areas. T~!us '-,hile only 15, ---: per cent of all ever-rnarrie(~ Homen in Lusal-:.a had been marriell more than ODC:;) more than tl;,Jice elat percentage
(3l~5 per cent) of ICeemue 'tV'omen 1~a1 beell Plarried tl;oj'O or more times. The lotoJer proportion of urban ~.yomen married more t~'.an once May b2 due to t~le
frequent movet:lent of divorcecl, or sepfl.rated Homen from city to rural areaS_
Although the movement is both l;1ays" data fron this survey S~IOt.' tllat 5_,', per cent of in--migrants to Keembe aEd ~.I, per cent of trIose ~ni0ratine
to Lus.L2 <Jere divorced or separated Homen. ~I
1\ distribution of womer. 1?--~.0 years of age 1y marital Gi:.8tU:=', is shown in TaLle .'2. These ll,ata shou that the marriage of 160 (7 .l~ t)r3r ceni.:) of the urban ever-married Homen had been terminated by se9arati()D~ 01vorce or death. This proportion Tlas much Im?er tilan that for rural _~ee~LiLJe. 'The data for l'_eembe ShOH that III (L. 9 per cent) of all ever--,,13rried "OMen 'I:.'ere ~e~)aratecl, divorce;! or uidouedo Lore than a tentl: of all everr·marriec.
lJOELen in I~eeiDbe l;;ere divorced.
An exauinatio'l1 of the proportions married in the urllan ;~~1L~, rurdl areas 5;10" that Ilomen enter into TIarital unions very early i., life and the majority or all women remain married throuc;ho'llt t'[leir repro "uct.ive life.
Thus nearly four fiftlts of all Lusaka (77.1 per cent) an" -:"e;';'e (7~.G 'leT
cent) O:.TOlilen hall been married before tuenty five y~ars of a,::::e. T11ese data presellt a similar picture of early marria:::e as that 0;1SerVei..; for ~~enya '}/
ant:' in,_,icate that the pro}Ortiofl of c'urrently marrle{~ l;t70aen ',:Tas ~li~·~:er
in Lusc:ka than in ~::eeill"lJe excep~ for females married 'Lefore fi(te~~l years of s;:;e. ~his evidencf'_ is indicative of iligber marital sta-oi:!.il:] in
LnspI~a t::an ~~.eeli'.be. T~(us uhile se~erated and liivorced w'onen il~, J.Jusal~a
compris2d ::;,1- per cent of all HODle-ll iTl the age .':~ro'JiJs under Gtu<l;; the
correspoDc~ie~ pro;Jortion for ~~eer.:-::e uas
9.:::
per cent.!/
~~'h~ percenta~e of Lusaka 'Homen iIl first unions '">las fiiE1i12~c tol:,.ercentages obtainecl for ~(enja (--':3.0 per cent) anL Lel3otho (_l~.o" per cent). See ECA~ l1aritnl Conposition an(~ Fertility, ':enY2 an,",- Lesotho!
;rhe! lo\lre.:r/ !'1er>;¢fltag~ fol': \Ke~w1:>e~Wa&rl"'rol)"blyc ~llf-l!J"i!ll:!@cl;" ,,"'OJJil·,lJ)l;h1'r fat:tg~§"2'~Y:~:$.{lrJP 14-o:~e~r1:.9J~~@ _.' . ',.,} :2::'~ yll:-r;: '_rror3