An Investigation of Students’ Difficulties in Reading Literary Texts

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People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

University of Mohamed Seddik Benyahia, Jijel Faculty of Letters and Languages

Department of English

Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Master Degree in English Language Sciences

Submitted by: Supervisor:

Lamia NOURI Rafika MELEK Houda AFFAK

Board of Examiners:

Chairperson Selma BOUHALI University of Mohammed Seddik Benyahia, Jijel Examiner Sabrina HADJI University of Mohammed Seddik Benyahia, Jijel Supervisor Rafika MELEK University of Mohammed Seddik Benyahia, Jijel

2017

An Investigation of Students’ Difficulties in Reading Literary Texts

The Case of Third Year Students of English at the University of Mohammed Seddik

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STUDENTS’ DIFFICULTIES IN READING LITERARY TEXTS I

People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

University of Mohamed Seddik Benyahia, Jijel Faculty of Letters and Languages

Department of English

Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Master Degree in English Language Sciences

Submitted by: Supervisor:

Lamia NOURI Rafika MELEK Houda AFFAK

Board of Examiners:

Chairperson Selma BOUHALI University of Mohammed Seddik Benyahia, Jijel Examiner Sabrina HADJI University of Mohammed Seddik Benyahia, Jijel Supervisor Rafika MELEK University of Mohammed Seddik Benyahia, Jijel

2017

An Investigation of Students’ Difficulties in Reading Literary Texts

The Case of Third Year Students of English at the University of Mohammed Seddik

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STUDENTS’ DIFFICULTIES IN READING LITERARY TEXTS II

Dedication

“Yesterday is a history, tomorrow is a mystery, today is a gift that is why we call it the present.”

In the Name of God, the Most Merciful, the Most Compassionate.

I dedicate this work to:

The most precious people to my heart, to the persons who unstintingly supported me throughout the whole course of my life; my beloved mother and my dear father.

My wonderful brothers: Antar, Hamza, and Zineddine.

My adorable sisters: Wided, Salima, Wafia, Malika, and Hanane.

My grandmother Fatima for her endless love and constant prayers. May ALLAH bless you.

My family, especially my lovely cousins Asma and Sarah.

My dear friends: Aida, Amina, Fatima, Nadira, Afaf, Aicha, Nihed, Fadia, and Rokia.

Lamia

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STUDENTS’ DIFFICULTIES IN READING LITERARY TEXTS III

In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious and Most Merciful, on Whom ultimately we depend for sustenance and guidance.

Throughout the whole course of my life, two persons have always been beside me, big heartedly and unconditionally. I would like to dedicate this dissertation and everything I do to my precious mother and my dear father. I will never be able to thank you enough.

I would also like to dedicate this work to

My adored sister Chehla,

My beloved brothers: Ali, Amir, and Rochdi,

My sister in law: Hadda,

My brother in law: khaled,

My adorable nephew and nieces: Karim, Ritedje, Hind, and Assil, may Allah bless you all,

My dear friends: Mokhtar, Aida, Safa, Amina, Nadira, Nariman, Nihad, Afaf, Aicha, and Mohammed.

I would not be who I am today without the love and support of you. I thank you all for your words of encouragement and never-ending support.

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STUDENTS’ DIFFICULTIES IN READING LITERARY TEXTS IV

Acknowledgements

In the Name of God the Most Merciful, Most Compassionate

We would like to gratefully acknowledge the wholehearted supervision of Mrs. MELEK Rafika. Her unswerving support, constructive feedback, and rigorous attention to the details over the course of research have been of much help.

We would also express our gratitude to the members of the jury Mrs. Sabrina HADJI and Mrs. Selma BOUHALI who bothered reading our dissertation and providing us with

valuable advice.

We are utterly thankful to Mrs. Houda BOUHADJER and Mr. BOUNNAR Fateh for their unsparing approval in conducting the interview with us.

We just want to voice out a big thank you to Mrs. NOURI Malika for her unconditional help.

Our thanks also go to our ex-teacher Mr. BOUKEZZOULA Mohammed, for his precious guidance.

We owe also a debt of gratitude to all the participants who kindly provided us with the data required to bring the present research to a close.

Our deepest gratitude is offered to all the teachers of English who taught us from 1st yea till 2nd year Master degree.

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STUDENTS’ DIFFICULTIES IN READING LITERARY TEXTS V

Abstract

This study aimed at investigating the difficulties encountered by English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learner in reading literary texts at the department of English, Mohamed Seddik Benyahia University, Jijel. It, also, aimed at suggesting some solutions to facilitate the process of reading literary texts. The present research work is built upon two hypotheses. First, it is hypothesised that understanding literary texts exhibits a challenge for EFL learners. Second, finding effective strategies would help learners overcome these difficulties and become better readers of English literature. To this end, the data were collected by means of two research instruments, namely a questionnaire and an interview. Out of a population of 257 students, the questionnaire was handed to 60 third year English students at Mohammed Seddik Benyahia University, Jijel; whereas, the interview was conducted with two teachers of literature at the same department. The results obtained from this study show that, indeed, EFL learners face difficulties in reading literary texts such as difficult vocabulary and complex grammatical structures. On the basis of these results, pedagogical recommendations were suggested.

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STUDENTS’ DIFFICULTIES IN READING LITERARY TEXTS VI

List of Abbreviations and symbols

EFL: English as a Foreign Language

e.g.: For example

etc.: And so forth

FL: Foreign Language

FLT: Foreign Language Teaching

i.e.: That is to say

L1: First Language

LMD: License Master Doctorate

n.d: No date P: Page Para: Paragraph Q: Question SL: Second Language Vs: Versus %: Percentage

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STUDENTS’ DIFFICULTIES IN READING LITERARY TEXTS VII

List of Tables

Table 3.1: Students’ Ranking of the Four Skills in Terms of Importance………...70

Table 3.2: Students’ Perception of the Importance of Reading ………..71

Table 3.3: Students’ Preferences for the Language of Reading………...72

Table 3.4: Students’ Responses to the Availability of Books in their Growing Environment ………...73

Table 3.5: Students’ Frequency of Reading………74

Table 3.6: Students’ Motivation towards Reading………...74

Table 3.7: Students’ Perception of the Teacher’s Role in Motivating them to Read ……….75

Table 3.8: The Purpose behind Students’ Readings………...76

Table 3.9: Students’ Evaluation of their Reading Level………..76

Table 3.10: Students’ Interest in Literature Sessions………...77

Table 3.11: Students’ Justifications for Yes Answers ………78

Table 3.12: Students’ Justifications for No Answers………..78

Table 3.13: Students’ Perceptions of the Teaching Method of Literature………...79

Table 3.14: Students’ Justifications for No Answers………...……80

Table 3.15: Students’ Favourite Literary Texts………...…80

Table 3.16: Students’ Perceptions of the Degree of the Difficulty of Texts Being Taught…81 Table 3.17: Students’ Responses to their Completion of Reading Literary Texts…………...82

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STUDENTS’ DIFFICULTIES IN READING LITERARY TEXTS VII

Table 3.18: Students’ Statements to whether they Encounter Difficulties while Reading Literary Texts………...…….83

Table 3.19: Difficulties Encountered while Reading Literary Texts………..….83

Table 3.20: Students’ Views of the Importance of the Teacher’s Role in Facilitating the Understanding of Literary Texts………...84

Table 3.21: Students’ Stance on Taking Part in Text’s Selection………85

Table 3.22: Students’ Preferences Regarding the Way of Teaching Literary Texts…………86

Table 3.23: Students’ Preferences for Watching a Literary Work as a Filmed Version……..87

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STUDENTS’ DIFFICULTIES IN READING LITERARY TEXTS IX

List of Figures

Figure 1: The traditional View of the Reading Process………..9

Figure 2: The Cognitive View of the Reading Process……….…11

Figure 3: The Bottom-up Model ……….………..…………...…15

Figure 4: The Top-down Model………17

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STUDENTS’ DIFFICULTIES IN READING LITERARY TEXTS X

General Introduction

1. Background of the Study………...1

2. Statement of the Problem………...…2

3. Aims of the Study……….………..………..…………...3

4. Research Questions……….……...3

5. Research Hypotheses………...……….………...3

6. Research Methodology………...…3

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STUDENTS‟ DIFFICULTIES IN READING LITERARY TEXTS 1

1. Background of the Study

Learning English as a foreign language (EFL) is gaining more and more significance and its inevitability is meticulously felt in the global contexts. The learning of English is inexorable in the present days as it has become the language of communication. Indeed, learning EFL entails gigantic efforts; hence, teachers and learners face many problems related to its teaching- learning. Learning EFL, in addition, requires the exposure of the learner to the four skills, namely, listening, speaking, reading, and writing.

Nevertheless, EFL learners have the tendency to focus more on speaking and listening skills, as these are typically the most obvious ways to measure progress, while reading and writing skills fall behind. In effect, it is substantial bearing in mind that the relationship between foreign language learning and reading is, at least, twofold and reciprocal. On the one hand, language familiarity has an effect on reading comprehension i.e. reading comprehension is facilitated when the learner have a significant amount of knowledge about the language , and reading influences language learning and development through, unconsciously, acquiring new vocabulary and structures, on the other hand.

As a matter of fact, one may not be able to learn the English language separately from its literature, since literature is considered as an ideal vehicle for illustrating and developing awareness of language use. As such, Literature has always been a standard component of university curricula of foreign languages. EFL learners need to be acquainted with the significance of learning English literature which is no less important than learning English language. Indeed, reading English literature may foster the process of learning the English language, as it helps to acquire more vocabulary, develops students‟ critical thinking, and improves their writing skills.

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Despite the fact that reading English literary texts is of great importance for fostering the language learning/ acquisition process, it is mainly considered as one of the most challenging and complex tasks for EFL learners, who tend to ignore it, due to various problems and difficulties they encounter while processing English literary texts. These difficulties result in the underestimation and disregard for reading English literature. In this context, research has investigated students‟ reading problems in general; however, very little research has been conducted concerning the particular problems students face when reading English literature. Shmais (2002) claims that, for many Arab students, “Reading in English is difficult and very demanding, especially reading literary texts” (p. 634) and the Algerian students are no exception. Hence, this study is unique in that it investigates the main problems faced by EFL learners in reading literary texts.

Eliciting the students‟ perception of these problems is important as it would offer a window into their metacognition, i.e. whether they are aware of the difficulties or problems they encounter, or not. In addition, this study can help teachers design significant strategies through adopting new methodologies or choosing materials suitable to students‟ needs. 2. Statement of the Problem

A large number of literature teachers complain the disregard their students show towards the subject-matter. Recent studies conducted by Stein and walsh (1997) and others revealed that the literary books average reading is of 2 to 3 novels / plays during the graduation. This situation seems more alarming in Arabic countries, where literature is suspiciously considered as a challenging subject in language classes. Accordingly, EFL learners do not welcome literary texts in their studies since they find learning a new language through reading those literary texts complicated and, in a way, fruitless. Thus, teachers, not only have to make their students appreciate literature, but further convince them of the need to learn (about) literature and literary classics and help them to become successful readers. Based on some

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conversations with teachers of literature at the department of English at Mohammed Seddik Benyahia University, the researchers had concluded, according to the formers‟ statements, that students, and even teachers of literature module, face some difficulties in the learning- teaching process of literary texts.

3. Aims of the Study This study aims at:

 Investigating the difficulties faced by 3rd

year English language learners when reading literary texts.

 Finding effective strategies to help learners overcome these difficulties and improve their reading skill.

4. Research Questions

The present research raises the following main questions:  Do 3rd

year LMD learners of English language face problems when reading literary texts?

 What are the problems and difficulties faced by third (3rd

) year LMD learners of English language when reading literary texts?

 What strategies can be adopted by the teachers of literature to help third (3rd

) year LMD learners of English overcome their reading problems of literary texts?

5. Research Hypotheses It can be hypothesised that:

 Third (3rd

) year LMD students at the department of English language and literature at the University of Jijel are facing difficulties in reading literary texts such as difficult vocabulary, difficult grammatical structures, unfamiliar cultural assumptions, and texts length.

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 Finding effective strategies to help the learners overcome these difficulties may encourage them to become better readers of English literary texts.

6. Research Methodology

In order to confirm or disconfirm the aforementioned hypotheses, two research instruments adopting a qualitative and quantitative paradigm will be used. A questionnaire will be administered to third year LMD students at the department of English language and literature at the University of Mohammed Seddik Benyahia, Jijel. Additionally, an interview with third year teachers of literature at the same department will be conducted to get clearer insights into the teaching practice of literary texts.

7. Structure of the Study

The present study is divided into three chapters. The first two chapters are devoted to the literature review. The first chapter is concerned with the reading skill. The second chapter is about reading literary texts. The third chapter represents the practical framework of the present research whereby it touches upon the methodology of research and data analysis and discussion.

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Introduction

Among the four language skills, reading is possibly the most extensively and intensively studied by experts in the field of language teaching. The results of the researches conducted for many decades (Ruddel, 1965; Tatham, 1970; Kucer, 2005) on the nature of reading-how people learn to process textual information-have contributed to the development of different theories that introduce the best ways to teaching reading. As a result, language educators can choose among a wide variety of teaching methods and techniques for students learning to read in their second language (SL) or foreign language (FL).

For students, who are learning a SL/FL, reading is a crucial skill to master for several reasons. First, students can usually perform at a higher level in reading than in any other skills. They can quite accurately understand written materials that they could not discuss orally or in writing with equivalent accuracy or thoroughness. Such condition will enhance their motivation to learn. Second, reading necessitates very minimum requirements. Different from speaking which requires opportunities to interact with sparring partner, or from writing which needs a lot of guidance and time to practice, reading necessitates only a text and motivation. Third, reading is a service skill. After learning how to read effectively, students will be able to learn effectively by reading.

Realizing how crucial reading is for learners, the great importance of developing their reading ability is obvious. To achieve it, reading lessons should be improved by implementing the best method and techniques provided by theories. This chapter presents the relevant literature about reading. It sheds light on the principal theories of reading, and explores the relative importance of models, techniques, and strategies for improving the reading process.

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1.1. The Concept of Reading

Coining an acceptable definition for reading to all educators and psychologists has been difficult and problematic. This is due to many perspectives with which different professionals may approach the same issue. Reading was traditionally viewed as a passive process in which the readers simply decode the written symbols without bringing their own knowledge to interact with the text (Clark & Silberstein, 1977). These readers, according to Anderson (2003), are called passive decoders of sequential graphic- phonemic- syntactic-semantic systems. But after the emergence of the psycholinguistic model of reading (Goodman, 1976), research on reading showed that reading is actually an active process, in which the reader creates meaning from the printed words. Goodman (1976) stated that, “Reading is a psycholinguistic guessing game”, in which the reader actively interacts with the text to construct meaning. Moreover, further researcher and scholars stated that reading is not only a cognitive and psycholinguistic activity, but also a social activity (Labov, 1972; Bloom 1985; Gee 2001). It has been established by Morris(1966) (as cited in Reid and Donaldson, 1977) that reading achievement is related to the skill of the teacher, and that the child taught by untrained, inexperienced, and unskilled teachers tend to be especially backward in reading (Reid and Donaldson, 1977, p.62).

Manzo and Manzo (1993) defined reading as the act of simultaneously reading the lines, reading between the lines, and reading beyond the lines. „Reading the lines‟ is the process of decoding the words in order to reconstruct the author‟s basic message. „Reading between the lines‟ is the process of making inferences in order to reconstruct the author‟s implied message. This requires the understanding of the integral logic of facts presented as well as an understanding of connotative and figurative language. „Reading beyond the lines‟ is the process of judging the significance of the author‟s message, and constructively applying it to other areas of knowledge and experience.

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Reading is a technical process because it requires reading letter by letter and word by word. It is automatic information processing within which each word is decoded and comprehended whilst the process of building understanding of the sentence is taking place through the combination of their individual meaning. Since it includes the engagement of the use of language, reading is a linguistic process (Davenport, 2002, p. 5).

According to Snow, Burns, and Griffin (1998) reading is a complex developmental challenge that is intertwined with many other developmental accomplishments: attention, memory, language, and motivation (p. 15). In addition, Reading process involves visual motor skills and perception of the symbols by the brain. It is generally broken down into two components, “reading the words or decoding and understanding what is read” and “comprehension” (Samuels, 1988, pp. 18-22).

To sum up, reading is the process in which the reader constructs meaning through the dynamic interacting with the text. This interactive process involves the reader‟s prior knowledge, the reading strategies, the text, and the context of the reading situation.

1. 2. Theories of Reading

In the last 40 years, reading researchers have been studying the link between the reading process (what goes in the brain) and how to teach reading. Consequently, depending on their interpretation of the reading process, educators and researchers in reading have developed different theories.

So far, there are three main theories which explain the nature of learning to read. First, the traditional theory, focused on the printed form of a text. Second, the cognitive view which enhanced the role of background knowledge in addition to what appeared on the printed page. Third, the metacognitive view which is based on the control and manipulation that a reader

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can have on the act of comprehending a text, and thus, emphasizes the involvement of the reader‟s thinking about what he is doing while reading.

1.2.1. The Traditional View

The traditional view employed the behaviourism theory to define the reading process. According to behaviourism, learning was essentially a conditioned response to a stimulus. Hence, in the reading process, the stimulus for reading is the print on the page.

According to Dole, Duffy, Roehler, and Pearson (1991), readers are passive recipients of information in the text. Meaning resides in the text, and has to be reproduced by the readers. Nunan (1991) viewed reading as, basically, a matter of decoding a series of written symbols into their aural equivalents for the reason of making sense of the text. This theory adopted a bottom-up model of reading. In this sense, readers are viewed as “experts” who comprehend what they read. Gough (1972) stated that reading is a sequential or serial mental process, in his words: “Readers begin by translating the parts of written language (letters) into speech sounds, then piece the sounds together to form individual words, then piece the words together to arrive at an understanding of the author‟s written message” (Gough, 1972).

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STUDENTS‟ DIFFICULTIES IN READING LITERARY TEXTS 9 Meaning Text Paragraphs Sentences Words Letters

Figure 1.1. The traditional view of the reading process.

In order to counteract over-reliance on form in the traditional view of reading, a number of cognitive scientists focused their attention on how readers construct meaning as they read. Specifically, they studied the mental activities that good readers engage in to achieve comprehension. From these studies, an entirely new concept emerged about what reading is. According to the new concept, reading is a complex, active process of constructing meaning not skill application; hence, the cognitive view was introduced.

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1.2.2. The Cognitive View

In the 1960s, paradigm shift occurred in the cognitive sciences. Behaviourism became somewhat discredited as the new cognitive theory represented the mind‟s innate capacity for learning. Consequently, this theory employed Piaget‟s (1983) theory of cognitive development to define reading. According to this theory, mental development progresses as a result of learner‟s interaction with their surroundings. In addition, from the perspective of this view, reading is not a passive mechanical activity but purposeful and rational, with a great dependence on the prior knowledge and expectations of the reader. It is not merely a matter of extracting meaning from a text, but a process of connecting information in the text with the knowledge the reader brings to the act of reading. In this sense, according to Tierney and Pearson (1994), reading is a dialogue between the reader and the text involving an active cognitive process in which the reader‟s background plays a key role in the creation of meaning.

In short, Goodman (1976) presented reading as a “psycholinguistic guessing game” where the reader constructs a message which has been encoded by an author as a graphic. It is a process in which the text is sampled, hypothesis is made, then confirmed or rejected, new hypothesis is made, and so forth. In here, the heart of the reading process is the reader rather than the text.

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STUDENTS‟ DIFFICULTIES IN READING LITERARY TEXTS 11 Knowledge Experiences Emotions Reader‟s Intentions Meaning

Figure 1.2. The cognitive view of the reading process.

To sum up, from the perspective of this theory, word, sentence, and text meaning are influenced, or shaped by the whole set of experiences and knowledge the reader brings to the reading process.

1.2.3. The Schema Theory

Another theory closely related to cognitive processing is called schema theory. The latter, likewise, had a major impact on reading teaching. It describes in detail how the background knowledge of the learner interacts with the reading task and illustrates how a student‟s knowledge and previous experience with the world is crucial to interpret a text. The ability to use background knowledge or schemata (networks of information stored in the brain which act as filters for incoming information) plays a fundamental role in one‟s trial to comprehend a text.

Schema theory is based on the notion that the creation of mental frameworks which help a reader make sense of new experiences is led by past experiences. Smith (1994) calls schemes the “extensive representations of more general patterns or regularities that occur in our

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experience” (p. 14). For instance, one‟s generic scheme of an airplane will allow him to make sense of airplane he has not previously flown with. This means that past experiences and new experiences will be related to each other. The latter may include the knowledge of “objects, situations, and events as well as knowledge of procedures for retrieving, organizing and interpreting information” (Kucer, 1987, p. 31). Anderson (1994) explains that “a reader comprehends a message when he is able to bring to mind a schema that gives account of the objects and events described in the message” (P. 469).

1.2.4. The Metacognitive View

According to Block (1992), there is now no more debate on “whether reading is a bottom-up, language-based process, top-down, or knowledge-based process.” Moreover, he added that the influence of background knowledge on readers should be accepted. Research has gone even further to define the control executed by readers on their trial to understand a text. This control is what Block has referred to as meta-cognition.

Carrel, Pharis, and Liberto (1989) explained that the term metacognition refers to a reader‟s understanding of any cognitive process. Metacognition in the context of reading consists of (1) reader‟s knowledge of strategies for learning from text, and (2) the control readers have of their own actions while reading for different purposes. In brief, metacognition refers to the awareness of one‟s own reading process. It means awareness of one‟s own understanding and non-understanding of reading strategies, and of monitoring comprehension during reading. Nuttal (1996) proposed that learners needed to understand how texts worked and what they did while reading. Meanwhile, they must be able to monitor their own comprehension. For instance, students are able to recognise that they do not understand a text, and then adapt a strategy that will improve matters.

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To conclude, in the context of reading, metacognition involves thinking about what one is doing while reading.

1.3. Models of Reading

With the increasing understanding of what reading is, many experts have paid much attention to the researches on the reading process. Three general models of reading processes are proposed by researchers. These three models are: Bottom-up, Top-down, and interactive models, which are constructed to describe the whole reading process.

1.3.1. Definition of a Reading Model

A reading model is a graphic attempt “to depict how an individual perceives a word, processes a clause, and comprehends a text” (Ruddell & Singer, 1985).

1.3.2. Bottom-up Model

The bottom-up model is related to the traditional view of the reading process. Norton (2007, p. 8) agrred with Landsberg, Kruger, & Nel (2005) that the bottom-up model begins with the sound of letters and progresses upwards from the single letters to the combination of letters that form words. In this model, understanding long texts is of less importance than the rules for words patterns and sounds.

Moreover, in the bottom-up model meaning is driven by text as it resides in the text. Readers read in a linear way through a step-by-step procedure which involves identification of letters, recognition of spelling patterns and words, and the processing of meaning from sentence level to the paragraph and then to the text itself.

Proponents of this model stated that the understanding process of what is being read will automatically occur if the readers are able to carry out the process successfully. Norton (2007,

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p. 8) explained that according to this model reading begins with the sound of the letter and progresses upward to the combination of letters which form words and sentences. He added that according to this approach letters are first learned and then words are analysed. The written words are then encoded in their sound components. He further argues that this form of reading is very abstract because the letter sound connections are abstract. In addition, the readers move from the text to its meaning. Letters and words are perceived, analysed and decoded and only after this process the reading material is comprehended. The reading skill is intimately linked to sound recognition and the reader‟s ability to make sound-symbol associations (Norton, 2007, pp. 8-9). He further explained the bottom-up model of reading as a text-based model because of its focus on the information provided by the text rather than the input from the reader‟s experiences or previous knowledge (Norton, 2007, p. 8).

Bottom-up emphasises the written or printed text. Comprehension begins by processing the smallest linguistic unit (phoneme) and working toward longer units (syllabus, words, phrases, sentences).

All in all, the bottom-up model emphasises a single-direction, part-to-whole processing of text. It can be illustrated as follows:

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STUDENTS‟ DIFFICULTIES IN READING LITERARY TEXTS 15 Meaning ↑ Pronunciation ↑ Blending ↑ Phoneme-grapheme matched ↑ Print

Figure 1.3. The bottom-up model.

However, this model underestimated the contribution of the reader. Moreover, it failed to recognise that students utilise their expectations about the text basing on their linguistic knowledge and how language functions. This model of reading has almost always been under attack for being insufficient and defective for the main reason that it gives importance only on the formal linguistic features, primarily words and structure. Consequently, researchers such as Goodman (1976) and Smith (1994) have introduced a new model, the top-down model, in order to cover the deficiencies of the bottom-up model.

1.3.3. Top-down Model

The top-down model was introduced by the cognitive theory, which emphasises the important role of the reader. In this model, great emphasis is given to what the reader brings to the text, such as prior knowledge and experiences (Goodman, 1976; Smith, 1994).

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According to this approach, comprehension begins in the mind of the reader, who already has some ideas about the meaning of the text. In other word, the readers sample the text for information and construct it with their world-knowledge, helping to make sense of what is written. The focus here is on the readers as they interact with texts.

Top-down reading models suggest that the processing of a text begins in the mind of the readers with (1) meaning-driven process, or (2) an assumption about the meaning of a text. From this perspective, readers identify letters and words in order to confirm their prior assumptions about the meaning of the text. Goodman (1976) stated: “…. The goal of reading is constructing meaning in response to text…. It requires interactive use of grapho-phonic, syntactic, and semantic cues to construct meaning” (Goodman, 1976).

In addition, in this model, concepts held in the mind of the reader trigger information during reading. Readers‟ knowledge and expectations of language as well as their prior experiences help them to comprehend the material. Proponents generally agree that comprehension is the basis for decoding skills, not a result; and meaning is brought to print, not derived from print (Goodman, 1976; Smith, 1994).

Landsberg, Kruger & Nel (2005, p. 140) stated that the top-down model aims at teaching learners to identify whole words and to read sentences without sounding the words. It also tends to help the readers become aware of the phonemes and letter-sound relations while they are reading. The top-down model is concept-driven- the reader being more important than the text being read; furthermore, according to this model, the reader has pre-knowledge which gives him/her an indication of its meaning. Readers‟ pre-knowledge, therefore, influences their understanding of the text, which is less important; the decoding action serves only to determine whether the meaning the reader assigns to the text is correct or not. Readers read complete sentences and consequently attach meaning to what they have read. Learners see

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words as a whole and learn to recognise them on sight. According to Landsberg, Kruger & Nel (2005, p. 164), teachers, using this model, employ a synthetic approach for reading instruction, such as the language experience approach. Norton (2007, p. 15) refers to this approach as the whole language approach. It processes from whole-to-part as illustrated in the following figure:

Post-experience, Expectation and Language intuition

↓

Selective aspects of print

↓

Meaning

↓

Sounds and pronunciation if possible

Figure 1.4. The top-down model.

However, according to Eskey (1988), the top-down model does not account for all the needs of students who are developing their reading skills. He further pointed out that, with many texts, the reader has little knowledge of the topic and cannot generate predictions. besides, this approach, which tends to reduce the importance of the perceptual and decoding dimensions of the process, is good only for a category of readers (strategic readers) for whom perception and decoding have become automatic.

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1.3.4. Interactive Model

The interactive model is a reading model that attempts to combine the valid insights of bottom-up and top-down models; it attempts to take into account the strong points of the bottom-up and top-down models and tries to avoid the criticisms levelled against each. The interactive model stresses that the meaning of a text is acquired by an interaction between the knowledge stored in the readers‟ mind and the written language information. Rumelhart and McClelland (1982) stated that the top-down and the bottom-up models of processing occur simultaneously and that most researchers agree that a combination of the two models is necessary for the successful teaching of reading and for reading comprehension. The model shows us that readers are not passive information receivers, but they are active information searchers and information re-constructors. He further argued that reading is a perceptual and cognitive process. All of the various sources of knowledge, including knowledge about the language patterns, syntax, vocabulary, semantics as well as context, come together to interpret what had been read. Second language readers are encouraged not only to use lexical, syntactic, semantic and common knowledge, but also to use both careful reading skills and reading strategies to finish different reading tasks or to fulfil different reading purposes. Therefore, the interactive reading model quickly becomes central to second language reading theory and is widely put into practice in the field of English reading teaching. The interactive process can be illustrated as follows:

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STUDENTS‟ DIFFICULTIES IN READING LITERARY TEXTS 19 Experiences Knowledge Emotions ↓ Reader‟s intentions ↓ Meaning ↑

Select unit of print ↑ Text ↑ Paragraphs ↑ Sentences ↑ Words ↑ Letters

Figure 1.5. The interactive model.

The above three reading models contributed in the process of having a further understanding of the nature of reading and also in providing a theoretical basis and guidance for learning and teaching reading.

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1.4. Techniques of Reading

There are three types of reading techniques, each is used for a specific purpose and they are: skimming, scanning, and in-depth reading.

1.4.1. Skimming

Skimming is a useful speed-reading technique, which enables the learner to cover a vast amount of material very rapidly. It is the process of quickly viewing a section of the text to get a general impression of the author‟s main arguments, themes, or ideas. This implies that this type of reading involves getting general sense of a given paragraph. “Skimming is a high-speed reading that can save time and help to get through lots of materials quickly”

(Mikulecky, Beatrice and Jeffries, 2004, p.38). This technique is most likely to be used when the task is merely to get an overall idea of the passage. Under this technique, learners read quickly to get the main points, and skip over the details. It is useful in getting a preview of a passage before reading it in detail or reviving understanding of a passage after reading it, so the essential aim of skimming is getting the general sense of a certain passage and helping in deciding whether a text is relevant for particular reader‟s purposes. Generally, learners are asked by their teachers to go quickly through a given text and try to get its general meaning. Teachers do so in order to help their students saving time and remembering well through reading only heading and first sentences of each paragraph or section.

In order to skim a text, it is required to follow these instructions:  Notice any picture, charts, or graphics.

 Start at the beginning of the reading and glide your eyes over the text very quickly.  Do not actually read the text in total. You may read a few words of every

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 Always familiarise yourself with the reading material by gaining an overview and\ or skimming before reading in detail.

1.4.2. Scanning

Scanning is typically reading quickly for getting some specific key terms and phrases by looking at the whole text. It is a skill that requires glancing or reading through moving our eyes quickly down the page seeking for specific words or phrases; readers do not read every word they look for the information they want to find. Mikulecky and Jefferies (2004), viewed that scanning is a very high-speed reading that the reader uses to look for a specific piece of information (p.25). Scanning tends to cause you to skip over a larger amount of material than skimming because when you are scanning anything that isn‟t what you are looking for you by pass and don‟t even attempt to retain most of it. Scanning can be done at 1500 or more words per minute in that, readers will skip over large sections of text without reading or

understanding them. („Scanning‟,n.d, pp. 1-2).

In order to scan a text, it is required to follow these instructions:

 After gaining an overview and skimming, identify the section(s) of the text that you probably need to read.

 Start scanning the text by allowing your eyes (or finger) to move quickly over a page.

 As soon as your eye catches an important word or phrase, stop reading.

 When you locate information requiring attention, you then slow down to read the relevant section more thoroughly.

 Scanning and skimming are no substitutes for thorough reading and should only be used to locate material quickly.

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1.4.3. In-Depth Reading

In-depth reading is the most involved and essential. The purpose of this technique is to gain a deeper meaning and comprehension of text, research detailed information for an assignment, and read difficult section of a text.

1.5. Reading Strategies

As students are progressing, they are asked to read increasingly complex informational and graphical texts in their courses. The ability to understand and use the information in these texts is the key to a student‟s success in learning. Successful students have a repertoire of strategies to draw upon, and know how to use them in different contexts. As a matter of fact, when language learners use reading strategies, they find that they can control the reading experience and they gain confidence concerning their ability to read in the foreign language.

Barnett (1989) and Cohen (1986) confirmed that based on consciousness, the term „strategy‟ has been used in the reading research instead of the term „skill‟. They expressed that skills operate at the semi-consciousness level, while strategies are defined as conscious intentional behaviour.

There are many different views about the definition of reading strategies depending on different scholars that is why there is no clear cut definition. According to Cohen (1986), reading strategies refer to the mental process that a reader consciously applies for accomplishing a reading task. According to Garner (1987), reading strategies “are generally deliberate, playful activities undertaken by active learners, many times to remedy perceived cognitive failure” (p. 95). Block (1986) defined reading strategies as techniques and methods readers use in order to succeed in their reading task. These methods include the way to conceive a task, what textual clues they present, the way in which readers make sense of what

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they read, and what process they follow when they do not understand (pp. 263-294). As Anderson (2003) explained, in order to achieve success, readers should be active in strategic reading, and thus learning how to use a range of different strategies to accomplish their tasks. Thus, reading strategies are the reader‟s deliberate goal-directed attempts to control and modify their efforts to decode texts, understand words, and construct knowledge. In other words, Reading strategies are effective techniques that are used by EFL learners to succeed in reading comprehension. On the other hand, the role of EFL teachers, who should be aware of the use of reading strategies and should teach learners on how to use these different strategies successfully, cannot be excluded (pp.1-33).

1.5.1. Research on Reading Strategies

Many researchers have investigated the use of EFL/ESL reading strategies among learners. For example, Poole (2005) used the Survey of Reading Strategies (SORS) to explore the reading strategies of 248 university ESL students from the Midwest and South of the United States. The results revealed that problem solving strategies were used with high frequency, while global and support strategies were used with medium frequency. Gorsuch and Taguchi (2008) found that Vietnamese college EFL students mostly used bottom-up, top-down, and cognitive models to assist comprehension in repeated reading sessions.

Phakiti (2003) studied Thai university EFL students; he found that those who frequently adopt metacognitive strategies had significantly better reading text performance. Mokhtari and Sheorey (2008) later explained that skilled readers of FL and SL were aware of these strategies. They were able to think about the reading process; to draw on planning, monitoring goal setting and assessment strategies; and to foster global skills as well as reading comprehension. High English proficiency students seem to use more and greater variety of strategies in the reading of English texts. Kummin and Rahman (2010) reported that ESL

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University students from Kebangsaan, Malaysia, who were proficient in English, often used a variety of strategies, but those who were less proficient had little knowledge of metacognition. They were not able to use appropriate strategies to evaluate their own reading comprehension or performance (pp. 145-150).

1.5.2. The Role of Reading Strategies

First and second language researchers have stressed the importance of training language learners to be strategic readers. For example, Paris, Lipson, & Wixon (1983) highlighted that learning to be a strategic reader can promote reading comprehension and “failure to be strategic in reading may result from either developmental inability or poor learning” (p.293). Block (1986) supported the idea that reading strategies help learners to execute a task identifying which textual cues they have to focus on, to gauge how to make sense of what they read, and to know what to do when they have problems understanding the text. The reading strategies involved in this process range from the simplest (e.g. scanning, guessing word meaning, previewing), to the most complex (e.g. summarizing, making inferences, and identifying tone).

According to Oxford (1990), learner strategies allow learners to take responsibility for their own language learning. They posit that these learning strategies help them to solve learning problems, and as a result, students may become autonomous language learners. Oxford (1990), furthermore, explained that strategies are the tools for active, self-directed involvement that is necessary for developing communicative ability. Strategies are not a single event, but rather a creative sequence of events that learners use actively. Anderson (1991) indicated that there is no single of processing strategies that significantly contribute to success in second language tasks. Besides, he also noted that strategic reading means not only knowing what strategy to use, but knowing how to use and integrate a range of strategies (p.460). Pressley et al. (1989) described that reading strategies were conscious instantiated and flexible plans readers applied

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and adopted to variety of texts and tasks. In short, reading strategies are tools which allow readers to be more actively involved in reading. Accordingly, the autonomy gained through the learning of reading strategies has been shown to be a powerful motivator.

1.5.3. Categories of Reading Strategies

The categories of reading strategies vary according to the point of view of different researchers. Global reading strategies and local reading strategies are generally accepted (Block, 1986). Barnett (1989) suggested that global strategies are top-down strategies and local strategies are bottom-up strategies. Mokhtari & Reichard (2002) defined three broad categories of reading strategies in terms of metacognition: problem solving strategies, which include functions and manners readers use when they meet difficulties in comprehending textual information. It refers to functions such as re-reading text to understand it and adopting one‟s reading rate to the degree of difficulty; supportive strategies, which present the use of producing outside reference materials from the text, such as notes in the margins, paraphrasing text information, or simple underlining of important information; and global strategies, which encompasses pre-reading activities, such as, activating prior knowledge, making text predictions, skimming text, using context clues, and using text structure and textual features. While many students are comfortable using support reading and problem solving strategies (especially asking for help, using the dictionary, and re-reading) many more students lack the competency to imply global strategies to read a text that is implicit in strategic reading (pp.249-259).

ESL/EFL reading strategies are further divided into metacognitive and cognitive strategies. In the aspect of metacognitive strategies, El-Kaumy, in 2004, divided SL/FL metacognitive strategies into three categories: planning, in which learners have a reading purpose in mind and read the text according to this purpose; self -monitoring, in which learners regulate the reading process and use the appropriate strategy at the right time; and self-evaluation, or the

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reform phase of the reading process, in which the reader changes strategies if necessary to control whether the purpose is reached or not, or rereads the text. Santrock (2008) (as cited in Chen & Chen, 2015) suggested that SL metacognitive strategies involved goal setting, selective attention, planning for organization, monitoring, self-assessing, and regulating. Singhal (2001) (as cited in Chen & Chen, 2015) defined cognitive strategies as those used by SL/FL learners to transform or manipulate the language, such as summarizing, paraphrasing, analysing, and using context clues. Akyel and Ercetin (2009) (as cited in Chen & Chen, 2015) maintained that cognitive strategies could assist readers in constructing meaning from the text.

Reading strategies have much in common with learning strategies; but readers deliberately use them to better understand and remember what they read. According to further research conducted, results showed that cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies and compensation strategies are the most frequently used strategies overall.

1.5.4. Reading Strategies Instruction

Reading is regarded as a complex process, and the prime objective of reading is comprehension. A dozen studies have proved that reading strategies are affective in promoting comprehension (Anderson, 1991; Carrel et al., 1989; Paris et al., 1983). Besides, considerable researches document that good readers are strategic readers who use more strategies than poor readers as they read (Dole et al., 1991). Moreover, when direct instruction is used in conjunction with explicit explanations, low achieving readers have been found to become more conscious of strategic reasoning. Therefore, teaching readers how to use specific reading strategies should be a prime consideration in the reading classroom (Anderson, 1991; Oxford, 1990). In addition, reading teachers should be aware of the need for students to become effective strategy users through explicit teacher modelling in reading instruction.

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Carrell (1998) stated that the difference between good and bad strategies can be illustrated in the use of these strategies consciously or unconsciously. In order to have effective second language (L2) reading strategy instruction, she suggested the involvement of two important metacognitive factors that can be applied in FL/L2 reading strategy instruction: knowledge of cognition, and regulation of cognition. The former guides readers to be aware of the reading strategies they use when reading. The latter asks readers to choose appropriate or more effective strategies that will help them here and elsewhere to have a better understanding of the text (pp. 1-20).

1.5.4.1. Empirical Research on the Effect of Strategic Reading Instructions in EFL/ ESL Contexts

Much research indicated that all students can benefit from strategy instruction. For instance, in order to investigated the effects of teaching reading strategies on reading comprehension for ESL learners, Zhang (1992) conducted a study to incorporate four (4) reading strategies into reading instruction. The four strategies are cognitive, memory, compensation, and test-taking strategies. The results indicated that the reading strategies instruction really help the students in the experimental group make more improvement in reading comprehension than the control group. However, there was interactive effect between the reading level of the reader and the teaching method used.

Another study was administered by Salataci and Akyel (2002) who studied the effects of metacognitive strategies instruction on Turkish learners‟ comprehension of both Turkish and English. The researchers wanted to see whether explicit teaching of metacognitive strategies could improve reading comprehension in Turkish EFL learners. Twenty university-level EFL learners in Turkey took part in the study. Pre-tests and post-tests of both Turkish (i.e., their first language) and English (i.e., their second language) reading were administered to the participants. The study also included observations, interviews, and think-aloud tasks. The

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students were trained in a three-hour class sessions for 4 weeks, on how to use metacognitive strategies. Results showed that the reading strategies used before and after the study were different: there was a decrease in the use of „local strategies‟ (e.g., focusing on grammar or word meaning and using a dictionary) for reading in both Turkish and English after the instruction; but there was an increase in use of global strategies (e.g., skimming for main ideas, predicting, and summarizing) in reading in both languages. Wichadee (2011), using a one-group pre-test – post-test study with 40 Thai EFL learners at a private university over 14 weeks, tried to examine the effectiveness of explicit instruction of metacognitive strategies. Based on the results of the study, after the instruction the reading score and the metacognitive strategy use of the three groups (i.e., high, moderate, and low) were significantly higher than those before the instruction, indicating that metacognitive strategies instruction might have been an effective means to improve students‟ reading comprehension and strategy use.

1.5.5. Selected Reading Strategies

How can educators move students from decoding to meaningful comprehension? Keeping the following research-based strategies in mind, can help teachers guide students away from sole reliance on asking for support toward more independent and strategic approaches to text.

1.5.5.1. Predicting

It is a general technique used in the reading process (Grellet, 1981). Smith (1994) also argued that prediction was viewed as the core and the basis of reading comprehension. Nuttal (1996) explained that if a reader understands a text he could predict with a fair chance of success, what is likely to come next and what is not. It requires the readers to use schemata about the way stories work, the way texts are constructed, and the way people tend to think. Therefore, making prediction is effective to promoting reader‟s activation of their background knowledge, which is an important part in the process of reading.

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1.5.5.2. Guessing the Meaning of Unfamiliar Words from Context

Smith (1994) argued that the best way to identify an unfamiliar word in a text was to draw inferences from the rest of the text rather than looking it up in a dictionary. This view differentiates top-down processing from bottom-up processing to deal with unknown words, emphasising the reader depends on the context to interpret words.

1.5.5.3. Making Inferences

It is the process of creating a personal meaning from text. It involves a mental process of combining what is read with relevant prior knowledge (schema). The reader‟s unique interpretation of text is the product of this blending. Vonk and Noordman (1990) stated that the writer would leave implicit the information that was supposed to be driven from the text by the reader. Therefore, it is seen that the reader has to draw upon his prior knowledge or his understanding of the context to deduce the implicitly-stated information embedded in the text. 1.5.5.4. Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing is a valuable learning strategy that learners should maintain for successful reading comprehension. Hurts (2003) stated, “In our efforts to help students better

comprehend text, we have found paraphrasing for comprehension to be an excellent tool for reinforcing reading skills” (p. 182). Paraphrasing involves readers retelling a sentence in their own words. This task is to generate a literal representation of a sentence read by substituting as many of the words and phrases in it (Munro 1998). In other words, to paraphrase is to turn a sentence you have read or heard into your own words, using your own writing style and your own vocabulary (different words, but same meaning). The paraphrasing strategy helps students improve their understanding and their memory through active engagement with the material. It is useful to paraphrase when the reader needs to put the ideas in a different order or rearrange them in order to emphasise what is important for his/her study, to simplify the language, or to clarify the ideas. Citation is always required when paraphrasing.

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For the paraphrasing process, accoding to the Writer‟s Handbook (n.d.) it is recommended to:

 Read the sentence or passage over and over until you really understand it.  Write out the meaning, either in outline form or conversational style.  Locate the main ideas and arrange the order you want to present them.  Write the paraphrase from your rearranged outline.

 Check to see that you have preserved the meaning and included all the ideas.  Edit as needed.

 Add a citation to give the source credit. “You can‟t make an idea your own simply by changing it into your own words. You still need to cite the source of the idea.”

1.5.5.5. Self-monitoring

Self-monitoring is the ability of the readers to be aware of their own mistakes while reading, through listening to their own voices and analysing what they are reading. Self-monitoring involves „metacognitive awareness‟, which is „knowing when what one is reading makes sense by monitoring and controlling one‟s own comprehension‟ (Harris & Hodges, 1995, p. 153). Readers who self-monitor know when their reading makes sense and when it does not. It teaches students to recognise when they don't understand parts of a text and to take necessary steps to restore meaning. Monitoring helps students learn to be actively involved and monitor their comprehension as they read and focus their attention on the fact that there may be reasons why the text is difficult to understand. Students can be taught to ask questions, reread, restate, and visualise making the text more comprehensible.

An Investigation of Students’ Difficulties in Reading Literary Texts

2017

An Investigation of Students’ Difficulties in Reading Literary Texts

2017

An Investigation of Students’ Difficulties in Reading Literary Texts

Dedication

Lamia

Acknowledgements

Abstract

List of Abbreviations and symbols

List of Tables

List of Figures

Table of Contents

General Introduction

1. 2. Theories of Reading