AN ANALYSI SOFBTRESSORB,COPING ST RATEGI ES AND LEIS URETIKE US AGEIN THEUlUIAN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLCKILO
by Cc ar o lynMate
A thesi s sUbmittelS
in par tial tulfilmentot the requ irementstor the Deqreeot Mastersot ElSucation
Depa rt1llen t of E4uo:ationalPsy c hol oqy Memo ri a l Uni versity orHe"founcSland
April, 199 1
St . John's Ne"rouruU and
Bibliolhi!Quc nallona le
do"""'.
Canadia n Theses~rvlc(' Servicedestheses canadien"cs
Theauthor hasgrantedan irrevocab le non- exclusivejceece allowingtheNationallibrary ofCanadatoreproduoe,loan,distributeorsell copiesofhislher thesisbyanymeansandIn anyfoonorformat,making\tit)'Jte sisavailabl"
tointe~ested ~rsons.~ .
The author retainsownership of the copyright in his/herthesis.Neitherthe theslanor substan tialextractsfrom Itmaybeprinted or otherwisereproducedwithouthis/her per- mission .
L'auteu r aacoordeunelicenceirrevocable et nonexdusivepermettarlt
a
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Acknowledgements
The writerwould li keto extendthought s of appreciation to the followingpeople:
Dr. Leroy Klas, thesis supervisor, whose professional insight,supp o rt , and directionwas invaluab l e thr ou gh out th i s st udy.
Dr. Pe t e r Chow, the s i s statistical consultant, for contributingadvice andinsights into the process of instru- ment construction.
Dr. Kevin Giles, colleague,who as s isted in translati ng statistical information intorelevan t and me a ni ng f u l terms.
Members of the researchteam who aidedin the development ofit e ms forthe inst rument.
Linda Waterton , for he r diligence in typing the manu- script.
De a n Til ley,for his indomitable conf i de nce in me andfor hi s tenacity in makingthe writer,write.
Mysi ste r sand brot hers , for takingthe "wo r k i ng on my thesisstage " in their stride.
Myparents,whos epatience, encouragement ,and love made this possible.
i i
AlI8tract
Thi s studyexa1line d children's st r essors , copi ngstr at- egies, and participat ionand intere s t in leisure t iPl.e pur- .;;uits. Quantita tivedata we r ecollectedthrough the adminis- trationof a self- re port questionna i r eto 69fifthand sixth grade rs in th r ee ur ba n schoo l s. Int ernal relia bil ity, const ruct and content validityot:the ins trume nt we r edeemed to be app r opri a t e. The most cOJll]llonly reported stre s s ors pertained to he alth , definingtheirown individuality fr o m interpersona l pressures, developing ade g r e e ofcompetence, and find i ngout where they fit wi th in thelarger sc hoo l and socia lcontext. In coping, the childrenre po rtedattemptsto find ways to make the ms elves feel be t tl~rwi thout hur ting eit h er themselves or ot he r peop l e . with some at tempt to cont rol what happe ns tothem. Socializing wasan importa nt componentof bothpart icipa t i onandinte r e st inextracurricu- lar activities. The resultsof the MANQVAreve al eda signifi - can tdiffe rencebetween gende randinterest inext rac u rricula r ac t iv iti e s,wit hfeJlales reporting a higherle v al of interest in lei suretille pur s u i tsthanmales.
iii
Purposesof the study Rationaleand significance The Stress Concept
Children and Stress 11
I
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements Abstract
List of Tablesand Figures
CHAP'rER
INTRODUCTI ON
Pa g e i i iii vii
Research ProceduresintoCh i l d r e n ' s stress 13
Definitions 14
Research Questions 15
Limitations 17
REVIE WOf RBLATEDLITERATOIl.3 19
overview of Childhood Stress 20
Sourcesand Effects 20
signs and Signals :n
stress and Schooling 36
Children Who Cope 46
Strategiesfor coping With Stress 46
social support 56
LeisureTime 58
iv
CHAPTER
'III RESEARCH DES'IGN , 'INSTRUKENTAT'IOR,
AND METHODOLOGY 61
ResearchDesign 61
Research Ins t rume nt a t i o n 62
The Instrume nt 62
Development 63
ItemGe ne r at i o n 65
pilotstudy of theQuestionnaire 67
Authenticity 69
Reliability 70
valid ity 73
Objectivity 76
Research Methodology 78
DataAna l y s i s 79
:IV PRESENTATION,ANALYS'IS ,AND INTERPRETATION OF THE DATA
Mean Scores and RankedOr d e r - stresso rsof Ch i ldren Biographical Variables-Stresso rs
of Children
MeanScores and Ranked Order- ChildrenIs coping Srategies Biographical Variables- Cop i ng
strategies
81
ai
.9
92
102
CHAPTER
Children 'sLeis u reTime Usage 10 3 Biograp hical Variables - LeisureTime 10 9
v SUMMARY,CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 112
Summary 112
Conclusio n s 113
Recommenda t io ns 116
Recommendations for FutureResearch 116
Recommendations for Action 117
References 120
Appendices 13 0
Appendix A - Questionaire (StudentScalesI- IV) 131 Ap p end i x B - Th e Four Componentsof"Cau ses and
Ma n i f e s t a ti o n s of St ress" (Student Scale I)
AppendixC - Ethir.:al Procedu resand Parent Permission Form
Appendix0 - Rotated Factor solutions
vi
140
141 147
ListofTables and Figures
'1'a.bl.es
2.1 Sources of childhoodstress 2.2 The Five StagesofYouth st ress 2.3 Summary of StressSynp tomsAccording to the
Literatu r e
3.1 Questionna i re ReliabilityCoefficients 4.1 Means, It e mMe a ns , and RangeoftheFou r Studen t
ScalesandFour Sub-Scalesof Scale I 4.2 Rank Order,Me an, andStandardDeviationof
theTenHighestRanke dIt e msfa %;' "Causes andMan ife s t ati ons of Stress" (StUdent Scale I)
4.3 Ran k Orde r , Me an , StandardDeviat ion, and Avera ge Me a n rof the Three Highe s t Rated Itemsfor EachSub-Sca leofScale I
"Ca us e s and Ma nifes t a t i on s of stress "
4.4 MeanScores forScaleI "Cau s e s and Ma nife sta tio ns of St r ess" by Biographica l Variabl es
4.5 Compariso nof Biograph ica l Variab l es on Depe nde nt Mea s ur e s : ScalesI- IV 4.6 Ra nk Or de r,Mean,and St a nda r d Dev i a t ion of
theTenHi gh e st Ran ke dItems for llCoping"
(StUd ent Sc a le II)
vii
Paq.
21 26
31 71
83
84
86
90
91
94
105 103 4.7 Mean Scoresfor Scale II"c op i ng" as
Mea su r ed by Biograph ical Variables 4.8 RankOrder,Mean,and StandardDeviation of
the Ten High estRan ke d It ems for "Leisure Time Usage - Partici pation" (student Scale III)
4.9 Rank orde r, Me a n, and Standard Deviation of the TenHi g1:':lst RankedIte ms for "Le i su r e Time Usage - Int e r e s tll (Student ScaleIV) 108 4.10 Me a n Scores for Scale III "Leisure Time Usage -
Participation "as Measuredby Biographical Variables
4.1 1 Mean Scores for ScaleIV"Lei s ur e Time Usage - Int e r e s t" as Measuredby Biographical Variables
Pigures
2.1 Continuo usInteraction of StressorsIn and Be tween the Three Systems
HO
HO
24 2.2 FiveDe fi n i t i on a l Modelsof Childhood stress 40 2.3 EmpiricalBreakdown of St uden t Stress and
Burnout
3.1 Matrixof Internaland ExternalFa ctors of Stress
viii
41
66
CHAPTER I Introduction
stress can no longer be regarded as solely an adult problem. Due to the impact of societal, familial, and educational expectations, normal, healthy children are encoun- tering stressful situations daily. Children are bombarded with more to learn, more to worry about, and moreCho ice s , temptations, and pressures. However, it isonly in the past ten years thatst r e s s research has started to focus on the area of childhood. Previously, children were considered to be simply a source of stress to aduLtie,the view often being that childhood is a carefree periodImmune from worry.
An investigation of childhoodstress,coping strategies, and retsure time usage willhelp educators to understandhew these factors affect children's social, emotional, psycho- logical, and intellectual development. This understanding could provide the foundation for (a ) the development of approaches to help children learn about their stress and (b) the developmentof coping strategies that will enable them to grow in t o well-adjusted adUlts.
~~.rposesof the study
The purposes of this study were: (a) to investigate the sources and degrees of stress in school childrent (b) to
examinetheir copingstrategies; (c) to exami ne the,"' l dren 's Le f evr-e time us a g e ; and (d) to examine inter- indiviCl.ual differences in st ress , coping strategies, andle isur e time us age, according to selectedbiographical variables.
Rationaleand significance
In our post-industrialculture,thtldegre eofst r ess and the numberof stressorsaffectinghuman life have often b..ac oe e excessive, if not harmful. stre s smay be anine v i t ab l e P<.'Tt of evervcnetslife , but stressrelated problemsshould no t be consideredinevitable(D'Aurora&Fimian ,1988 ; Sensor, 1~8 6). Today, stress is playingan ever increasing role in the lives of children, both positively and ne ga t i v el y. Anderson and Fulton(1987) descr ibe dso aptly that : "St r e s s is enexpected and normal part of humandevelopment; and stress marks the pa s s a g e of developmental milestonesthroughou t life " (p. 2).
Withoutstress, life couldnever be. The rhythms of living are formed by te ns i on and relaxation.
Tensionsor stress builds up, is resolved,is built up again, and resolved again . stress may be increased, fad Litated, or el iminated by events from ou tside of the individual. Peoplevary in thei r ability or capaci ty to deal wi th different kinds ofstr e s s. Th isquality of resiliencaapp~r -
entlyvaries frombirth, and may have a gene tic component; but itis also'like l y tha t this re sil- iency is fostered or reduced by environmental co nd i tion s - pa r t i c ul a rly in the ea:...ly years. (Anderson& Fulton , 1987, p,1)
To investigatestressfrom the perspective ofthe child is timely and necessary. El kind (198 1) pointed out that
"t oda y' sch ild has becomethe unwilling, unfnce ncedvictim of overwhelming stress- -thestress borne of rapid, be wi l d er i ng soc ia l change, and constantly ri s i ng expectations" (p. 3).
The successide a t i o n of oursociety results in stress being experienced at a very ear lyage andcont inui ng throughoutthe person'slife. Childrenin ourmodernsociety are maturing mo r e quickly. However, manychi l d r enare expoeed to confusing values and are not prepared to deal with adult -like crises (Duraj,1984). Childrenare less pz-epa redto cope withstress
"b e c au s ethe yhav e not ha dthe time and guidance needed to acquire a healthy sense of self-esteem and self-identity "
(Elki nd , 198 6 , p, 34).
Thehectic schedu lesof the work force has caused timeto become a preciouscommod i t y. One of the consequencesofthi s is the loss of private, unscheduled leisurebet wee nparents andch ild r e n.
The very cultureofch ild r e n , of freedomand fan- tasy and kids teaching kids to play ja c k s, is
collapsing under the weightof hecticfa mily sched- ules. [Children] underst and that they ar e being cheated out of childhood •.. Eight-year-olds are taking ca re of three-year-olds •.. The re is a se ns e that adu l tsdon ' t careabout them... :..;: may be that the same loss of leisure among parents produce s this pres sure for rapid achi e v eme nt and ove r - programming of childre n ..• If parents see parenting larg ely as an inve stme nt of their prec i ous time , theyma yendup viewi ng childre nt.S obj e cts to be improv e drathe rthan ind ivi dua l s to be nurtured at the ir own pac e. (Gibb s, ~_ 9 89,pp , 52-5 3)
Teachers and U.e school's or ga ni zat io nal structure rein force time urgency, reward promptness and encourage competitiveness,fosteringcumulative ,subtlesignsofst ress inchi ldr e n . Yet,as child r en mature i t bec omes incre a singly importantto developskillsinthe area s of: coope ratingwith others in a soc i al network , persu adingothers to adopt to their planof action, and enteringinto an activity invo l v i ng mu t ua l re spon s ibil ity (Maccaby, 1983) . If sig n if i c a nt adults in children's live sdo nottake action tohelp themcope with stres s , whe nthey punish or disap p r ove ratherthan atte ndto the chil d ren ' s natural responses to pe r ceivedthre a t , they activatea vicious cycle that may havese r i o us consequences fo r the childr e n's physic al, emot iona l, and intellectual
deve l opment (Johns&Johns, 1983).
Adu l t attitudes towa rd andaboutch i ldre ncanalso cre ate st ressfulsitua tionsfor the m (Bauer, 198 7) . The sacrificing parents who cont i nuo usly pla c e their chi ldre n 'sne e ds before th eirowncausethepo s s i bility of the pa r en t s rese nti ngthe children. Parentsvicarious lylivingthr ou g h the i r children ca n place the ad de dpxessuz-aof"me a s uring up". Some adults assumeunrealis t ic independence and super achievement from children today, put ti n gpressure on them and thei r pa r ents (Ivany, 1989; Gibbs, 1989).
Too many children ecdcv conform because they fear they won' tbe approvedor loved unless th e y live up to the expectat ions of some ext e rnal authority, like a parent (orteacher]. Wemust le a r ntole t them feel loved and valued for who theyare, not for what we wantthe m to be. (Schroeder , citedin Iv an y,198 9 , p, 10 0 )
The child's burden is twofold, wit h his or her fear of disappo inting the parent or teacher pa i r e d with a pos s i ble la c k of interestinth e activity. The parent who is unsureof a child'slovethereby refusesto say no and does not provide the opportunity for the child to cope with boundaries of acceptableand unacceptable beha vior with the pr e d i c t ab il ity of consequences (Bauer , 198 7 ) . The resi l iency of chi ldre n does not pre clude thene edto help themde alwi th a cri s i s or
fear (Bauer, 198 7).
Thedeve.Lcpm ert;of children 'seffective coping strategies is af fected by how the influen tial adul t s cont ro l their frustrationreactions and engage in competent problem-solving in theirlive s. Adults needto supportand encourage children in theirexpl o r a t i on of progressivesolutions. Pa r en t s ' and teachers' knowledge of theind i vid ualch ild is vital in the determination of whether acha ng ein behavi oror an increase inbehavioris an indicator ofach ildIs attempt to cope with stress. It is hop edthatthis studywil l :
1. Pr ov i d e valuab le inf orma t i o n that will expand educatorsI knOWledgeandunde r s ta nd ing of the role of child- hood st r ess and itspsychological, emot ional and beh avioral effects .
2. Makerecommendationsfor educator sto help children to betteridentifyand manage thestre s s in thei r livesand to applypreventative pr ogra ms and procedu reswhe repossible.
The st ressCo ncept
This st udy willemploy anint e r a c t i o na lcon cept ua liza tion of stres s . Th i s orientationenvis ions stress as "an inte- grated, multi-dimensional respons e involving at least the physiological , cog nit i ve , andbehavioral sys t e ms, occurring when people perceive the demands of a si t ua t i on to exceed theircop i ng response" (Hi eb ert , 1988, p. 226: Se l y e , 1976).
This orientation assumes that Ca) thoughts, feelings, and actions are allinterconnectedin the stress responseand (b) thatre ga r d l e s s of the ty pe of stress triggers or stressors- - biological, psychologica l, sociological, philosophical - - the body reecce the same wa y (Greenberg , 198 7 ). Whatever th e etrressorss nature, perceived stress elicits a physical re a c t i on and an associatedmentalresponse (Sc h a f e r, 19B7). The pituitary,thyroid, parathyroid , and adrenal glands, as well as the hypothalamusand other parts of the brain, are ece tvr-eed by stressors (Greenberg, 19 B7 ). Ru tte r (1983), in the examination of physiological responses to stressors, describes the neuroendocrine activatio nas appear i ng to be connectedtothe individualISperceptionof the eventand how he/she respondsemotionallyto the situation. Thus,emotional and intellectualstress are closely interrelated with physical stress (Schafer, 1987).
In most definitions of stress (Rubenzer, 19 8 6; Arent, 1984; Duncan, 198 3;Schultz, 1980 ; selye, 1976), behavior is not mentioned;yet, behavior is closelyrelatedlo thestress response. According to Schafer (1987),behavior is connected to the stress response in the fol lowingsways:
L Mental and physlc.:J.l arousal often expressed inbe ha v i o r s.
ii. Behaviors suchas exercise and self-disclosure can helpprotect against the out -of-controlstress re sp ons e.
iii. B"·~d.vioris used to cope withstressors. Iv. Behavior is used to reac t to distress, either constructively or destructively. {p, 28)
Accordingto Hiebert (1988), perception plays a key role inthe interactional model of stress: "Re ga r dl e s s of the accuracy of t,he person's appraisal of the situationand the coping resources available, a perceived inequity between demand and coping resources produces an increase in stress level " (p. 228). The factors of familiarity and predi ct- abilityof an event are more influential than the intensity (Maccaby, 1983). Hiebert (1988) describes the stress response from the transitory and chronic perspectives as:
[t r a ns i t or y stress] ... the person encounters a demand, reacts, perceives the coping attempts as beqinning to work, or the demandcharacteristics as abating,and the systemreturns to normal with very li t t l e harm done to the person'sbody ... Chronic stress develops when individuals are in intenselY demanding situations for prolonged periods of time or if there is repeated activation of the stress response. (pp. 228-229)
"Stress" is being used more frequently to describe a circumstance which motivates and incapacitates us in our modea , society; as a concept it has also found "persistent, widespread usage in biology and medicine" (Mason, 1975, cited
in Rutter, 1983, p , 1). Research over the past 40 years has demonstrated connections of stress with many il lnesses and diseases, including heart problems, eteveeeabloodpressure, ulcers,depression, bedwetting, stuttering,and cancer (Kroll, 1986; xuoeen , 1984 ; Duncan, 1983). According to winters and winters (1986) "stress, which can be either threatening or pleasurable, causes a reported one thousand chemical and physical changes in the brain and body" (p.151). stress is known to stimulate the production of certain hormones while suppressing others (Greenberg, 1987). When stress is pro- longed, the persistent elevation of some hormones and the suppression of others could be harmful to the body- -"75to 90t of the ills that afflict us are due to stress" (Winters&
winters, p, 152).
An important point to conceptualize is thatstress is not all negative; quite the contrary--stresscan be an integral and positivepart of daily life (Sensor, 1986). Without a certain amount of stress, there would be little in the way of constructive activity. Stress helps us to respond quickly and strongly to physical emergencies, helps us realize potential over a per-Led of years in athletics, academics, and occupa- tions, sometimes drives us to accomplish things we might not have otherwise attempted, adds zest and variety to daily life and calls attention to the need to resolve a situation of disharmony with others (Schafer, 1987).
To summarize, stress is sUbjectively experienced by the
10 individual and is communicated interpersona llyin a variety of ways and for numerous reasons. There is an optimalamount of stress- -nottoo muchandnot too little--thatis healthyand prophylactic. stress can be conceptualized as a multifarious collectIonof events that is affected by the child'spercep- tion of and reaction to thoseevents. There is no event which is stressful for allpeople at all times under all conditions.
It occurs asa resultof a threat to the pezsonra being,self- esteem, or identity. Stress can become a secondary but increasingly h1portantfeature that will act to exacerbate a behavioral or emotional problem.
The stress experienceisa whole personexperience involving mind, body, and behavior.. . The stress experience is intricately interwoven with lifestyle --paceof life, pace of change,beliefs and values, scope and quality of re l a ti ons h i p s , degree and types of involvement in surrounding community, health habits and perceptions. (Schafer, 19B7,p. 15)
11 Childrepandstress
stress events in childhood,as in adultlife, mayserve to provide at least a short -termdifficulty (Ba u e r, 1987 ; Rutter,1983). The nature of stress reactions to events and the effective coping strategies an individual draws upon changes with age. As theGovernment of Canada (1980, citedin Csapo, 1989) stated ,
Children are not usually adversely effected by a single source of stress, but circumstances may conspire to overwhelm families with misfortunes. Child renare much more likelyto develop behavior problemsand intelligenceand achievementdeficits when they are sUbjected to several differenttype s of stress at the same time. (p. ii)
A comp lex int e r a c t i o n of the eventwith (a) childtsexpecta- tions , (b) the number of otherstressors impacti ng on the child, (c) the time spanbetween stressful events, (d) past experiences, (e) current coping patterns,and (f) the demand for readjustment, will affect how a child handles stress (sensor, 1986).
Research on stress with adults providessome basic trends to examinewith children. One of the important differences with children is th a t their developmental level affectsthe unde rstandingof how their bod i e s arereacting to stress, as
12 wellashow to de a lwithst ress(Johns&John s, 198 3 ) . Also, chi l d ren la ck the contr ol of the i r l ive s that many adul ts enj o y (Baue r,1987 ). Asch i ldren ma t u r e,theirconceptua l iz - atio nof the adultauthorit yfigure changes froman obedient atti t ude- -reliance on externa lguidance that actsas a but fer aga i nst vulner ab il ityto st ress- - t oa gr ad u al shift towards re l i an c e onself-regulation an d peer relationsh i ps (HaCc a by, 19 8 3)•
Theself is progressivelydefined inte rmsof ase t of aspi r atio ns, ideal s, competencies and ego investments . Thechild is muchmore vulnerabl e in the inve s t ed tha n no ninvested regio ns •. . with incre a sing age, children make inc r e a s i ng use of socialco mpa ris on in ev a l uatingtheirown per form - ance••. wi t h age, there is increasingsensi t iv ity ..., and understanding of others to the self.
(Maccaby, 198 3, pp. 226-227)
Self-esteem, ti meus ag e , and locu s of cont ro l areinf l uen c e d bythede v elopme ntandmainte na nceof peer ac c e pt an c e,thereby causing fur t he r indiv i dua l i za t i on of exper iencedet ireescxe, The risks involved in childhood stress aregreate r ....he nthe st ress is ongoing oroverwhelming; theensui ngco nsequences can include dev i a t i on s fromnormaldevelopment and emotional or behavi oraldi f ficult i e s (Shi er , 1984).
13 Res earch Proged urellintoChildre n 's st r. "
Analytic re search inv olving compari s ons of types of child hood stressorsand coping strategiesis relatively recent (Paterno , 1987 ). consequently,thereis no widely accepted instrument to measure daily ha s sles and coping strateqies (El vood ,1987;Paterno, 1987). Accord ingtoEl wo od there is a need tode velopaninst ru ment whichcan be easily completed by thechi l d re n themselvesto identify andasses s theircoping st r a t e gi e s fr om thei r perspective . Th e r e are only a te w studiesthat employ a se lf-report me a s ure with schoolchildren (Yama mot o ,Soliman, Pa rsons&Davis,1987 ; Yama mot oIiByrnes, 1987 :Webb, Va n d eve r eIiott, 1984; Philips ,1978 ). Ac c o r d i n g toYamamoto and Byr.ne s (1987). "school child r en in upper elementarygradescanassessthest r essf u l nes s of eventsina reli a bl e anddiscriminating manner, re g a r dl e s s of an actual expe r ienc e or the lackthereof" (p. 117)0 Th is isa premise forthe development of aself-r epo r t ins trumen t to investigate the causesand manifestationsof st r e s s, coping strategies, locu sof control ,time management, and t ime us a gein thedaily lives of children. Most of there s ea rch onch ildhood stress has focusedon lifeevents ,yet everyday stress o r s can have a
"mul t ipl i e r effect";thus, dailyhassles maybe major sources ofst re s s for children (Band&Weisz, 1988)0
Refer to Ch~pterIII for furtner details on research proceduresin childrentsstress0
14 Definitions
stress: "a n integrated, multi-dimensiona l response involving atle a s t thephysiological,cogni tiveand be ha v i oral systems, occur ring when people perc e i ve the demands of a situationto exceed the i r coping response"(Hiebert,1988, p. 226).
stresso r: any in t ernal or extern a ldemand onth e mindor body (Schafer, 1987).
coping: a patternof cognitive orbeha v i or alre s pon s eto demands, in which occurs search, effort, direct action and Shaping of events and/or atti tudes; encouragesa feeling of be i ng capable, calm, confidentand able to meet a challenge, regardlessof theoutcome successleve l (Saunders&Remburg, 1984; Schafer, 1987).
Biographical Variables: (a) gender - male and female;
and(b) grade- five and six.
Daily Hassles: minor, recu rre n t, daily cvenee which oc c ur oftenbut are notlik e l yto alter the structureofthe child 'sworl d (Elwood, 19 8 7 ) .
External Loous of Control: the belieftha t What ha ppens to the pe rsonis dueto luck, chance, fate, or powerfulothers (Nowic k i, 198 4 ) .
Internal Locus of Control: th e belief that one is able to influe nc e events and one's re a c t i on to events (Scha fe r , 1987)•
15
pe r c e ption: the individual's personal assessment of
demand intensity and coping adequacy in determiningthelevel ofstre s s experienced (Hi eb e r t, 1988).
BcaleI: "Causes an d Manifestations of stres s" : five- point Likert Scal eformattoas ses s cognit ive, behavi oral and physiologicalcomponent s ofstre ss thatare school, peer and self-related in the areas of:
1. intrapersonal (health, attitudetowards sel f ) 2. interpersonal (interaction with others , at ti t udes toward others)
3. time management (us eand organizationof time) 4. locus of cont ro l (inte rnal or external)
ScaleII: "Coping": five-point Likert Scale formatto
asses sthecopingstr ategiesof thechild r enin the samp l e.
Scale IXX: "Lei sureTime usage - - Part icipat i o n": fou r - point Likert Scale format toas ses sthe partici pationle velin 18selected extracurricular activ i t ies .
ScaleIV: "LeisureTime Usage - Interest": three-point Li ke r t Sc a l e format to asses s the interest level in the 18 se lect e dextracur r icul ar activities .
Research Questions
To explore ch ildho o d stressors, coping st r a t e g i e s , and lei su re time, answers we r esoug h t to three ge neralquestions.
Forpurposes of dataanalysis, these gen eralquestionswere
16
subsequentlydividedintosixteen researcb questions.
aeneral Question 1: Wbat are the lJtrClllllors cbi14 r eb experience on • dailybas i s inandout ofsch ool 'l
1.1 What is the mean factorscore for Scale 1 (Causes and Manife stationsof Stress)?
1.2 What is theme a n scorefor each ofthefourspe c ifi c catego riesof Sc aleI: (8) Intrapersonal(health and attitud-
inal); (b) Interpersonal: (e ) Locus ofCont r o l; and (d) Time Management?
1.3 What are themeansc o res of the tenhighestrated items in Scale17
1.4 What arethe mean sc ores ofthethreehighestrated
items in each of thefou r specificcateg ories of ScaleI? 1.5 What are the mean sco res for genderand grade in ScaleI?
1.6 Isthere asi g ni f i c a nt differencebetwee n themea n scores for genderand grade in ScaleIi'
General Question 2: What are the copinqstrateqies of the ohildreninthe samp le?
2.1 What is the meansc o r e for Scale II (Coping)? 2.2 What are the mean scor e s of the tenhighestrated items inScale II?
2.3 What are the meanscores for gender andgr a d e in Scale II?
2.4 Is there a significantdifference betweenthe mean scores for genderandgrade inSca l e II?
17 Gen6ral Qu e s tion 3: How 40childrenbetweenthe agesot 10an d 12 us e theirleisure tim.?
3.1 What is the meansc or e forScaleIII (Leisure Time Usage- Participation)?
3.2 What is the mean score for Scale IV (Leisure Time Usage- Interest)?
3.3 What are the meanscores ofth e tenhighestrated items in scalesIII andIV?
3.4 How are the children'sparticipation and interest levels in .::xtracurricular activities related?
3.5 What are the mean scores for qender-and grade in Scales III andIV?
3.6 Is there a significant difference between the mean sc o r e s for gender and grade in ScalesII Iand IV?
1. Inthe samplese l e ct i on flrocedures, the researcher didnot control the number of school childrenaccording to the biog raphica lvariables of genderand grade.
2. Thisinvestigationoccurred duringone point in the school year. The factors studied may vary during different times of the year for a respondent. Childrenwere requested to answerthe questionnaire items inte rms of"t he present time".
3. The listof causes and manifestationsof ch ildhood
18 stress, coping strategies, and time usage may not be exhaustive one. Variations in item generation may have occurred if different people had been involved in the s e procedures.
4. The self-report format of the instrument to investi- gate causes and manifestations of childhoodstress, coping strategies, and time usage has inherent limitations. It may not take into account that individual children may be unskilled at the task of self-analysis and may at times be unmotivated. Different children may interpretthe meaningsof the items differently and they may develop a compliantor sociallydesirable response set.
5. Only grade five and six students in anurban setting were includedin the sample.
19 CRAPTER II
Revi.w of Related Litar.ture
The primary focus of the present investigation vas definitive in terms of the identification of everyday stres- sors, coping strategies, and extracurricular activities of children. ouring the process of research the investigation explored a particUlar approach--children 'sself-report - -asa means to measure stress, coping, and leisure time. Research litera t u r e ....as re v i e we d in thre e areas. First, li t e r a t u r e relat i ng to childhoodstresswas initially reviewe d, elements specificto the school settingwere then examined, followedby literatu redealing with strategiesand factors of children's coping. Finally. literature pertaining to children'suse of leisure time was studied. The format of this review is outlined below:
Overview of Childhood Stress Sources and Effects Signs and Signals Stress and School ing Chi ldrenWho Cope
strategies for coping With Stress Social Support
LeisureTime
'0
OVerviewot Cb1l0hoo4 Btre.,
sources and EtC-ctH
Greene (19 88). in a studydesignedto investigateearly adolescents' (f o u rth to sixth gra de) perc eption of st ress events and ran geot reactivity, reported deathof a pet as receiving the highe st frequency. followed by death of a relative , grades, and illness/ injury. The st re s s event s genera t ing the hi g he s t means for disruptive impacts and affective respo nses were grades, exams , and home wo r k. In termsof stressorsby category, per s on al loss accounted fo r 29' , schoolconte xt1M:,and peer-related12\:. Two signifi- ca n t differenc e sregardingschool-relatedet.reesorswerethat fema l e s de s c ribed a higher inc ide nc e , and the incid e nce of thistype ofst ressor inc r e a s e dwith the gradelevel forthe total sampl e. Gree ne point e dout tha t the impa ctof sch o o l- related stre s sors disrup t ed generalrout i ne, peer rel at ion- ships, sle ep patterns, eating hab its, sel f-es t e em, and fin a lly, funct i on inginthe schoolcontext. Fe ma l e srepo rte d a higher incidenceofst r e s s o r s relatedto peersthan did the ma l e s.
Pate r n o (19S7) summarizedthe sourcesof childhoodstress asdes cribe d by other writersinthe following table (see pp. 21-22)•
21 Table 2.1
Sourcesof Chil dhoo d St.ress(Paterno, 1987, p. 3)
HQn..LcUll§..U
ecologica l (l ivingconditions) soc ioeconomicstatus catastrophes and terrors
familyevents (birth, los s , handicap, etc.) spouseproblems (separa t ion,divorce , etc.) mental illnessof parents
ineptparentingpractices
Saunders (1984)
problems at home; divorce, chronic illness, racial differencesin theneighbourhood
pressureto perform separation fromthe family peer pressure
body changesandsexual identity
Elkind (1984 19 8 6 )
family change: emotional overload re s po n s i bility overload change overload peer pressure
academic and schools events contemporarymedia accidents
Aren t (1984)
stress in school: grading campetitiOD classroommanagement
(t abl e continued)
"
methods of discipline child/teacher relationships peer relationships specialproblells te a c he r personalities
Chandler (1985)
Normal Developmental Stress: meetingre al i ty demands differences in ad u l t end
childper c eptions Endemicstress: social tre nd s affectingpare nt ing
socialtr e nd s affecting sex role s and identity
specific stress (crises): divorce hospitalization barning problems
Given thefact thatmo s t of these stud I e s were based upon adult perceptions , Paterno (19 87 ) conducted a st Ud y to invest i ga t e thestre s s o rs and copingst r a t e gies as perceived byschool children themselves. The coping componentof th is studywill also be discussed unde r the theme "Childre n Who Cope" later in th i s chap t e r . The sample consisted of 94 primary ch ildren (g r a de s 1 and 3) and 207 mi d d l e school st ude nts (grade 5to 8) who were pr e d omi na t ely cau casianand of middle socioeconomic status in eastern Kentucky. The results, thro ug h themeans of the nul lhypot htlsisof equality,
23 were high frequency le v e l s of stress for school wo r k and achievement I pe e r relationships; los s of personal space, comfo rt, or timer in j uryor 105S; and discipl ine . Inthe stresstypes ofphys i c al injury/ loss,loss of persona l space, comfor t, and tinle , and discipline, the r e was a si g n i fic an t de c r e a s e inmeanfrequencies from thepr i ma ry toth e middle school grades. In schoo l work and achievement and peer re l ati ons hi ps , there was a significant gain in the me a n frequencies from the prima.ryto middleschool stude nts.
In an interview study, Di br e ll and Yamamoto (1988) investigatedthe concerns of 46 childrenaged between four and ten years. The cl ustersthat emergedwere: (a) beinglost or abandoned; (b) hospitalizationr and (c) parenta lconflict .
O'Brien(1988)described stress as a creeping phenomeno n in the lives of childrendue to: (a) parents experiencing high le v el s of stress; (b) pace of life intod a y' s society;
(c) pressure to succeed;and Cd) fear and uncertainty .One of the perspectives Anderso n andFul to n (1987) descri be dinth e i r paperChildren Under stress, was theecologyof stressas can be visuallydepictedin Figure2.1.
The framework for viewingyouth stressproposedby Reed andCar lson(1987)conceptua lizedthe stress re spo ns e cyclein five stages: shock and denia l,anger, depressionand detach- ment,dialogue ,and acceptance. These stages occurduringthe loss of cont ro l phaseof ama j or change or st ressexperience.
Chi ldrenmay movebackand forthbe'tvoen the stages, but th ey
Figure 2.1
24
EXOSYSTEM:
I. FamilySocial Networks;
2.LivingEnvironments -neighbourhood - school,daycare;
3.Parent EmploymentStatus;
4.Family Events;
5. Change inReli giousAffiliation.
MACROSYSTEM: I.CulturalValuesandBeliefs:
2. CulturalCognitions-economic, political.moral.
Continuous Interaction of Stressors In and BetweentheThree Systems{Anderson &Fulton, 19 8 7 )
25 wil l progre s s tothe recoveryof control. Reed and Car lson (1987) ex pla inedthety pic a lre a c t i on s of eachstageas sho wn inTa ble 2.2 (p. 26 ).
Chandle r 's (1984) four fa c t o r s of a mul ti -dimensio nal assessment of children's stress wa s cited as the structure Karr and Johnson (1987) used to gu i de the eval uatio n of in strumen t s. Th efourfa ctors and the correspondi nginstru- ments were:
1. "i d e nti f i c a tion of stressorsin the child's life" - coddington's (19 72 ) LifeEy e nts - Children.
2. "t he child's perception of those stressors " - Philip's (197 8 ) Children'sSchool Questionnaire.
3. "t he child 'sbehavioral adjustment" - Chandle r's (1983)stressResponse Scale.
4. "as s es sment ofthe impact of stressor on the child 's health , school and social functioning" - no inst rument was gi ven due tothe school psychologist'sfamiliaritywith thi s
Elkind(1986)describedth ethr e ebasic formsof"sur f a c e stress "and the symptomsofmiddlegradersto each specific fo rm. st ress situation s th a t are both foreseeab le and availab le (Type A) include opp o rtuni t i e s to experimentwith alcohol and sex, avai lab il ity of drugs, and in tur n the SUbsequent peer pr e s s ure. Anxie tywasthe commonreactionto these situa t ions. Type B stress situat ions that are nei t he r foreseeable nor avoidablewould be alos s fel tthrough pa rent
26 Table 2.2
Theriv e stagesof You t h stress (Re e d ' Carbo n, 198 7 . p.3)
Stage Internal Feelings External signs
Shock and denial
Anger
Depression and Detachment
Dialogue
Acceptance
Dazed, dull look; refuses to admit a los s has occurred:may appear overlyinvolved.
May become upset easily: may behave aggressively; seems more agitated.
Headaches and stomachaches;
eating and sleeping disturb- ances; sadness and crying;
unable to plan, reason, or be logical:very tired;diminished social interactions; attempts to protect self from further loss.
Starts talking to trusted people: asks, "Wh a t ' s going to happen to me now"?
Feels more control; ha s mostly
"g o od" days;takesri s ks again ; more social interests.
27
separation/divorce, moving to a new neighbourhood, or acci- dent aldeath of akn own young person. Depressionwas citedas the prev alentsymptom of Type B stre ssors. Tests,writtenand oral rep o rts, and term papers that cou l d be foreseeable but una voi d a blewereclassi fiedas Typ eCst r esso rs. The symptoms of Ty pe C str ess ai tiuat.Lonswould be projectedange r , finding fault, avoidingresponsibility ,or "do-nothingresponse."
In an explorato rystud yof stre s sorsand s}'1l'lptoms of 60 st ud e nt s (grad e s 1 to 12) , Omizo, ont ac and Suzuki (1988) fou nd that children of different levels ha ve simil a r and yet different kinds of stre sso r s . The st res s ors fo r elementary sc hool childrenwere: (a) family problems--relationshipswith parents andsi b lings; (b) feelingdifferent--inferiority; (c) school-rela t e d problems--per f o rma nc eco nc e r n s , expectations, and homework; (d ) dis c ipline--fe arfulnes s of puni shment and un f a i r,inc on sistentpun ishment ;and (e) generalanxiety--the feeling of notbeingin co nt r ol. St r e s so r s of inte rme d i a t e studentswere: (a) general adolescentproblems of adapting to the i r developmen tal cha ng es ; (b) peer pressure; (c ) family problems--pare nts not unde rstanding, and sibling relation- ships; (d) not fe e l ing in control; and (e) sc hoo l - r e l a t e d problems--relevan c eofschool,pe r f orma nc e concerns,interac- tion swith others,and transitionbet we e nsch ool levels . High sc h oo l students mentionedsuch str e s sorsas de cisions abo ut future plans,choosingcourses rel a t e d to ca r e e r aspirations , teacher-studentrelationships ,peerpressure,subs ta nc e abuse,
28 and family problems. The symptoms of stress were categorized as psychological, physiological, behavioral, and emotional and are described in the following section--Siqnsand Signals.
In an on-goinglongitudinal stUdy of stress and coping in childhood, Wertlieb, Weigel and Feldstein(19B7) concluded:
1. A highly significant positive relationship exists between stress and bf1havior symptoms for t.ot.nlife events and daily hassles.
2. The strongest relationship between s-u-eas and behavior symptoms was demonstrated for undesirable life events.
3. The conceptualization of daily hassles for the measurement of stress explained 10 to 18% of variance in behavior symptoms. Given this observation, daily hassles and behavior symptomatology, relative to major life events, needs to be seriously examined when measuring stress.
4. Social support as a buffering or moderating role in the relationship between stress and illness was evteent , with a strong inverse relationship between a family's social support and child behavior symptomatology.
swearingen and Cohen (1985), in a study designed to investigate the etiologic role of negative life events in the maladjustment of seventh and eighth grade students, found noteworthy discrepancies in the findings. Cross-sectional regression analyses revealed a positive relationship between negative life events and psychological distress whereas,
29 ac co r d i ng toprospectiv e ana l yses, negat ive events were not pre d i c t ive of distr e s s. The st ress-bu f fe r ing effects of positiveevents we r e eupper-ee-cbythi s stUdy. Theeffects of on- goingstre!'\sfulfamily pr oc e s s e s and de v elo pmen t al changes were cite d asthe variab lesthat maypos s ibly af fec t adoles- cents ' perspect i ve ,rat hertha ndiscret e events. This study provide s empirical supp o rt that the traditiona l life even ts approach, given its re l a tive l y poorpredictive ability , may not be the most appropria temeansto st udyadolescentsI and children'5 maladjustment.
Yamamoto and Byrnes (1987) conducted a study of 548 children(firs t, third,andsixt hgrade)to assess whether the childre n 'sgeneraldevelopmenta lstatus affected theperc ep- tionof unpleasantness of a life event. primarychdLdre nrs as s e s s me nt s were in general agreementwith upper elementary throughjuniorhi gh st ude ntsin"l os i ng a parent"and "go i ng blind " be i ng ra nk e d high while"new baby sibling,""going to dentist,IIand"givingclassreport"receivedthelow rankings. Yamamoto and Byrnes noted appreciab le variations in the perceptionsof severalindividual expe r iences:
1. "g e t t i nglost" and "s en ttothe principal"decreased in the le v el of perceivedstressful nessbetweengradesthree and si xr
2. "ha v ing anoperat ion" decreased between gr a de s one andthree;and
3. "s us pe cte d of lyi ng" and "move to new school"
'0
inc r eased withthefr equencyof experienceand gradele v e l.
Yamamot oet a1. (19 87 ) repo rted thattheli feevents of 1814 pr i mary Au stra l ian , canadi an, Egypt i an, Ja panese, Fili p ino,andAmericanchildrenhad anoverallsi milarity in their self-repo rt ra t in gs of hoW' unpl e a s ant and upsett ing these experi en c e s were. "Los ing a pare nt"was rankedasth e lIlost stre s sful, fo llowedby"going bli nd,""parental figh ts,"
"a cademicreta in me nt,""we t ting inclass, ""caught in thef t ,II
and "s u sp e c t e d of lying.II The lea st stressfu l exper ience s we re 'Igoing tothe dent ist, ""gi v ingclassreport," and"new ba b y sibling . " This stUdypcov Ldedempi r icalsu p po r t for the conce p t of "cultu reof chi l dh oo d "as see nfr om theinsideou t bychildre n across differ en t cmeur es,
Thestudy by SilllJDons. Burgeson , Carl ton-Fo r d and Bly th (1987) wasdesigned to examine th e "sy nc hroni c ity"of early adolescen t life tra ns iti ons as it jeo pardizes th e chi l d's ability toadjust . Grad epoin t average (GPA)wasfound tobe sig n ifica n tl y neg ati v e inre l at i ontomar i ta l disruptio n . CPA and extra curri cular participati o n decreased for males wh o exper i encedmo rechangeswithi n a shor t pe r i od of time. girl 's sel f- e ste emand ext racurri cularpart icipa tion lowere d assh e ex pe r i enced mul tiplelife ch anges. The effe ct of CPA wascurvaline ar for females, indicatingthat after sometime , eachSUbs eque ntlifechange ,whether it was sch o o ltr a ns i t ion , ons et of pubertyI or dati ng.madetheoverallcop ingprocess lIor e di ff ic ult.
Jl
Si gnsandsign ala
Thesignsan d signalschIldren sendto communicatestress inthe irli v e s occur inva rious ways and Lleirre acti ons .a y bedifferentat different times. Anawareness ofthe se stress SY1llptOlllS(refer to Table2.3) would help parentsandedu ca t ors intheir at tellpts tofacilitatethe developmentof ef fective copingst rategies forchil dre n.
Table 2.3
summaryor stress8ymptoMSAccordingtothe Literature
pickey and He nd e rson 09 8 9 1
heada ch es stomachaches Doodswings belligerentbehav i or
p'Auramand FiRian ()9 8 8 )
Emotional Response s:
anxiety insecurity pre s s ure vul nerability angry inschool frustrated mixed up ups et ne rvous
(t a bl e continued)
Biobehavioral Fa t ig u e Manifestations : exte nd e dduratinn ofstomachpain dizziness
fatigue defensiveness crying
breakdownof friendships Behavioral Manifesta tio ns :
get tinginto fights talkingbackto teachers piCkingon otherstudents talking in class playingthe class clown Physio logical Ma n i f e stati on s:
he ad a c he s stomachaches
£eeJ.1n9siCkin one'sstomach
headaches stuttering eating proDle ms out-ot-control cr ying sleeping problems pain inne c k general ti r e dn e s s stomach upset dry mouth ort.nroat;
ne rvo usbe h avio r shortnessof breat h dizziness/weakness grinding te eth irritability restless/excess energy depression
32
(tab lecontinued)
33
Qmizo omi zo and Suzuk i (l988) depre s s ed
impulsive aggress ive antisocial self-destruc tive ir r i t ab l e Kersey (1980)
wetting the bed biting nails
complainingof stomachaches andhe a da c h e s havi ngnightma res
Falk andFaI t (19 8 6 ) he a d ac h e s stomacha ches actingout dropp i ng grades aeseneeersu
Rubenzer (1986)
Type Apers o nal i t ych a r a cteri s t i c s described as:
ten s i on
extreme psych omat i c il lness - st omachaches, he a d- aches, depre s s i o n
~andMi l le r (1984) he ad a c h e s
schoo l proble ms - re pe at i ngone or more grades, marked changes in gra de s, diffiCUlty keeping up with assi g nments
J4 Honig (1986)described thebehavioralcharacterist icsof young children who experiencehigh levels of stress in th e followingexten sive li st :
Doesn' t respond to friendlycaregiver overtures.
Daydreamsfrequently.
Hasgr av e , solemnface;ra r e l y smilesor laughs (check firstfor iron deficiency;see Honig andoski, 1984).
Has frequent pr ol o nge d temper tantrums.
Cries a great dealfo r months after ent ryinto group care (even thoug h careefvers have been gentle and responsive) .
Acts sullen, defiant (says "1 dcnrt; care" frequently when caregiver explains how misbehavior has hurt another).
Punishes self th r ou g h slapping, head banging, or calling sel f badname s ("bad boy") .
Is overly sensit ive to mild crit icism .
Fl inches if teacheror visitingadult approacheswith caressingor re a s s u r i ng gesture or outst re tchedarm.
Reports pec ud l.y to teacherth at he or she has hurt anot he rchild .
Is overly vi gilan t about others 'misdeeds,tattles, or jeers.
Ishigh l y demandin gof adults although usually fa irly self-sufficient.
Bullies or scapegoats and may get otherchildren to joinin.
Carries out repetitive, stereotypedplay th a t mayhav e destructive aspects.
Clings to , shadows caregiver , although in group for months.
Is unable to carry outsustained play...ith preschool peers.
Ha s constant need to sleepalthough physica llywell.
35 Is preoccupied with lightning, illag esofmo n sters or other viOlent,threateningfigures.
Has dull,va c a nt expression,as iftrying-to ward off thinking about st r e s s f ul traumaor tries to deny stressfulfee lings.
Is hyperactive or restless, wanders around room, touches and disturbs toy s and g&1IIe5, cannot settle int o constructiveplay.
Displaysdisturbed bodily functions, hastroublewith feeding , const ipat ion, or diarrhoea , soil s self fr equentlymonthsaftertoilettrainingis compl eted.
Has tre mbling of han ds or facial twitches although appa r en tl ywell.
TalkscompUlsivelyabo ut phys ical dangersandthreats. Gr i ndsteethduring nap ti me.
Has rigidfac i a l ex p r e ssi ons fromtaut mus cle s . Displays loss of perceptualacuity.
Displays reduced attentional capacity, eventhough caregiver is very clear inc01Dlllunic a t ing : the child cannot focus well on activity orrequest . Stimulate s self consta ntly (by prolonged. thullb- suck ing , u.st urbat i o n, rocking body ba ck and forth,or othe r such be haviors) , whi ch child re n normally do occasionally for se l f-c omfo r t.
Feels ji ttery.
St ut te rs ,usediffluentspeech, or refusesto talkin group (older preschooler) .
Is clumsy on easy manual tasks due to musc ula r tens i o ns.
Fr equ ently acts agg r ess ively against other s , even adul ts .
Has nightma res. (p,53)
This sec t i o nhas sUll\lIlarizedthesourc es , effects, signs , andsi gn a ls of childhoodstress.
36 stressandSchooling
School set t ings place performance and relationsh ip demands onchildrendurin<Jthemajc.t' portion of thei r waki ng hour s (Forma n&O' Mal ley , 19 8 4) . Two majorcate gorie s of st ressorsforstudentsare(a) achievement stres sors,and(b) social stresso rs (Philips , 1978).
To determine what elementary students worry about, crowley(1981)st udied438 studentsfrom the third throughthe eight h grade. Grades were found to be th e pr i ma ry worry across the gr a de levels, although one-half of th e children alsoworried aboutphysicalha rm toth ems elv e s orloved ones.
Peer relationshi ps is a school - re lated stressor.
Studentswho wererej e cte d and actively dislike d by theirage- mateswe r e assessed tobe mor""lone l y than thene g l e cte d ones (Asher & Wheeler, 1985). A9l,1.(essive behaviors inschoo ls, including peer bully, antisocial peer pr e s su r e , teacher intimida tion , thr e at and pun Lahaent., unruly classrooms and playgrounds,andde s t r uc t i onof school propert y , are sources of childho od stressors (B1om, Cheney & snOddy, 19 8 6). Bullyingand vict imizing are the most damaging peer inter- acti o ns (810met a1.). According to 810met a1., other scho ol -relatedst ressorsare: (a) childre nwithdis a bil itie s:
(b) academic pressure; (cl excessive competition: and (d) familymobility , as it places addeddemands andpressu reson the s e child ren. "Hi ghl y anxiousstudentswerefoun d toengage inmorepr ob lembehavior , we r e dislikedby thepeers,had poor
37 self-concepts, and were lower inschool achievement and school aptitude" (Forman&OIMalley, 1984, p. 162).
O'Aurora and Fimian (1988), in an article on student stress and burnout, described nondaua-based and empirical models of stress sourcesand manifestations. They suggested that the sources of student distress consist of:
1. various types of changes--school entry, transition between levels, and the final years;
2. N"onacceptanceof peers;
3. Inability to make friends easily;
4. Ina b il i t y tole a r n in school;
5. Inadequatele i s u r e time; and 6. Poor grades.
The social/academic events of "t e a c he r power over students, being or becoming the class pet,parental expectations, being fidgety, procrastinating, having to dQal with exce as Lve or ambigucus information, and becoming fatigued" (p. 48) acts as stress producers. The in-schoolrelationships of "repetitious school work, difficultyconversing and communicating with the teacher, lone l i ne s s , and excessive interruptions during classroom routine"(p. 48) were cited as components of stress inducing experiences and poor instructional relations. Helms (1985) foundtha t ,
Those students demonstrating poor interactionswith teachers,who had problemsdealing with academics, who experienced deteriorating interactions with
38 pee rs, andwhomani f e sted poor academic self-con- cepts werethose who also manifested higherthan average Emotional, Behavioral, and Physiological stress Manifestations.
Fimian, p, 48)
(01 ted in 0IAu r ora ,
Fi mi anand Cross (1986). in a studyde signedtoinv e s t i- gate class room stre s s and bur nou t of 200 gifted students, concludedthatst u dentsexpe riencea degre eof burnout in the classroom. Thestress sou r cesforpreadole scentsandadoles- cents
Stemmed more from oneself, while burnout were at t ributable mo r e toa combinationofpoor self- estee m, an externalized locus of co nt r o l , and a numberof clas sroom "ha ssl e s." Ov erall , the number of sources of burnoutfor bothgroupswerethe same as thos e for st r e s s , but dif fe rent in terms of type. (p. 264)
The organi zationofthe school playeda acr-e significantrole instu dentburnout in termsof the re lativeintensity ofthr e o!
fa ctors--Emot i on al EXhaustion , Depersonalization , and a lack ofPerson alAc comp lishment(O'Auro r a&Fimian, 19 88 ;Fi mi a n&
Cr os s , 198 6). Studen ts who experienced inten se emo tional exhaustiondetached themselve s from bot hpeers and te a ch ers and they did not recognize their class r oom ac compl ishment (D'Auro ra & Fb i a n). Figu re 2.2 vi s ually de picts five
SCHUlTZ(1980) ChlldSlres$
l -
T ToOne' s SlIlf-E stellll H -~-~- ~ - - _ . _--- - --- -- -
R ToOne' s Security
E --~---
A Toone-sSafety T
--- - - -
10 One 'slIay ofL1fe
HOORE(197S)
Chll dSlres s
f - -
T s Ordinary Oall y 1en51005 YOT ---~--- ---
'FR
OevelOpllentaltenstens E E ---~--- ---s s lHeCrhes
s
O{ANOlER
usen
Chl1dStress
f - -
Perceptlonsof.
E
,
s s IHT T I
,
I,
E0 E I n
.
I..
tI
.
s, "
I I"
0 I I
.
sI I.
I IH0 I I f
,
I I,
s.
I N I s uI I40
LAZARUS ANDeMit(1977) cratestress f---
Ls Envir OOlllllnhl I T (ExternalStrea
,
RE E --- ~ - - - -- -- - ----
s Personal
s (InternalStress
/olCNAAEE{l9B2)
I;hl1dSHess I - -
p
CE Actual Sl r e n f u l 0R
0C UfeEvenU
HE0
IP
,
---TI
I I l'ercehedSlrl!Hlul v0
E
"
s lHeFV~:ll s(p. 4S)
Figure2.2 FiveDefinitionalMode lsof Child hood xtrcsu
41
FIMIAN (1986) St udentSt r es s
Sl ressSou rces
I
St re ssManifest ations Student ut stresall-
--- --- - --.-- . --- .--- -- - EnIotIanaIMan'i resta t t cns Socta11AcademlcProbIems --- -- --- -- ---. -.--- - ------~--- --- BiobehavloralFatigue
PoorIns t ruct i onalRel ati ons
HELMS(1985 ) StudentStres s
St ress Sources Stress Mani f es t at i ons
Teacher tnterect.tons
----.--- - --- --- ----
Emotional AcademicStress--- ---._ .---- --
--- --.--- _. --- -- Behavioral PeerInt er act i ons
--- ---- --- -- --- ---- - ----.-.--- -- ---
PhysiologicalAcademicSelf-Concept
FIMIA N (1986 ) StudentBurn out Emotiona l
Exhaust i on
(p.47)
I
ueper-scnej tzet tcnI
AccomplishmentLack ofPersonalFi gure2.3 Empirica l Breakdown of St uden t Stress and Burnout
42 nongifted. students. According to Healy and Parish the findings suggestedthat gifted andnong ift edmale s and gifted females appeared tooper at e fromanint e rnal locus of contro l and be more self-reliantand autonomous;therefore,they were not as stressed by the expectations of others. The researchers postulatedthat nongifted rene j.es may confront oth er s' expectat i onsofperfect ionandothers' nonacceptance more often than the ot he r three groupsand,pos a ibky,lackthe inte r nal st ami na to resistthese external pressures.
The successful adaptat ion to the school organization systemand its denandsfor achievementand behaviormay be the initiators, emphasi zers, or triggers of stres s for many st udents(HUrrelman,1984). Hurrelman di scov e r ed, bymeans of qualitativeanalys is ,that accordingto WestGermantea chers , parents, and students,themeaningand purposeof schoolwas the selectionofappropriatecourses asthe preparationfor one'sfuture.
The risk ofstress willbe presentifa combination of several single factors [large schools, big classes, complex or gani za t i o nof school and les- sons, overladen and unclear cur ricul ums, high demands onperfomance ,severeratingof perfot1ll- ance, and pedagogically imp rud e nt teachers) occur toget her with an event of failing,whichis per- ceivedby the studentas being serious and import- ant. stress on studentscan always be perceived
43 when a specific colllbinationof functions occurs whi ch results in an unfav ourable "climate" and whl chmeetsast ud e nt ' s perso nalitywhlchisse ns i - tiv eto this. The ind i v i dua l st r e ss of a childor ado lescentinscho olcannot be considered in isol a- ti onfromobj ec tiveor g a niza ti o n a l cons te lla ti ons and their sUbjectiveperception. (p•187)
Fromth est u d e nts ' sub'[e c't.Lve pointof vi ew, failu rein schoolwa s at tri b u tedto self-ac c usation and tornas t eri nq the cu rri culumasit wasaff ected by teac he rs'style s ofbehavi ng'.
teach in g,an d dealing with st udents. Te a ch e r s , ontheot he r ha nd, perc eivedsc h oolf'ailur eto be rela ted to thestud e n ts' capac i ty to le ar n andtheirbeha vi ourasitwas affected by personalit y, famil y educa tion, and soc i eta l va riab l e s.
Accor d i ng to the findi n gs,tea c he r s did notvi e .... thesch ool organi zational st r uctu res to be si g n i fic a n t factor s . This dis c repanc y highlight s the "s oc i ally rooted pr o c e s ses of estra ngemen t " bet....een teac hers andst ud e nts . The diffi c ulty in acc e pti ng themutual dema nd sof thesch o ol organ iza t ional system is thereby fos t e red by neither group ca r ry i ng the responsibilityfor func ti oningand perform ing .
Grannis (1987) conducted. alongitUdi nal stud y to inv e sti- gate st ud en t st r ess inan inte rmedi ate, urbanschool in a black, low-income ne ighbou rh ood. Hepointed out that the students wereable to cons i s t e nt l y self-report the SUbtle di s t i nc t i ons between internal andex t e r na l locus ofcontrol,
44 betwe en appraisal versus frequen c y of st res s o r eve n ts, and betweendi ff e r ent eve n ts to be upset ab o ut. Bot h genl1ers ind i c a t ed tha t theperc ept i on of sotne ot her agentbe ing in co n t rol les s e n e dbe t wee n the si x t h andseve n t h gr ",<1e. The fre qu e ncyof st ressor event swa samplifiedbyex t erna l i ty and had an assoc i a t i o n wi t h di stres s. An external locus of con t ro l ten d e d to correl a te negati v ely wit hacademic pe r f orm- ance. Males appraise dstressoreven t s as sig ni fic a n t l y le s s upsett i n g in th e seventh grade than in the ei g hth. Fe ma les consiste n t ly report ed get ting up set abo ut someth ing mo r e freque n t l y than di d the ma les. The appraisal of stressor ev entsW8 :las s oc ia t edpositivel ywithgr a d e point av eragebut notwith read ing and mat h per f o rma n c e. Apprai s a l corre la te d sig nifican t l y with tests and gr ad e s for males , in se p a rate an a lyses by gen der, bu t ....ith neit h e r for fe ma l es. The apprai s a l of stressor events wasnot consis tentlyrela te d to di str ess for either ma lesor fema l es. Bothboy s and girls pe r c eived the freque ncyof st re ssoreven tstohappe nle s s in sev e n t h grade tha n in the sixt h. St re ssor frequ e n c y an d aca dem ic perform an ce wereob s e rved to be negat i ve l y as soci- ated. The fre que nc~ wa s associate dpositivel y withdistre ss for bothgenders. The frequen c ythe st ude n tsascribed to the st res so r eve n t andstrengthof their te n d encytoapprai s e th e eve n t func t i o n e d quitedifferent l y fr o m each ot h er.
Dickey an d Hend e rso n (19 8 9 ) intervie wed 141 pr im ar y chil d r en tofin dout the ir pe rce ption ofstre s s in an aca d emic
45 setting. The following stress types acc ounted for79.8\ of the stressors:
1. Schoolwork--tests ,grades , andhome wo r k aswellas understanding work assignments and completing cr e a t i ve projectscorr e c t l y ;
2. Peer relatlonships- -peer pressure, friendships, sharing,playing, and arguing;
3. Pe r s ona l injury or lass-- ge t t i ng hurt , pus he d or kicked , theft, emergency drills,and destruction or loss of personalbelongings; and
4. The loss ofpersonalcomfort,space,or time.
Thecop i ng strategie s mostofte nmen tioned were:
1. Di r e c t action--pursuinga solution to eliminate or relieve the stressorI
2. olstraction--engag lng insome activity to divert at t ent io n away fromthestresso r;
3. Social support- -seeking physical and/or verbal comfort fr om family,peers,or teachers;and
4. Acc eptance- -resign ingtothe notionthatnothingcan be done.
Johns andJohn s (198 3) comparedthe experienceof stress andburnoutin both adult s and ch ild r e n . ChildrenIsle ve l of cogniti ve ma tu ri t y conf ounds their under standing of the physical reactiontostressand thewaystheyca n deal with st ress. According to JohnsandJohns,children may cope with st r es s byavoidingschool,people ,andle a r n i ng orre a c t i ngto
4.
the school environment and stressorsbybUl lyingordistu rbi ng others, orby responding to adultsin a disrespectful manner.
The stresscycle in chil drenwas describedas:
stress and a sense of threat oeccee particularly disconcerting when the child feels she ha s no control over the situation• . .. Rathertha n seeing a ch ildI5 la c k of attention as he r way of coping with stress, some (adults}read it as laziness, and scold and humiliate the child. Whenthat happens, the vulnerable student feels additional thr e a t ; lo c ked into her response to stress (because she knows and ha s been taught no other) , the child re a c t s by showing even greater disinterest in school matters, whichfurther provokes the [adUlt], wh o further th r ea t e ns the child, and so on. (p. 48 )
The previoussectionhas discussed stress and schooling issues such as: grade, schoolli v i ng conditions, peer relationships, competitio n, and relationships with teachers.
ChildrenWhoCope
strategies for copingwi tbSt r e s s
Paterno (1987) summarized several articles which stated coping strategies in children. The prima ry approacheswere as
follows:
Honig (1986'
ignoring unpleasant situations tlnd compromises
accepting substitute satisfactions
Folkman (1984) emotional focused problem focused
Stone and Neal (1984) distraction situation redefinition direct action catharisltl acceptance seeking social support relaxation
religion
McCrae (1984) (12 of 25 listed copingstrategies) faith
expression of feeling rational action positive thinking restraint
drawing strength from adversity - humor fatalism
wishfulthinking perseverance intellectual denial self-adaption humor (p. 4)
47
48 As described under the theme--Overvlew of Childhood stress--Paterno (1987) conducted a study to investigate ch ildre n's perception of st r e s sor s and coping strategies. Accordingto Paternothelowest reported frequenc ieswerefor relaxation,ca t h a r s is, and redefinition.whilesoc i alsuppo r t was ide ntifie d as a major cop i ng st r a t e g y. Th e coping str ategiesof distr a ctionandca tharsis for the middle sc h oo l students demonstra t ed a signi f icant increase in the mean fr e qu e nc y overthe primarystudents . A significantly lo we r me a nfr equenc y wa s obs e rvedfor direct act i o n in the middle sch oo l grade s .
In Children Under stres s , And erson an d Fulton (1987 ) pointed out that as a short termapproach, children take evas iveactions toco pe with st r ess by:
Denial:
Act s as though stre s s doesnot exist.
Mayusefantasy as acop i ng technique. Ima g i - nar y friends are common.
Serves to lessen painand thus ca n be us e fu l topreserve equilibrium
Re g r e ssi o n:
Acting you nge r than years. Becomes dependent and demanding .
Receivesmore physical comfo r ti ng andaff ec - tion thanusua l , thus eas i ng the st res s . Withdrawal:
,.
Takethemselvesphysicallyor Jlentallyout of th e pi cture.
Focu s on pets. daydrea mIng. or rellove them- selvesfromthe sit ua tio n .
ImpulsiveActing Ou t :
Conc e al theIr misery bymak i ng othersangry at them.
Attentionisfocusedon them,temporaryway of ea sing theirfe elingsof st r ess. (p. 11)
Vaillant (1971) id e n t ifi ed the fo ll o wi ng five methods childrendevi se toface and handlest ress f u l events:
A..1.kY..1.;m: Ga in sa tisf a c t ion fr omhelperroleand fromknoving that they are us eful. They forget thei r owntroub l e s by he l ping others. Howe ver , they ...ay be come soenwrapped inhel ping thatthey do not allow themselvestobeca r efree .
!!Ym2&:: Child ren.a yjok e abo uttheir diff iculties.
The humorma ybeusedto expre s stheange r and pain they feel . Howev e r, whQn carri e d to anextreme, childrenma ylose the ar..l i ty tocr y and tore ach out to others .
Supp r e ss i gn: Enables childran toset aside their tro ubl es for a time. Thiscan be the time when a child re-groups or regains hi s or her str e ngt h. Carriedtoanext r e lle , it can movetothepoi ntof
