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Acknowledgements

First and foremost, our profound gratitude goes to “Allah” Almighty. Without His uncountable bounties and blessings, we would never be able to complete this modest work.

We would like to express our sincere thanks to Mr. ZIAD Khalid for being our supervisor. He has patiently and skilfully guided us from the beginning to the completion of this dissertation. His constructive advice, precious suggestions and constant help have enabled us to persevere in writing up this dissertation.

We would never forget to thank all our teachers, Mr Boulakroun Fouad, Miss Zadam. Hamida, MrsDiafi Fayza, Miss Zayed Kamilia, Mrs Agoun Amina,Mrs Zourez Leyla, and Miss Boujrida Messaouda.

We would like also to thank the board of examiners who saved no time to read andevaluate this work.

Special thanks are due to the secondary school teachers who readily accepted to collaborate and provided us with some insightful data to this research.

We also thank third year secondary school students for their active involvement during the data collection phase.

Last but not least, our appreciations go to all who helped us in one way or another to accomplish this work.

Dedication

I dedicate this work to:

♦ My beloved parents, the pillars of my life who raised me to be the person who I am today. They have continually provided me with their support and understanding.

♦My sister Loubna, for her uncountable contributions that helped me a lot. ♦My brothers Amine and Atef, for their stimulating ideas.

♦My future husband Mohamed, who kept pushing me forward to complete this work with his solid support.

♦My partners Sadjia and Sarah, for their support and love.

♦My best friends, Dounia, Hiba, Narimen, Iness, Ibtissem, Sara, Amel,Meriem, Oumayma, Noussayba and Sabrina with whom I spent nice moments and countless hours of mutual listening, laughter, encouragement, support and care.

♦My best friends of study, with whom I appreciated the two years.

♦All my extended family and all those who believed and took pride in my success.

Dedication

In the Name of Allah, the Most Gracious, and the Most Merciful; All the Praise is due to God Alone, the sustainer of the Worlds.

I dedicate this work to:

♦My dear mother, the source of my life, the precious woman who strengthens my will and who raised me,

♦My dear father, the light of my eyes for his love, support and patience,

♦My gift from Allah, my sister: Asma and my two beloved brothers: Idriss and Sid Ali, ♦My grandparents who always pray for me and wish me luck all the time,

♦My second grandmother, Salima, for her continuous support and sincere prayers, ♦My Aunts who encourage me all the time and who are proud of me: Fahima and Widad, Fariza and Chayma,

♦My uncles and their wives,

♦My lovely cousins: Hana, Houda, Yousra, Alaa, Aridje and Adem and other cousins, ♦My second souls, my beloved friends and the true sisters: Manel and Samiha,

♦My faithful friends who stand by me and with whom I spent my time in and outside university: Fatima, Hayet, Faiza, Amina, Hiba, Sabrina, Biba, Niema, Rahil, Maroua, ♦My beloved friends and teachers who have been with me since I was young for their generous support: Radia and Houriya.

♦Everyone, who loves me and cares about me. Sarra Delaa

Abstract

Learning strategies have played a fundamental role in the field of language learning and teaching, especially in EFL contexts where exposure to input is not always sufficient. And for the development of these strategies in EFL classes, teachers can train their students to become more active, reflective, and aware of what they learn through strategy trainingactivities. It is within this perspective that the present study investigates the status of strategy use and training within the Algerian third year secondary education textbook ‘New Prospects’. In the Algerian educational system, the textbook is still accorded much importance, no wonder that it merits careful examination. In order to collect the necessary data for the study, a qualitative analysis of the textbookis carried out following a checklist that was designed to fit the purposes of the research. Additionally, a questionnaire was given to third year secondary education students in order to explore their views and beliefs about strategy use and training. Also, an interview was conducted with English secondary education teachers to get more information about this issue. The findings of our study have revealed that the textbook ‘New Prospects’ does not cover a large number of strategies which are considered necessary in an EFL setting. Both students and teachers are aware and approve of the usefulness of strategy use and training in the textbook ‘New Prospects’.

Table of content

General Introduction

1. Background of the Study……….………2

2. Statement of the Problem………2

3. Aim of the Study …………...……….3

4. Research Questions………..…...4

5. Research Tools and Methodology……….. ………....4

6. Structure of the Dissertation………...………5

CHAPTER ONE: Literature Review

Introduction……….8

Section One: Learning strategies

1.2. Classification of Learning Strategies……….………10 1.2.1. Direct Strategies………...……….…..11 1.2.1.1. Memory Strategies……….………...………..11 1.2.1.2. Cognitive Strategies………...……….14 1.2.1.3. Compensation Strategies……….16 1.2.2. Indirect Strategies………...………17 1.2.2.1. Meta-Cognitive Strategies………...………18 1.2.2.2. Affective Strategies …….…………..………...21 1.2.2.3. Social Strategies……….….23

1.3. Learning Strategies and the Four Language Skills………24

1.4. The Importance of Learning Strategies………..………27

Section Two: Strategy training

.

2.2.Scope of Strategy Training……...……….………29

2.3.Types of Strategy Training…………...……….30

2.4.Importance of Strategy Training……...………..……….……..31

2.5. Goals of Strategy Training……….32

Section three: Textbook Analysis and Evaluation

3.1. Nature of the Textbook……...……….……..35

3.2. Textbook in Language Teaching………...………….36

3.3. Role of Textbooks…...37

3.4. Textbook Evaluation………..37

3.5

.

Conclusion………..39

CHAPTER TWO: Textbook Analysis

Introduction………...………41

1. Description of the Textbook ‘New Prospects’………..41

2.File Structure Description……….…42

3. Analysis Checklist……….45

4. Analysis of the Textbook………..50

Conclusion

CHAPTER THREE: Field Investigation

Introduction…

Section One: Teachers Interview 1.1.Design and Description of Teacher’s Interview……….…56

1.2.Analysis of Interview Data………57

Section Two: Students’ Questionnaire 2.1.Instrument Validity………63

2.3. Description of Student’s Questionnaire……….64

2.3.1. Section One: Background Information………65

2.3.2. Section Two: Learning Strategies………65

2.3.3. Section Three: Strategy Training in the Textbook………….………..65

2.5. Analysis of Questionnaire Results……….66

Conclusion………..89

CHAPTER FOUR: Final Results and Research Implications

Introduction………..……….91

1. Results Discussion and Implication……….91

1.1.Textbook Analysis………..91

1.2.Teachers’ Interview………93

1.3. Students’ Questionnaire……….94

1.4. Triangulation and Comments……….94

2. Research Recommendations……….96

2.1.Recommendations for Teachers………..96

2.2.Recommendations for Students………..97

2.3.Recommendations for Further Research……….97

2.4. Limitations………..98

Conclusion…

GeneralConclusion……..………...….…………

Appendices

1. Appendix 1:Diagram of strategy classification 2. Appendix2: Teachers’ Interview

3. Appendix 3: Students’ Questionnaire

The Arabic Summary (ﺺﺨﻠﻤﻟا)

List of Abbreviations

EFL

SE:

LLSs:

ST:

List of Tables

Table1: Checklist……...………..46

Table 2: Students’ Gender………...….66

Table 3: Participants Secondary Education Streaming………67

Table 4: Rate of Student’s Interest to Learn English………..……….67

Table 5: Students’ Level in English………...………..68

Table 6: Rate of Student’s Anxiety during English Classes………..………...…...68

Table 7: Causes of Student’s Anxiety during English classes…………..……….……..69

Table 8: Students’ Ways to Solve Problems………..……….….69

Table 9: Students Use of Strategies while Learning English……….……….….70

Table 10: Students’ Techniques while Doing Particular Tasks………...71

Table 11: Improvement of Students’ Way of Learning……….…..72

Table 12: Students’ Self-Ratings of their Capacities on how to Use Strategies………...…...73

Table13: Frequency of Taking the Textbook to English Classes………....74

Table14: Frequency of Preparing English Lessons at Home ………..………75

Table15: Textbook as a Tool to Improve Students’ Learning…………..………...…….…..75

Table16: Awareness of the Existence of Strategies in the Textbook…………...……….. …77

Table17: Raising students’ Awareness towards the Strategies which are Included in the Textbook………..……….77

Table19:Benefit of the Strategies Incorporated in the Textbook……….……..………79

Table20: Student’s Consciousness of the Importance of the Strategies within ‘New Prospects’………..80

Table21: Students’ Opinions of the Notion of Strategy Training………...…81

Table22: Techniques of Helping Students to Employ Strategies………..…………...82

Table23: Amount of Learning from Strategy Training Activities………...………83

Table24: The Necessity of Strategy Training……….……….84

Table25: The need for strategy training……….. 85

Table26: Students’ Opinions about the Importance of Strategy Training………….……..…86

Table27: Advantages of Strategy Training………..………87

Table28: Disadvantages of Strategy Training………..………88

List of Figures

Figure3: Students’ Opinions of their Learning from Strategy Training……….…….84 Figure4: Students’ Beliefs towards the Necessity of Strategy Training……….….85 Figure5: Diagram of Strategy Classification (Oxford, 1990, p.17).

General Introduction

1. Background of the study……….2

2. Statement of the problem………2

3. Aim of the study ……….……...3

4. Research questions……….……….4

5. Research Tools and Methodology……….………..4

1. Background of the Study

Learning a foreign language is a multi-dimensional process that requires from the teachers to vary their ways of teaching in order to meet their learners’ needs, especially that many EFL learners seem unaware of which strategies best suit their learning styles. Given such a situation, two broad areas have emerged: first, strategic training to enhance learner independence. Second, the strategies learners used to respond to their particular learning contexts. Studies of the good language learner are a good example in this respect. Many researchers highlighted the different strategies that successful language learners employ. The reason behind this investigation was and is still to equip less achieving or successful students to cope with difficult problems through the careful use of these strategies.

Learning strategies therefore are seen as the secret recipe through which learners improve their language learning along the different stages of development. Thus, learning takes place when the learners utilize consciously or subconsciously a set of mental techniques, often known as strategies, to monitor and take control over the target language.

2. Statement of the Problem

Recent literature on language learning strategies shows that there are two opposing views about the potential impact of strategy use and training on learners’ language proficiency development. In fact, there are researchers who contend that learners will learn better if they are helped to identify the strategies they use so as to be able to adapt to the teaching styles and materials. There are others, however, who have critically underestimated the importance of strategy training because they believed that learners have already developed strategies from their experiences of learning their first language. Hence, it seems, for them, of little avail to incorporate strategy training activities within EFL courses or teaching and learning materials.

Although the latter view was backed by much experiential evidence, it is not yet advocated by many veteran teachers, language materials writers and practitioners. As a matter of fact, a great number of EFL courses and teaching materials still include some components that focus on the development of the learners’ strategic competence through strategy training activities. And EFL teaching in Algeria appears to follow the line of thinking of mainstream pedagogues who advocate this view.

3. The Aim of the Study

Since research in language learning strategies has been in the ascendant for the last two decades, the authors of Algerian secondary education course books deemed it appropriate, ostensibly for the sake of innovation, to incorporate therein a set of tips and activities meant to equip students with the necessary actions and thoughts in order to maximize their learning potential in the different learning opportunities, and handle any problems or difficulties that arise in so doing.

Basing on this ground, the aim of the present research is to investigate the status of strategy use and training within the third year secondary education textbook ‘New Prospects’. Equally importantly, it aims at surveying third year secondary school students and their teachers’ beliefs and views about the effectiveness as well as contribution of including strategy training activities within this Coursebook ‘New Prospects’ to enhance overall progress in English language learning. It is noteworthy that this course book is one in a series that are newly made, following a set of reforms undertaken in 2003 by the Algerian Ministry of National Education.

4. Research Questions

The present research will seek answers to the following questions:

●To what extent are strategy use and training consistent and systematic throughout the files of the course book under investigation?

●What beliefs and views do secondary school English teachers hold about strategy training in their EFL context?

●To what extent are third year secondary education students aware of strategy use and training in their FL development?

5. Research Tools and Methodology

In order to collect the necessary data for answering the above questions, the study has opted for a descriptive analytic methodology. First, the third year secondary education course book ‘New Prospects’ was analyzed with reference to the frequency of strategy use and training within the mandatory files. This is done within a framework that specifies the relevant criteria. Second,a semi-structured interview was conducted with three secondary education teachers who used ‘New Prospects’ in order to elicit their beliefs about the significance of strategy use and training within the EFL classroom in general and teaching materials in particular. Further, a questionnaire was submitted to third year students to explore their views and perceptions about strategy use and training in this textbook

6. Structure of the Dissertation

The present dissertation consists of two main parts: a theoretical and a practical part. The former includes one general chapter that represents the literature review. This chapter is further sub-divided into three main sections. The first deals extensively with the notion of learning strategies with respect to EFL research. Definitions and classifications are provided to clarify the theoretical basis of the research. The second section accounts for the theoretical basis underlying strategy training in EFL contexts. And the final section tackles some theoretical underpinnings about materials and textbook evaluation and analysis.

The second part, which subsumes three chapters, is meant to include the descriptive work and field investigation. Chapter two deals with the textbook analysis according to an evaluative checklist. The latter was established to reflect the latest research views about strategy use and training. Chapter three is the field investigation. It is conducted by using two research instruments: a semi-structured interview with teachers and a questionnaire for third year secondary education students. Chapter four discusses the results and findings of the three research instruments through their triangulation and suggests some recommendations as well as research limitations.

CHAPTER ONE: Literature Review

Introduction……….8

Section One: Learning strategies

1.2. Classification of learning strategies………...…10

1.2.1. Direct strategies……….…....11 1.2.1.1. Memory strategies……….………..11 1.2.1.2. Cognitive strategies……….14 1.2.1.3. Compensation strategies……….16 1.2.2. Indirect strategies………..17 1.2.2.1. Meta-cognitive strategies………...………18 1.2.2.2. Affective strategies …….………..21 1.2.2.3. Social strategies……….23

1.3. Learning strategies and the four language skills………24

1.4. The importance of learning strategies……….…...27

Section Two: Strategy training

2.2. The scope of strategy training………29

2.4. The importance of strategy training………...31

2.5. Goals of Strategy Training……….32

2.6.Incorporating Strategy Training in EFL Materials………33

Section three: Textbook Analysis and Evaluation

3.2. Textbook in Language Teaching………36

3.3. The Role of Textbooks………...…………37

3.4. Textbook Evaluation……….….37

3.5

.

Introduction

The following chapter aims at reviewing the literature related to the variables of the study. Given such a purpose, it is divided into three sections. The first section accounts for language learning strategies (LLSs), their common classification and relevance in EFL settings. The second section sheds light on strategy training (ST), its scope, types and potential ways to incorporate it EFL materials in facilitating students’ learning. The third section deals with the issue of textbook and materials evaluation, and analysis.

Section One: Learning Strategies

1.1.Language Learning Strategies

To understand learning strategies (LS), it seems important to go back to the basic term, strategy. This word comes from the Greek term ‘strategia’ which means generalship or the art of war. More specifically,strategy involves the optimal management of ships or aircraft in a planned campaign. The new Oxford dictionary of English (1998) states that strategy is “a plan or action or a policy designed to achieve a major or overall aim.” (p.1837); however, action is defined as “the fact or process of doing something” (p.17). McDonough (1995) defined ‘strategy’ as “articulated plans for meeting particular types of problems” (p.3). Tactic is a related word, which means a tool to achieve a success. The literature reveals a further problem with strategy definition: the interchangeability of the two terms (tactic and strategy). For instance, Oxford (as cited in Hsiao & Oxford, 2002) notes that strategy like tactic implies “planning, competition, conscious manipulation, and movement toward a goal” (p.2). She demonstrates that strategies are plans,steps, and actions to achieve goals.Therefore, a strategy denotes learners’ tools for active, purposeful, and conscious learning. It paves the way towards greater proficiency, learnerautonomy and self-regulation.

‘Strategy’ as a concept has become influential in education, where it has taken a new meaningand has been transformed into LS. Different issues have emerged in second (L2) or foreign language learning while studying individual differences. L2 learning strategies represent one variable of individual differences which has gained a lot of attention among researchers as well as teachers who are interested in understanding how languages are learned.

Learning strategies have been given different conflicting definitions which vary depending on subject areas, including psychology, linguistics and other fields.LS can broadly be defined as “activities consciously chosen by learners for the purpose of regulating their own language leaning” (Griffiths, 2008, p. 87). Learner strategies are the sum of activities, techniques, actions that have taken place in the learning environment (such as classroom), consciously used by the learners. They aim to organize, systematize, and modulate the language learning, and aid the acquisition of the target language.

Another view that is advocated by (Scarcella&Oxford, as cited in Hsiao & Oxford, 2002) holds that learning strategies for L2 learners are“specific actions, behaviors, steps, and techniques- such as; seeking out conversation partners, or giving oneself encouragement to tackle a difficult language task- used by students to enhance their own learning”(p.2). Learning strategies are steps or movements that are employed to fill the gap in any discourse and to complete a particular task. Therefore, they are ways taken by individuals to effectively accomplish learning tasks.

Chamot (as cited in Shannon, 2005) defines LS as “techniques, approaches, or deliberate actions that students take in order to facilitate the learning, recall of both linguistics and content area information” (p.2).In other words, LS are the procedures and the methods that students take to alleviate or make learning easier to a better comprehension. Furthermore,

they are the measured movements in which students imply in order to accelerate their learning. Even if the definitions differ, they all point to one thing, namely; the fact that learning strategies are ways that the learners employ while learning a foreign language in order to facilitate the learning and to attain their goals and purposes. Thus, they are helpful for making the learning effective.

1.2 Classification of Learning Strategies

Rubin (1981) divided strategies into two main categories: direct and indirect. The first category, which directly affects L2 learning, includes classification/verification, monitoring, memorization, guessing/inductive, inferring, deductive reasoning and practice. However, the second consists of strategies which indirectly contribute to L2 learning such as creating opportunities for practice and production tricks.

O’Malley and Chamot (as cited in Hsiao & Oxford, 2002) proposed three types of LS: cognitive, meta-cognitive, and socio-affective. However, one of the most comprehensive classifications of LLSsis the one proposed by Oxford (1990). Ellis (1997, p.539) describes Oxford’s classification as “perhaps the most comprehensive classification of learning strategies to date”. Oxford’s (1990) classification divided strategies into direct and indirect strategies.

Direct strategies include memory strategies, cognitive strategies, and compensation strategies. Memory strategies are viewed by Oxford as “mnemonic devices”, they help learners send and retrieve information. Cognitive strategies include practicing, receiving and sending messages, analyzing and reasoning and creating structure for input and output. The third direct category includes compensation strategies, like guessing or using synonyms. They allow learners to use the new language to compensate a particular gap.

On the other hand, indirect strategies include meta-cognitive strategies, affective strategies, and social strategies. Meta-cognitive strategies in Oxford’s (1990) classification include three aspects: centering, planning and evaluating your learning process. Affective strategies help students to concentrate on their feelings. Oxford (1990) describes three ways of overcoming psychological issues; lowering anxiety, encouraging oneself and taking emotional temperature. The third group of indirect strategies is social strategies, like asking questions or cooperating with others. They overcome the social obstacles by interacting with others.

1.2.1 Direct Strategies

They are the first category of Oxford’s division, it is called direct because they involve the target language directly and acquired by the mental processing differently. Direct strategies include: memory strategies which deal with storing and retrieving new information, cognitive strategies that deal with comprehending and producing new information. Finally, compensation strategies deal with the use of the language to filling the linguistic gaps.

1.2.1.1. Memory Strategies

Memory strategies are also called ‘mnemonics’, they have been used for thousands of years and they are regaining their prestige now as a powerful mental tools (Oxford, 1990,). Memory strategies fall into four sets: creating a mental linkages, applying images and sounds, reviewing well and employing actions.

1.2.1.1.1. Creating a Mental Linkage

There are three sub strategies under this strategy which are: grouping, associating/ elaborating, and using context.Grouping is the classification or arrangement of language materials into meaningful units either mentally or in writing. Furthermore, teachers can use

different language materials inside the classroom such as; textbook, CD, handout, or newspapers. Thus, the teacher can classify these materials into comprehensible units in order to make the material understandable and easier for remembering. Consequently, separating the elements or the tasks that are included in the textbook for example makes the learner differentiate between tasks as well as types of words like: differentiating between a verb and noun, functions associated withutterances (apology or request,.. etc.). According to Oxford (1990), the power of this strategy may be enhanced by labeling the groups or let’s say, defining the groups by using acronyms, for example, giving an acronym to each group for easier remembering. Also, using colours to represent a group is one of the strong ways for a better remembering and keeping memory refreshed. Grouping is a good learning memory strategy that is used for helping learners in their learning and enhancing their thinking.

Associating/ elaborating means creatinga relation between the new information and

the concepts already in memory. In this context, the teacher groups the materials and gives it to learners; they try to read it and learn the new concepts and make the connection between what they are reading and what they have stored in their memory -previous knowledge. They are attempting to fit the situation by allowing for their memories to associate between what was taught and what is taught. This association can be simple as learning an easy concept in which they can differentiate between the previous and the recent concepts. In all cases, teachers should know what to teach for a meaningful understanding to the learners

Placing words into context is a strategy that learners can use in order to gain a better

comprehension. It is a strategy that involves a form of associating in the sense that while learners associate concepts in their memory, they relate the new concepts with the old ones. Thus, their working memory will be active. For instance, the learners put the word that they are looking for in a meaningful sentence or context in order to illustrate and find its definition.

They use this strategy as a compensation strategy in a context because it serves the mental processes as well as makes the mind guess what the exact word is.

1.2.1.1.2 Applying Images and Sounds

Four strategies are included here: using imagery, using key words, semantic mapping, and representing sounds in memory. These all strategies involveremembering by means of visuals and sounds.

Using imagery implies illustrating concepts in memory with an image, either in the

mind such as guessing an image for a concept or in real drawings. The image can be a picture of something or an object (realia). This strategy is used for associating abstract words with a visual symbol or picture of a concrete object.

Semantic mapping means to write words in a picture in an arranged way.Learners can

relate all these words to one concept that is centered or placed at the top of the image. It shows how one word is related to the other and it involves meaningful imagery, grouping and association.

Using key wordsserves to remember a new word by adding auditory and visual links.

It is done through these steps: the first is the auditory link in which learners identify a word in their first language. Then, they generate an image serves as a ‘visual link’ to the word. This memory strategy helps learners to remember abstract concepts.

1.2.1.1.3 Reviewing

Structured reviewingstrategy implies reviewing the word in order to remember it

permanently. It might start 10minutes after the initial learning, then 20minutes then hours, after ten days, and so on. This strategy leads the learners to spiral what they have already been

learnt. Its aim is to ‘over-learn’.That is to say, to be more familiar with the information that has become natural and automatic.

1.2.1.1.4 Employing Actions

According to Oxford (1990), using physical response or sensation refers to physically acting out a new expression (e.g., going to the door), or meaningful relating a new expression to a physical feeling or sensation (e.g., warmth). This strategy involves the learners to move and act in the classroom and to link the new phrases and sentences that the teacher gives them with their feeling and emotions. It is a strategy that appeals to learners who are enjoying the kinesthetic or tactile way of learning.Using mechanical techniquesdoes also appeal to learners who enjoy the kinesthetic mode of learning. It consists of mechanical tricks,for instance, the learners move in the classroom in order to remember the language information.

1.2.1.2 Cognitive Strategies

“Cognitive strategies are essential in learning a new language… they are typically found to be the most popular strategies with language learners”(Oxford, 1990, p.43). They contain four main sub-strategies: practicing, receiving and sending messages, analyzing and reasoning,creating structures for input and output. They are all essential for learning.

1.2.1.2.1 Practicing

It involves these five aspects:

-Repeating strategy where the learners asked to say or to do something several times.

-Formally practicing with sounds and writing system strategy; the learners start using words with pronunciation and intonation in a different ways.

-The combining strategy allows students to link one phrase with another in a whole sentence. -Naturalistic Practice strategy.

1.2.1.2.2. Receiving and sending Messages

Getting the idea quickly is like skimming while reading method.This strategy helps

learners to understand rapidly and easily what they hear or read in the foreign language.

1.2.1.2.3. Analyzing and Reasoning

It includes five sets of strategies which are concerned with the analysis and reasoning.It is applied to several target language skills. Learners use them to understand and create new expressions. These sets are: reasoning deductively, analyzing contrastively,

translating strategy, expression analysis and transferring strategy.

1.2.1.2.4 Creating Structure for Input and Output

They are ways to create structure and they includethe three strategies (Oxford, 1990).

Note takingwhich implies writing down the main idea or specific points. The learners use this

strategy for more absorption of the new language information. They attempt to take the general idea and the supporting ideas. Summarizing strategy attempts to give a summary of a long passage for the learner in order to understand what the passage is talking about.This leads them to comprehend the content easily. Highlighting strategy allows the learners to use various techniques to focus more on the new language information such as underlining words, phrases or color. It helps very much when revising for examinations.

1.2.1.3 Compensation Strategies

Despite the limitations that learners have in knowledge, the compensation strategies enable them to use language for comprehension or production. These strategies do allow learners to make up their linguistic repertoire and their vocabulary. According to Oxford (1990, p.47) “Compensation occurs not just in understanding the new language but also in producing it”. Compensation strategies allow learners to produce either spoken or written expressions in new situations. In general, compensation strategies help learners to be more fluent, more active and more skillful. They contain two other strategies which are: guessing intelligently in listening and reading, and overcoming limitations in speaking and writing. These two main strategies have also been divided into other supporting strategies.

1.2.1.3.1. Guessing intelligently in Listening and Reading

It includes two other compensation strategies which are using linguistic clues and

using other clues that refer to linguistic and nonlinguistic features. According to Oxford

(1990, p.49), these include “knowledge of context, situation, text structure, personal relationships, and topic”.

1.2.1.3.2 Overcoming Limitation in Speaking and Writing

This compensation strategy contains other eight strategies which are switching to the mother tongue, getting help, using mime and gesture, avoiding communication partially or totally, selecting the topic, adjusting or approximating the message, coding words using a circumlocution or synonyms.

Switching to the mother tongue is the strategy that allows learners to use the mother

Getting help strategy deals with a joker. It allows to learners to ask for help from

others either by hesitating or explicitly asking in the target language.

Using mime or gesture is a kind of using physical motion. The learners use some

gestures in order to explain the meaning of the unknown word or mimicry the subject being at hand in order to name it in the target language.

In the strategy of avoiding communication partially or totally, learners anticipate difficulties while learning new language information. They should avoid communication either totally or partially like avoiding talking about certain topics, or specific expressions.

Selecting the topichelps learners choose their preferable topics to be discussed, or they

select the topic that they have sufficient vocabulary about.

Adjusting or approximating the message:this compensation strategy gives the chance

to change the message by omitting some items of information. Hence; learners use this strategy to simplify ideas or make the less precise.

As for the strategy of coining words, Oxford (1990, p.50) explains that it includes “making up new words to communicate the desire idea, such as paper-holder for notebook”.

Using a circumlocution or synonym strategy helps the learners start explaining and

describing the new word with many concepts in order to get the meaning across.

1.2.2 Indirect Strategies

Indirect strategies, as the term suggests, are not directly connected to the language learning as direct strategies are. Indirect strategies deal with planning and managing the learning, evaluating learner’s improvement, and learning with others.Oxford’s division includes three categories of strategies, namely meta-cognitive strategies for coordinating the

learning process, affective strategies for regulating emotions, and social strategies for cooperating with others.

1.2.2.1 Meta-cognitive Strategies

The term meta-cognitive is related with ‘meta-cognition’which means the awareness of theprocess of learning. Cognitive strategies are strategies which are used to solve problems, whereas meta-cognitive strategies are employed in order to evaluate, control and understand these strategies. They are plans, behaviors which occur beside the cognitive devices which they pave the way for learners to manage their learning process. Oxford (1990) suggests that meta-cognitive strategies are essential for successful language learning because they help learners to regain their attention while losing their focus or encountering confusing rules and unfamiliar vocabulary.Three sets of meta-cognitive strategies are distinguishes by Oxford (1990), namely; centeringyour learning, arranging and planning your learning, and evaluating your learning.

1.2.2.1.1 Centering your Learning

This group focuses on learners’ awareness of the learning process and includes three strategies: overviewing and linking with already known material, paying attention, and delaying speech production to focus on listening.

The strategy of overviewing and linking with already known material is with previous knowledge or what the learners already know. Oxford (1990) indicates that this strategy will be helpful if it follows three stages which are learning why the activity is done, building the needed vocabulary, and making associations.

As for the strategy of paying attention, its name suggests its meaning. It is used to pay attention to the different language learning tasks. Paying attention strategy includes two kinds

of attention: directed and selective. Directed attention means the learners focus their attention on the task globally, whereas selective attention means paying attention to particular details.

The strategy of delaying speech production to focus on listening is regarded to be important. In this strategy learners prefer not to communicate and wait until their listeningskills and comprehension are developed. Oxford (1990) suggests it “helps build solid listening comprehension skills, and encourage students to speak as soon as they are ready, without any externally imposed delay” (p.155).

1.2.2.1.2 Arranging and Planning your Learning

This set of strategies help learners to organize, plan their learning process effectively and itcontains six strategies: finding out about language learning, organizing, setting goals and objectives, identifying the purpose of a language task, planning for a language task, and seeking practice opportunities.

The strategy of finding out about language learning deals with the learners search for effective ways of their language learning. This strategy includes different tasks such as: reading books to get information, and interacting with others to know more and improve the language learning.

As for the strategy of organizing, it concerns organizing learners’ learning, not only in theclassroom but also at home. It copes with creating better conditions for effective learning. It includes comfortable physical environment, scheduling well, and language learning notebook(Oxford, 1990).

The other strategy ‘setting goals and objectives’ is essential in the learning processandlearners should be aware of what should be achieved at the end of their learning.Oxford (1990) indicates that this strategy includes “long-term goals (such as being

able to use the language for informal conversation by the end of the year) or short-term objectives (such as finishing reading a short story by Friday” (p.139).

The strategy of identifying the purpose of a language task is the first stage learners are supposed to attain before doing a task. In this strategy, teachers should encourage learners to become more aware of what and why they do a particular task.

Planning for a language task is a strategy which is used to help learners do the task

successively. This strategy includes four steps: identifying the task, determining the specific requirements of the task, checking the resources available within the learner, and the need for further aids (Oxford, 1990).

The last strategy, which is the most important for learners, is seeking

practiceopportunities.While employing this strategy, learners are searching for ways to

improve their language skills outside the classroom. For instance: attending a party where the foreign language is spoken.

1.2.2.1.3 Evaluating your Learning

In this group of strategies, teachers should evaluate their learners’ performance. Two strategies belong to this group are named self-monitoring, and self-evaluating.The strategy of

self-monitoringimplies that learners pay attention to their errors. Oxford (1990) suggests that

learners should notice their errors and write them down, and then they attempt to eliminate them. This strategy helps the learners to use the language correctly and properly, and helps to improve their language skills.The other strategy ‘self-evaluating’ refers to evaluating the learning process by the learners themselves, for instance, by checking if their reading or their understanding improved after one month.

1.2.2.2 Affective Strategies

The learning process can be linked with the learners’ feelings which appear in various situations. Learners are supposed to cope with their feelings through affective strategies. The affective side of learners is one of the commonest influences on language learning success or failure. Three groups of affective strategies are distinguished: lowering your anxiety, encouraging yourself, and taking your emotional temperature.

1.2.2.2.1 Lowering your Anxiety

Learning completely new language can cause learners confusions and even anxiety. Therefore, these strategies provide the learners with ways how to control their anxiety during the learning process. Three strategies belong to this group: using progressive relaxation, deepbreathing, or mediation, using music, and using laughter.

Using progressive relaxation, deep breathing, and mediationare based on using

various techniques such as physical relaxation to relax the body muscles; breathing deeply which is connected with the mediation technique that creates mental balance.

The strategy of using music is based on listening to music which helps learners to reduce their stress. Music provides learners with fun, joy, and lowering their anxiety. One of the teaching methods that uses music as a way of help to learning a language is Suggestopedia.

Using laughter is a factor of creating a positive mood. Therefore, learners can

beprovided with listening to jokes, watching funny videos, and with tasks which are enjoyable and create a pleasant environment.

1.2.2.2.2 Encouraging Yourself

This strategy is often neglected by learners because they expect the encouragement from other people, and they do not trust their abilities. It deals with learners’ self-encouragement. Encouraging yourself includes: making positive statements, taking risks

wisely, and rewarding yourself.

1.2.2.2.3 Taking your Emotional Temperature

Learners should pay attention to their feelings which influence their learning. Therefore, listening to one’s body, using a checklist, writing a language learning diary, and discussing your feelings with someone else are vitally important (Oxford, 1990, p.114).

Listening to your body is a strategy dealing with what has been indicated by your body

while learning. Sometimes the body provides negative signals as stress and anxiety, so learners should avoid these negative feelings. However, the body produces positive feelings as happiness and pleasure in which learners may feel comfortable and confident when using the language.

The checklist strategy is one in which learners’ emotions, attitudes, and feelings in

connection with language learning are verbalized for more awareness.

The diarystrategy serves as a compendium of learners’ feelings, events, and

motivations. These diaries help learners take track of their emotions which connected with the learning process.

As for the strategy of discussing your feelings with someone else, it refers to sharing learners’ feelings with teachers, parents, or friends. These strategies help teachers to find out how their learners feel, and what they need.

1.2.3 Social Strategies

They are very important in the learning process because they can be employed to help learners get along with others and interact with them. According to Oxford (1990) social strategies are divided into three subcategories: asking questions, cooperating with others, and empathizing with others.

1.2.3.1 Asking Questions

Asking questions is considered to be very essential in social interactions. People ask questions when they want to find out some information about something which is not clear, or to show interest to the interlocutor in a conversation. Oxford (1990,p.145) explains that “asking questions helps learners to get closer to the intended meaning and thus aids their understanding”. Two strategies belong to this group: asking for clarification or verification,

and asking for correction.

1.2.3.2 Cooperating with Others

As the name suggests, cooperating with others is a social strategy which deals with interacting with other people, peers or with proficient users of the target language. This strategy leads to pair work and group discussion. Two subcategories are distinguished: cooperating with peers, and cooperating with proficient users of the target language.

As for the strategy of cooperating with peers, it is based on working with one or morelearners to improve language skills. Johnson and Johnson (as cited in Zourez, 2010)emphasize the importance of cooperation in enhancing learning. In their own words, “cooperation is working together to accomplish shared goals” (p.45).

The strategy of cooperating with proficient users of the target language is beneficial in many ways. This strategy is usually used outside the classroom and it helps in finding out required pieces of advice from more proficient users. This strategy seems to be connected with the strategy of asking questions as well.

1.2.3.3 Empathizing with Others

These strategies are related to empathy. Oxford emphasizes their importance in learning any language, stating that “empathy is essential to successful communication in any language; it is especially necessary, although sometimes difficult to achieve, in learning another language” (Oxford, p.146).The strategy of empathizing with others helps learners to better understand others’ cultures, thoughts, and feelings.It is divided into two strategies, namely; developing cultural understanding, and becoming aware of others’ thoughts and feelings.

As for the strategy of developing cultural understanding, Oxford (1990) describes it as “trying to empathize with another person through learning about the culture, and trying to understand the other person’s relation to that culture” (p.147). Learners when understanding others ‘cultures, they can cope and deal with people of different cultures, thus they develop the sense of cultural awareness.

The strategy of becoming aware of other’s thoughts and feelings is defined by Oxford (1990) as “observing the behaviors of others as a possible expression of their thoughts and feelings; and when appropriate, asking about thoughts and feelings of others” (p. 147). By understanding others’ thoughts and feelings learners become more aware of how best to react and what to say.

1.3 Strategies and the Four Language Skills

1.3.1. Reading

According to Oxford, all memory strategies can be applied and used to improve reading skills, especially the storage of new information. These strategies help learners store in memory the important things they read in the target language. Oxford (1990) mentioned anexample about the use of memory strategies such as grouping. For instance: a French speaker who learns English can read new words, then group them and look for similarities.

Repeating is a cognitive strategy that has been introduced by Oxford (1990). It helps learners to improve their reading skill and make the passage understandable and comprehensible. For example: when a student reads a passage for several times, he can understand it well and can get the necessary notes.

1.3.2. Writing

Oxford (1990) emphasized the need for using several strategies to improve writing skills. One of the meta-cognitive strategies that helps in writing development is knowing the purpose of task. Oxford (1990,p.158) explains that “language learners will have a great advantage if they know some Possible purposes for writing, such as providing factual information, convincing the audience of the validity of a point, persuading someone to act or think in a certain way”.

Another strategy which improves the writing skill is summarizing. This cognitive Strategy provides the learners with new input which is constructed from their understanding; it helps them condense their ideas and put them in a small text or a passage. There areseveral ways learners can use while summarizing. For instance, make pictures or inferences of various events with their order in the story. (This strategy links the verbal with the visual)

1.3.3. Listening

As for the listening skill, meta-cognitive strategies are useful and effective for developing this language skill. Delaying speech production to focus on listening is a strategy used by learners in order to focus first on listening comprehension, then when they feel confident and comfortable they can produce language easily. Oxford (1990,p.155) explained why the speech is delayed by saying “the delay occurs because listening is more rapidly developed than speaking, and because speaking seems more threatening to many students”.

One social strategy which befits and helps learners in their learning the listening skill is asking for clarification or verification. It is employed to ask thespeaker to repeat, slow down, or to summarize what he or she has said. Oxford (1990, p.169) emphasized the need for learning different ways to ask for clarification when she states that “learners need to learnacceptable ways to ask for clarification or verification, since it is done differently in differentcultures and different languages”.

1.3.4. Speaking

Generally, memory strategies can be used to enhance the speaking skill,such as: placing new words into a context. This strategy assists students put new words or expressions that have been heard or read into a meaningful spoken sentence.

One of the social strategies that can improve the speaking skill is asking for correction. For instance, learners can ask the interlocutor in a conversation for a correction of a wrong task or for incorrect production of the language. The interlocutors are not supposed to correct all the errors made by the learner in order to not make him/her intimidated.

Selecting the topic is an important compensation strategy which is used when learners chose the topic of their conversation. The topic under selection should interest them, and

containnecessary grammar and vocabulary. Oxford (1990) suggests that learners should be aware not to dominate the conversation and allow the other persons to participate.

1.4.The Importance of Learning Strategies

Learners display varying degrees of success which, so to speak, depends on many factors; psychological, social, cultural and linguistic ones. Strategy research reported that the poor use of LS –which is a psychological factor, is considered as one of the most important problems that learners have to cope with.

Successful learners are those who develop special techniques for their learning. Oxford (1990, p.1) argues that “learning strategies are tools for active, self -directed involvement which is essential for developing communicative competence”(p.1). In addition, Wenden (1991) connects learner autonomy to success in language learning, noting that:

Successful or expert or intelligent learners have learned how to learn. They have acquired the learning strategies, the knowledge about learning, and the attitudes that enable them to use these skills and knowledge confidently, flexible, appropriately and independent of a teacher. (p.15)

On the other hand, Chamot (as cited in Littlejohn, 2008, p.1) identified two major goals in LLS research:“(1) identify and compare the learning strategies used by more or less successful language learners, and (2) provide instruction to less successful learners that helps them become more successful in their language study’’. Therefore, learners need training because they are different in their ways of studying language. Weinstein and Mayer (as cited in Edwards, 1988, p.1) have demonstrated that “these differences in study strategy are related to differences in achievement”. Macaro (2001,p.43) supports this view and suggests that “learners will learn better if they are helped to identify the strategies they use, if they come

into contact with other possible strategies and if ways deploying them in combination are suggested”.

Section Two: Strategy Training

In recent years, the two questions ‘what to learn’ as well as ‘how to learn’ have been continually debated.As a result, strategy training (ST) gained a lot of attention as an essential part in language learning and teaching process. Some studies have highlighted that many students refuse to become independent because they lack motivation and reinforcement, and emphasized the need to conduct ST to promote students to use LLSswhile learning a language. Thus, the question if ST should be incorporated as an integral part of language courses at schools.

2.1. The Good Language Learner

Greenfell (1999) demonstrates that the good language learner research revolves on the crucial question “what is it that successful language learners do which unsuccessful ones do not”(p.36). He stated that if researchers or teachers know what these successful learners do, they can tell the less successful ones what to do to enhance their learning. Rubin and Stern (as cited in Greenfell, 1999) adopt this view explaining that successful learners might be able to teach less successful learners. The problem, however, is that it is sometimes difficult to know what the good language learners do, and maybe they themselves do not know what they are using to be successful.

In a seminal study, Stern(as cited in Greenfell, 1999), attempted to make a list of ten strategies used by good language learners. His list includes the following strategies; planning strategy, practice strategy, active strategy, empathetic strategy, experimental strategy,

semantic strategy, communication strategy, monitoring strategy, formal strategy and internalization strategy.

Actually, these strategies have been summarized by Stern (1999, p.37) into two main strategies that the good language learners use; “they do have a technical know-how concerning language (formal strategy) and develop an increasingly separate mental system in which they are able to think ideas in the foreign language (internalization strategy)”.

2.2.The Scope of Strategy Training

According to Barrow (2003, p.7), “training is very specific and is concerned with the mastering of a particular task or set of tasks”. Oxford (1990) argues that “the best strategy training not only teaches language learning but also deals with feelings and beliefs about taking on more responsibility and about the role change implied by the use of learning strategies” (p.201). She emphasized the role of ST in dealing with learners’ attitudes and emotions since it provides learners with how to use and how to improve the LS and make them more aware of how they can deploy them.

Macaro (2001) suggests various issues that should be taken into consideration while conducting a ST research or program. Among these issues, he sheds light on “what strategies that the learner should be exposed to and, particularly, what combinations of strategies” (p.175). In addition, teachers should be aware while teaching strategies, of whether they foster and embed them as part of the language learning or keep them separate. Macaro (2001, p.176) raises the issue of whether learners should “be conscious of the strategy they are being taught, with full evaluation of the strategy program, or should they simply be given random opportunities to practise using strategies”.

Grenfell and Harris (1990) identified six steps used in strategy training. These steps include:

- Raise student’s awareness,

- help them brainstorm the strategies used, - model the strategies,

- have them practise the strategies,

- guide them in selecting the strategies that address their particular needs, - evaluate their progress and strategy use.

2.3Types of Strategy Training

According to Oxford, LLSs can be taught in at least three different ways: awareness training, one-time strategy training, and long-term strategy training.

2.3.1 Awareness Training

It is also called conscious-raising or familiarization training. In this type, participants are aware and familiar with the general idea of the LS and aware of the way such strategy can help to accomplish various tasks. However, they do not have to use the strategies on the spot in actual language tasks. These participants can be teachers, students and anyone else who is interested in language learning processes. This type of ST is very important because it is often the individual’s introduction to the concept of learning strategies. It should be funny and motivating so that participants will be encouraged to expand their knowledge of strategies at a later time. Hence, it is better not to use the lecture format for awareness training (Oxford, 1990).

2.3.2 One-time Strategy Training

This type of ST involves learning and participating one or more strategies with actual language tasks. It gives learners information on the value of the strategy, how to evaluate the success of the strategy, how and when to use it. One-time ST is appropriate for learners who have a need for particular, identifiable and very targeted strategies because it is not connected to a long term sequence of strategy training (Oxford, 1990).

2.3.3 Long-term Strategy Training

This is the third type of ST which is like the ‘one time strategy training’. It involves learning and practicing strategies with actual language tasks. Therefore, it should be tied to the tasks and objectives of the language program. However, long term ST is more prolonged and covers a greater number of strategies. It is likely to be more effective than one-time strategy training (Oxford, 1990).

2.4. The Importance of Strategy Training

Strategy training represents a process during which language learners are taught a range of strategies which are helpful for them and which make their learning more effective. Moreover, it is also known as ‘learner training’. Ellis and Sinclair (1989, p.2) maintain that learner training aims to help learners consider the factors that affect their learning and discover the learning strategies that suit them best so that they may become more effective learners and take on more responsibility for their learning.

Although many terms to ST have been put forward by several researchers, they all converge that strategy training provides language learners with a wide range of strategies which help them acquire the language more easily and more effectively and makes them

realize their successful learning even outside the classroom by being more autonomous. In addition, ST reduces test and performance anxiety and lowers the learners stress and anxiety. Edwards (1988) indicates his personal interest in teaching strategy study. He mentioned his research that was on students whose performance is affected by anxiety. His research focuses on training the learners by using various techniques that help them perform better on test.

2.5. Goals for Strategy Training

It has been argued that learning will be facilitated through making learners more aware of the various strategies which they employ during the learning process. Raising their awareness could be achieved when strategy training is incorporated and provided. Furthermore, learners should not only know what to learn but also how to learn. They need also to realize the strategies that are integrated in the lesson in order to achieve the course goals. For Dornyei (2005) various ST frameworks share several goals which can be stated as follows:

● Raise the learners’ awareness of learning strategies and model strategies overtly along with the task.

● Encourage strategy use and give a rationale for it.

●Offer a wide menu of relevant strategies for learners to choose from. ● Offer controlled practice in the use of some strategies.

● Provide some sort of a post-task analysis which allows students to reflect on their strategy use. (p. 174)

On the other hand, Cohen (2003) suggests that strategy training aims to provide learners with the tools to do the following:

● Self-diagnose their strengths and weaknesses in language learning.

● Become aware of what helps them to learn the target language mostefficiently. ● Develop a broad range of problem-solving skills.

● Experiment with familiar and unfamiliar learning strategies. ● Make decisions about how to approach a language task. ● Monitor and self-evaluate their performance.

● Transfer successful strategies to new learning context. (p.1)

2.6. Incorporating Strategy Training in EFL Materials

Foreign language textbooks have started to incorporate strategies on their curricula. However, unless the strategies are incorporated and explained by teachers, students may not be aware of their existence or will not know how to employ them. Cohen (2003) states that, “a few language textbooks provide strategy embedded activities and explicit explanation of benefits and application of strategies they address”(p.1). Apart from that, an important question that can be linked with strategy training is ‘how to incorporate strategy training for learners?’ Oxford suggests eight steps to design strategy training. These steps are described in a scale named as Oxford’s model (Oxford, 1990):

- determine the learners’ needs and the time available, -select strategies well,

-consider integration of strategy training, -consider motivational issues,

-prepare materials and activities,

-conduct ‘completely informed training’ -evaluate the strategy training,