CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT FOR PROMOTING SELF-CONFIDENCE IN AFRICA
Public Administration. Human Resources and Social Development DIvIsion August 1993
UNITED NATIONS
Economic CommIssion for Africa
Table of Contents
Introduction 1
II Pr.colonlal Era 2
(a) Physical Development 2
(b)
Character Development 3(c) Intellectual Training 3
(d) Agriculture 3
(e)
Trade and Crafts 3(f) Community Development 4
(g) Promoting Cultural Hentage 4
(h) Health Educatron 4
(I) CIVICEducation and leadershipSkIllsTraining 5
III The Colonial Curriculum 7
IV Polt·lndependence Curnculum Development 9
V Strudural Changes and Reform Programmes 10
(a) The Primary Level 16
(b)
The Secondary Level 18(c) The Tertiary Level 23
VI Subjects which Promote for Hlnd.r
SeH-Confidence 27
(a) Social Studies • 27
(I) The Preplanned Core 28
(II) The Open Core 30
(b)
Maral Education 33(c) Vocational Subjects 34
(d) Mathematics and the SCiences 36
(I) For Teachers 40
(II) For the Student 41
(III) For the Programme 42
(e)
The Creative Arts 43(f) Languages 44
VII View some Issues on th. African Teacher
Training Colleges 45
VIII Some ClOSing Thoughts 49
REFERENCES . 51
I. Introduction
Meaningful and productive curriculum development for promoting self-confidenceIn Afncan youths can be achieved only when research and development are Afrrcan-centred and rooted In the African cUlture Equally Important IS the aspect of relevance Few, If any, African curricula give as much as an Impression of being related to the needs. culture, aspirations and environment of the African people
ThiS, by apparent consensus, ISwhy curriculum documents I']'
African countnes reveal a common trend towards the restructuring of entire educational systems More and more traditional educational systems Inherited from the colorual governments are beingchallenged~
even discarded Some schools are opting for teaching skills and training for vocation and self-reliance Such schools are, therefore, expected to provide curricula With a bias for practical subjects rather than"bookrsh" knowledge alone
In order to fully appreciate why education In most third world countnesIn general and Africa In particular IScharacterised as being irrelevant, a brief hrstoncal background of the evolution of the educational process In Afnca IS necessary A discussron of the pre-colonial, coloma] and post-colonial and post-Independence curnculum development penods will follow, as well as an analysis of subjects which tend to promote self-confidenceInthe outputs of the system
II. Pre-Colonial Era
Prior to the Implantation of Western curnculum structures and matenals Into African educational Institutions, there existed an indigenous African curriculum which was basically Informal In nature, meaning that the transmission of knowledge and skills was oral, unstructured and unsystematic The Skills, knowledge and expenences acquired were Inthe Intellectual economic. physical, social and moral domains of education that children learnt at home as well as In their environment at large Again, It must be emphasised that the two chief modes of transmitting such knowledge and expenences were oral as well as through demonstration Children generally listened, observed, and were expected to either repeat tasks orally or Imitate the actions of the Instructor who could be a parent, relative or a skilled member of the society
It IS equally Important to note that there was no systematic curriculum development and evaluation since most activities and expenences were not documented Very often, the body of knowledge resided within the Individual Instructor Hence, training was largely earned out by apprenticeship AsSaha-Bao(1989) states,
"Theapprenticeship system began a wider education process In which SOcieties passed on their cultural hentage from one generation to the next The skills of a family were highly treasured and some skills such as rnedione and blacksmithing Jealously guarded· (p 4)
Although the African indrqenous curriculum was not documented Saha-Bao Identifies some elements that comprised this curriculum They Included physrcal development, development of character, Intellectual training, training In agnculture, trade, crafts, community development, promoting the cultural hentage and,Ifwe may add to thisrrnpressrve ust, health education
Let us briefly examine each of the above aspects as they contributed to ennchmq the African Indigenous curnculum
(a) Physical Development
The element of physical development In the indigenous curnculum promoted physical fitness and health through various community artivmes such playful
exereses
and competitive games (forexample acrobatic displays, Jumping, carrYing goods, hiking, weight lifting and danonq, to mention Just these) Some of these activities were geared towards adapting the Individual to his environment and were generally held on special feast days, usually In the evenings, when the adults returned from theirfarms
(b) Character Development
Character training and religious education are universally pursued virtues Africa was no exception Therefore, character development was vigorously pursued through oral Instruction In folklore, religious rituals and indigenous proverbs The very essence of such activities and pracnces was to develop courteous attitudes towards elders (standing or bowing when saluting an elder, greeting an elder with both hands) and towards the opposite sex children who flouted this unwntten code of ethrcs were sWiftly punished It IS
probably thanks to general adherence to these social and moral norms that order and peace prevailed In African commurutres
(c) Intellectual Training
The development of the Intellect was earned out through reciting proverbs, poetry, folk tales, Initiation rites, nddles and cultural quizzes and recounting past history, to mention Just these One needed a good memory to keep records, learn cult language, and perform simple money counting
(d) Agriculture
Everyone In the African society lived off the farm Even today the majority of the Afncan population live In rural areas and stili make then hVlng by practising farming Agriculture was, and remains, a popular source of Income and subsistence Basically, the younger generation learnt the art of farming by observation, Imitation and through practical demonstration
(e) Trade and
CraftsThrsaspect of the curriculum Included practical applications of learning to weave, carve, paint, build, drum, sew thatches, sew
dresses, make soap, plait hair, and so on AU the material was locally available Again, the length of apprenticeship vaned from craft to craft Trading by barter was predormnant Inthrspenod, With monetary exchange (using cowries) being the exception rather than the rule
(f) Community Development
Citizens within any given community worked on all major projectsas a team Some of these projects Included bll'uldlng roads, market places, homes, bridges and assembly halls This approach to projects within the community fostered a healthy team ~Int,
comradeship andcohesion among the members of any gIVen African sooety
(g) Promoting Cultural Heritage
The indigenous curriculum also encouraged cultural activities The primary purpose of transmitting certain Important aspects of the culture was to enable the child to observe and practise the lore ofrus community, for example, rehqrous ntuals, shrine services. harvest festivals dances and the art of playing Indigenousmusicalinstruments Other cultural activities transmitted to the younger generations Included handrcrafts. metalwork, leatherwork, carving, ceramrcs, cooking various African dishes (for girls) and hunting(forboys) (h) HealthEducation
Personal cleanliness and household cleaning were habitual practices vIsible In the traditional curriculum As It pertained to personal hygiene, the African parent taught the child howto keep clean For example,hibiscuscuttings were used asch~Wlng sticksto dean the teeth HibiSCUS leaves were also used for washing clothes before the arrival of laundry soap The surroundings were swept dally and children picked up these habits through observation
Traditional midwives successfully performed the delivery of babies since hospitals were nonexistent Finally, young girls were taught to take care of themselves especially dunng their menstrual penod
An appraisal of the indigenous curriculum reveals that It had some shortcommgs, but also had some advantages As was Indicated earlier, the indigenous cumculum was not documented and only bodies of knowledge available en the local environment could be transmitted to the younger generation of that locality Hence, as the older generations passed away, some of the tradition and culture that was not handed down to the younger generation was lost It IS also Important to note that all learntng activities and experiences were Imposed on the learner Independent of his personal Interest, and because there was no research earned out, Ideas were seldom updated
Nevertheless, the indrqenous curriculum, despite Its shortcoming, had some definite and outstanding advantages first, the dnll of pedagogic acnvines was direct and Immediate since performance was VISible The student was assessed not only by the instructor but byhis peers and others Second, this curnculum was,
"orqaruzed around constant living acnvrtres and It provided educational expenences and direct methodology an symbrosis With society' (Sahs-Bao, 1989, p 6) Third, instruction matenal could eaSily be obtained locally Furthermore, "the CUrriculum was job-onented and the mdrvidual was Involved and Integrated into It, so unemployment was scarce' (Saha-Boa p 6) fourth, It encouraged a more cohesive society because of the stress laid on moral development Above all, the language of
rnstrucnon
was the mother tongue of the people There IS, therefore, httle wonder that the Indigenous At/f1can curriculum fostered self-confrdence Inthe Afncan youth through activrtres such as entertainment, communication, production, distribution and consumption of goods and services and JudiCIOUS useojleisure time,
(i) Civic Education and Leadership Skills Training
DUringthrspenod, although education was mainly Informal, It was not necessanly haphazard because It was used as an Instrument for promoting SOCial stability as well as Incorp[ orating an IndiVidual Into soaety, prepanng him/her for roles assigned to him/her by SOCiety, and for communicating values, Skills, knowledgeand attitudes so as to engageIn productive acnvmes In a given society Forthrspurpose, the curriculum had strong elements of SOCial studies - geography, oral history,CIVICS, cornmurutyand leadership training
Through the process of learning byliving and domq, traditional education equipped the young with communal and responsibrhtres through the acquismon of knowledge and skills for engaging In
productive activities as well as attitudes and values for proper SOCialization Inallthese cases,thefamily and the commumty played the very Important role of an educator whereas the rural setting and environment played the role of the school After all, the street has provided fertile ground for education
We will not focus our discussion on the curnculum development Inthe colonial epoch
III. The Colonial Curriculum
The colonial curriculum had basically two major thrusts - the evangelistic outreach approach to convert "paqan" Africans to Christianity and to train young African personnel for clerical-type duties This curriculum was designed to meet the demands and expectations of the colonial masters At best, It was an Imported western model and the needs, Interests, totally Ignored
In both rrussron and public schools the pnnopal media of Instruction were European colonial languages such as English, French, Spanish and Portuguese, wrth very limited use of Afncan languages of wider communication
It IS only fair to mention that rrussion schoolsrnmatedthe three fundamental skills of reading, wntlng and arithmetic (known as the 3 R's as a fall-off from their two-pronged goal of prosehsmq the Ipagan' Afncan and produonq an Indigenous elite The training of young Afncans10the basicskrlls thus paved the way for the 'creation of the new African elite, and when this elite later began to assume the rems ofresponsibihty,the educational system created bore the marks of the arrentation of Its founders" (Levme, 1964, p 69)
Adrstmquishmq charactensnc between the rrussron and public schools In this era was that the rmssrons took an Interest In the local languages In order to enable the African people to read the BIble In their own mother tongues It IS obVIOUS that thrs strategy of the rrussronaneswas mutually benefioal to both parties --on the one hand the natives could read the gospel on the other the rmssronarres got to understand the local cultures
A common charactenstic of the colorual curriculum was that In all of Afrrca, the curriculum was generally defined as ahstof subjects on the school time-table The subjects Included the 3 R's singing, geography, history, drawmq, religion (especially for rmssion schools) and' arts and crafts In addition, the colonial curriculum Included a syllabus, schemes of work, record of work and foreign textbooks The notion of the curriculum being synonymous to school subjects could be traced to the latin word"currus"which means school subjects from nursery to university level
Unlike the pre-colorual curriculum, the colonial curnculum ISan Imported model that was Imposed on the indigenous Afncan people Also, this curriculum did not reflect the needs, culture and reahstic aspirations of the colonies Therefore, Itwas bound to come short of fostering self-confidence In the African youth Much as the colonial curriculum hadItsshortcomings, many of the subjects which featured
Inthe colonial curnculum continue to dominate the post-Independence curricula In Africa and for this reason
we.
shall not diSCUSS the post-independence curriculum development efforts and their effects on African developmentIV. Post-Independence Curriculum Development
In the wake of Independence, many African countries resolutely sought to bnng changes In their educational systems As Salle-Bao states, leach country discussed new educational polices thatIthoped would provide a sense of national Unity, a satisfactory type of education, bothInquantity and quality, and a high level of manpower surtable for national development projects" In reality, colonial education was very elitist, foreign divorced from African life and generally Irrelevant to African development, self-confidence and culture One of the leading advocates for educational reform, the former president Nyerere of Tanzania, commenting on colonial education, said that It ·,nduced attitudes of human Inequality, was based on race and fostered the values of a different society and simply offered too littletortoo few (1967, P 5)
The fad that most African governments widely recognised and acknowledged that their curricula were a remnant of the colonial past, gave Impetus for curriculum reforms to be undertaken by the majority of African countries
v.
Structural Changes and Reform ProgrammesTo make curnculurn development more relevant to the needs of the majority of Africans, a seriesof reform measuresInthe educational system
were
undertaken An analysrs of the reform measures, problems, Issues and constraints to the Implementation of the programmes IS worthwhileIt IS Important to note that most commurutres In Africa today have probably nothing to say about the school curriculum, not because of lack of Interest, but largely because the deoston-rnakmq processIS mostly centralised Examples of these are (a) the Institutes of Education at Ahmadu Bello and Sierra Leone universities of West Africa, (b) a non-university Institution of education like Kenya Institute of Education, and (c) curriculum development centres like those In Ghana, Cameroon and Zambia, and curriculum units within the ministries of Education
Examplesof decentralized curriculum centresInAfrica are those of Namutamby Rural Education Project whIChstartedInUganda In 1967 and the IFE SIX Year Primary project In Nigeria
Some countries are also making efforts to restructure the curriculum to conform to theneedsof the majonty wholiveIn the rural areas Among the few countries who are moving towards thrs direction IS Cameroon The Cameroon MInistry of Education has redesiqned Its curriculum to Include rural education Teachers are given special training for thrspurpose at the Institute Rural Oriented Applied Education Other countnes may follow Cameroon's example Bude (1985) postulates that lithe Idea of the primary school havmq a community onentation has met With Increasing support In the reform
drscussron
of the past decade- (p 17)In fact, In the Conference of the African Ministers of Education heldInLagos, Nigeria, 1976, the Importance of the local community In primary school reform was clearly shown Reforms at primary school level were to be governed by three qurdehnes,namely
(I) the linking of school and the community (II) the hnklng of school and working life
(III) the strengthening of the African Cultural Identity
It was also discussed at this conference that the knowledge and skills provided at school, were to serve directly the Improvement of hVlng conditions and the development of rural areas Confidence was to be placed on self-reliant development and In this connection, the commurunes were expected to Increase theirfmancral support for their schools In order to ease the strain on the national education project The school was In turn expected to provide agricultural extension services, organize literacy and assist people In dealing With public literacy courses, assist people In dealing With public authorrnes, and initiate and control projects to Improve the local Infrastructure The tendency towards an Orientation of the school to the needs of the community was reinforced and emphasised dunnq the Harare ConferenceIn1982
Advocates of thrs concept of community-oriented primary education as a factor In rural development, have always been optmusnc regarding the possibilmes of Implementing trusconcept Bowers (1970), for example, wrote In 1970 that "nothmq but good can result from any movement towards the community school Ideal although an analysis of the failures encounteredInAfrica Inthrsrespect would have provided a sufficient number of arguments In favour of a more cautious Judgement" (p 227)
We believe that such a community-oriented school can contribute towards rural development m Africa only If Its performance and achievement are better than those of the extant traditional academically oriented pnmary school andIfIt finds suffioent demand for Its services to Improve hVlng conditions Only under such expectation Will parents and pupils be ready to change their attitudes and accept the extended role of their schools
Far too many projectsInAfrica end at the pilot level Therefore, we recommend that the cornmuruty-onented school reform project be Implemented nation Wide,In order to avoid any failures that could result from a restncted apphcanon
Furthermore, the enhance the survivabrlrty of commurnty-onented schools, It must be In partnership With the community members The primary school must not restrict Itself to Imparting only acadermcknowledge which IS Isolated from Its pracncal application Therefore, Its hvmq processes must relate to expenence
In the local environment In order to ensure long term retention Consequently, parents ought to be united to give talks on local history or give demonstrationInpractical skills Teachers should enlist the help of all the reliable people they can find In the community towards supplementing their efforts They should actively seek for cooperation from local craftsmen, farmers, hunters, fishermen, mechamcs, and salesmen and women, as well as those Involved with such public services as health, agnculture, and forestry
Bude writes that reform attempts to place the pnmary school at the service of rural development have lagged far behmd the lofty expectations which provoked them He concluded by saYing that only In a few Isolated cases, has there been cooperation between the community and school
In Tanzania, for Instance, where roots In the Tanzaruan philosophy of education are based In Ujarnaa (roughly meaning family-hood), education has been made more relevant for Tanzanians, with the main goal being self-reliance Accordingly, education IS designed to prepare everyone for the general practical Skills, so that those who are not able to pursue further education could, from graduating from the primary school, become functional and productive Other attempts to Introduce curnculum reform measures are In the areas of Maths, SOCIalSCiences, and Afncan Social Studies programme Unfortunately. these three examples of curriculum reform
were
external In origin and therefore not firmly rooted In the tradition of applicabilityFirst, the Afncan mathematics Programme, popularly knownas the EntebbeMathematics(because thefmal deosionto use It In Africa was taken at Entebbe, Uganda, In 1962), was aimed at rmprovmq the quality of mathematics teaching and to develop In each paruopant country a nucleus of people knowledgeable In mathematics and capable of Improving the mathematics curriculum The Entebbe
Mathematics project for the West African Regional Mathematics Programme (ARMP) and the East African Regional Mathematics Programme (EARM), faded for two chief reasons
(I) It remained a very much tied to the American School Mathematics study group where It had been modelled from
(II) It did not equally address Itself to the aim or objective In relation to the developmental needs of the schoolleavers,
nor was It basea on sufficient knowledge of the African children, teachers, and schools that could use It
Second, The Afncan Primary SCience Programme (APSP) had Its onqm from the philosophy and structure from expenmental Amencan curriculum project, such as the PhysIcal SCience Study Committee (PSSC) Its primary goal was to encourage the development of soentrnc thinking In children and provide an atmosphere In which soennfic education could function effectively Children are taught how to discover patterns and relationship between the physical and biological phenomena The APSP too, sad to say, was, according to Sahe-Bao, less effective In Africa than else where because
(I) SCience IS not a primary subject In Africa, especially when It ISViewed through the distorting lens of selection ex- amination
(II) APSP matenals have been slow to gain acceptance be- cause the methods of their development (which offer choice and demands local initiative) and the philosophy of their content (inquiry based) demands radical new approachesIncountries where most children are seen and not heard
Third, the African SOCIal Studies Programme (ASSP) IS considered the least successful of the Afncan programmes Initiated by the Amencan Educational Development Centre At the 1961 MassachusettesInstituteof Technology Conference a subcornmrss.on was established to study the need to create a SOCial~ogramme In Afnca whichWill address the needsof.
tne
primary, secondary and tertiary Institutions In Africa There was a follow-up conference In Mombasa In .1968 Again the failure of these efforts are threefold-fundmqwas
less than satisfactory, the effects have been vaned, and western approaches which have no relevance to the African contexts were IntroducedOne could also ask what curnculum development Inroads
have
been made by the SOCialist countnes of Afnca Bude provides a response to trus question He asserts that ·even the reforms undertakenIn the SOCialist countries of Afnca have not yet pernutted any definitive empirical condusions expect for the case of Tanzania where the educational system has pnmanly benefited Clv.1 servants" (p 10) Other countnes have Just began timidly taking reform measures or making proposals
On the whole, the shifting of curriculum development and Implementation efforts In Africa can be attributed to a number of persistent constraints
First, political red-tape and the baste Interest of the ruling oligarchies to preserve the bilateral and multilateral flow of developmental aid without having to relinquish their privileges
Second, according to Bude, recourse to the values of the pre-colomal education system IS prejudicedbythe reahty of the western social sector In Afnca, shaped byvalues and economic opportursties which are quite different and were hardly revised when pohtical Independence was attained
Third, In many African countnes curClculurn development IS
artifiCIally divorced from curriculum Implementation because the two activities come under two different departments or Institutions The curnculum development centres receive funds for developing the curnculum and not for Implementing, since the -later comes In the budget of the Inspectorate which IS charged With the Implementation phase Because there ensts no real commurncatron between these two arms of the mmistry of education, well-conceived curnculum projects have failed at the Implementation stage Much discussion has taken place In the literature about limited matenal and fmanoal resources which IS true. but the literature has overlooked the Implementation phase of finanonq these potentially excellent projects Furthermore. many curnculurn projects are carried out Without feasrbrhty studies, and the lack of systematic pla'ln·~·~-foT Implementation of the reforms has resulted In failure for many programmes
Fourth, despite the ambmous analysis and recommendation made In the late 1970's and early 1980's at the international level to resolve the Intolerable conditions In the African countnes, httle has changed for the majority of the population concerned, Instead poverty and Injustice have Increased Factors which accounted for these persistent Situation are as follows
(a) The knowledge and skills offered In Afncan schools bear little to the Immediate envaonment Instead they are based on Ideals and values whICh onqmate from the west and have little In common With the liVing conditions prevailing In Africa and espeCiallythose of the rural areas
I
This statement has strong support from Bude who states that Ithe Impressive qualitative expansion of the educa- tional system In all black Afncan countries can thus be describe as a pyrrhic victory, over a stili cnsis-prone educa- tional development rather than as a contribution towards autonomous sooal and economic development While many young Afncans abandon school one or more years and rejom the ranks of the Illiterates, many of the others who survive to the end discover that even after success- fully completmq school they cannot find Jobs which march their aspirations and requirements' (p 13)
(b) The school contmues to anent children towards western requirements and values and alienating them from their own Afncan environment and culture Text books and external as well as Internal examlOatlons have to a large degree00relevance to the African context Clark (1978) makes this pomt when he said Western education IS
often Irrelevant, It leads to neglect of local arts and crafts and the rural way of life and leaves many young people With knowledge they cannot apply or use' (p 138) In like manner, Thompson (1977) observed that 'he system, the mstrtutrons, the curricula, and methodologies have survived largely unchanged and In pracnce largely unchallenged for reasons which stem from inertial factors With both the systems themselves and the SOCieties they serve- (p 158) It thus becomesmcreasmq- Iyurgent to1001<for solutions which Will adapt the extant formal school system to the needs and development perspectives of the African continent
(c) The African schools that have been patterned after the western models put a high premium upon mere literacy trammq at the expense of vocational education No wonder teachers have reverted to traditional means of dehvennq mstructions and children Simply memorise cur- riculum content Nevertheless, we believe that a close study of the curriculum and teaching, and of the cultural needs and environment of the African people, could bring about the needed relevance and foster self-confidenceIn the Afncan learners And curriculum aqenoes such as the
schools, colleges md universities shouldcarryoutstudres
that are activrty-centred, and that can be used In cur- nculum development In fact, ItISthe findings from such studies that could be used as the basis for textbooks and curnculum matenal for schools, colleges and uruversmes In addition, all foreign curriculum theories adapted for African use must be substituted with genuine research
that IS based on the re-mteraction of knowledge on psychological, sociological and philosophrcal principles of the African people Thrs, Inmy opmion, would form the bedrock of development related curnculumInAfrica (d) Finally, Indigenous African languages are scarcely used In
the African school system The benefits to be derived from studyingInone's own mother tongue are enormous Most cultural aspects are brought alive to the learner and the student can eastlyrelate to whatIStaught and done So far, In the paper, we have had to examine some of the structural changes and reform programmes In Africa and the problems, Impact and effects on curriculum development In the continent our next major focus will be to critically analyze some of the subject biases at the various levels within the continent's educational systems To achievethis goal, we shall examine subject biases at the primary, secondary and tertiary sectors of the various educational system
(a) The Primary Level
The subjects on the curriculum of the primary schools Include arithmetic, reading, writing, singing, rehqion, geography, history, drawmq, CIVICS, arts and handicrafts, nature study, rural science and phystcal education In most schools the curriculum at the elementary levelISconceived as encompassing the functions of general education, as well as the functions of exploratory and enrichment education
!be
stress on basIC skills ISnot adeQuate to produce lastIng Interest for Wider and richer learnlOg More emphasis and timeISgiven to subjects like anthrnenc, English history and geography, whICh accentuate Intellectual skills than vocational type subjects like arts and crafts, rural SCience, nature study and agriculture, which are more relevant to the child's environment and culture Dewey had sensed this need long ago when he wrote that "at the elementary level, career education
could ·be conceived as a means of revealing to children the sooal signifICance of activities that keep a society functioning, of developing a genuine SPirit of democratic community hfe, and of making the practical studies allies of the arts and centre of science and history- (p /18)
Another major bias of the Afncan primary education lies In the extant traditional form where great emphasisISplaced on academic subjects lIke those cited above. designed to prepare youngsters for secondary schools For many rural children the present resistance towards agricultural acnvmes only encourages graduates to look for Jobs In the modern Industrial sector, or white collar Jobs, thereby exacerbating rural exodus and urban unemployment If however, Institutions at the primary level are adapted to meet the practical agricultural requirements and prepare the pupils for a future In
farming, It could be assumed that young people would remain In the rural areasafter completing their primary education Since the exrstmq schools are not quite doing their Job. the framework of prevailing SOCial conditionsISlikely to strengthen underdevelopmentInAfrica In sum, what we are advocating ISoffering our African youths a clear option of pursumq studies at the college level or graduating from the primary school with adequate skillsIn the arts or crafts and agriculture to become useful, functional and productive members In tlietr SOCIeties Many Independent African states are stili searching for new ways of redesiqnmq their pnmary school systems to achieve a better accommodation with the sooo-econormc and cultural requirements of their respective SOcieties
A further major plight faonq the bias of the primary curriculum
IS the high dropout rate Thrs bleak Situation In African schools IS
descnoed by Malassis (1976) as follows Where primary schools exist, they often lack the necessary Intellectual and materialequipment Teachers follow a short course of general education and their vocational training ISoften neglected Attendance ISIrregular and tends to fall off as the children grow older The beqmner-dasses are overcrowded whIle classrooms for the older children are almost deserted on average 500/0 of children leave pnmary school before completing the course' (p 88) This high dropout rate could be reducedIf the primary school curnculum was tailored to meet the children's needs and their environment In
thrs
case, the primary school must not restrict Itself to Impacting only academic knowledge Isolated from Its pracncal applicationthe skills of hand, together wrth the skills of observation, analysis, and Inferences which are essential to the forming of sound Judgement- (p3)
PresentdayIdeas of social studies advocate anmterdscphnary approach to teaching Some of the interdisciplinary programmes deal with themes hke What ISman? How are people ahke to different' An example of such an approach IS developed at the Amadu Bello UniversityInNigeria, and designed for secondary schools Excerpts of the socal studies syllabus stipulate Year I Theme I (a) Man Influences his physical environment (construction work, roads, bridges, farms, houses), (b) Man Influencedbyhis physical environment (light (day), time to work, dark (night) time to sleep, rains, floods), (c) man Influences his sooal environment (music, religion. goods and services), (d) man ISInfluenced by his social environment (laws and customs)
In the creative arts and techmcal core domain, courses are geared towards the acquisrtion of technical and practical skills Generally, students are taught such technical subjects as auto-mecharucs, drawing, modelling, painting, electnoty, carpentry, woodwork, pre-architectural courses, pre-enqmeennq courses, manual arts and crafts, and theatre arts In the technological domain, courses such as telecornmurucatrons. media, telephone, electronics and radio-mechanics are offered
Most of the coursesInthe creative arts, although they can be considered useful for ourtechnotoqicalage, fall to Include aspects that are more relevant to the continent's milieu and culture For Instance, Indigenous arts should be IncludedInthe existmq curnculum, such as the makmq of masks, woodwork, sculpture, body parntmq, carving, pottery and the teachmg of African music through the use of Instruments like the drum, flute, gong and rattles Other components of the arts and social studies curriculum could be Iron-working (knives, cutlasses, farming tools, buudmq traditional huts, weapon making (bowsand arrows, swords, shields, slings), and wea~ng)
Saha-Boa argues In favour of Indigenous art Through studYing Afncan arts, we can see what the people think, communicate and beheve, and these Ideas could very well quide the CUrriculum expertIn curriculum development The mystery of good art, he continues, cuts across cultural barriers, whereas the message may probably not Art andrehqron,as well as theoretical and aesthenc consrderanonsshould contribute to curriculum content In Afncan education However,
indJgenous Afncan art needs further research for Inclusion In our curriculum development efforts
Manypost-primary InstitutionsIn African are constructed along ngld hnes of secondary grammar, secondary cornrneroal-vocatronal, secondary techmcal-technoloqical and secondary comprehensive schools In many cases also, the proportion of secondary grammar schoolsISprobably three times as many as any of the other secondary options listed above ThisISequally true for arts and scence related subjects as opposed to the technical and technoloqical subjects
The trend IS that many more youngsters opt of secondary grammar schools with the hope of pursumq a university education The stark reality IS that many drop out for reasons ranging from academic inabilities to lack of funding The technical, vocational and I tedmologrcal schools are also, usually so poorly equtpped that skills and knowledge gained are very often not useful to the graduate In the real world Therefore, for the above reasons, we recommend that more comprehensive secondary schools be established so that youngsters we are not able to enter university or who drop out, could be given the opportunity to follow alongside the purely academic subjects, vocational subjects, In order to seek gainful employment In skilled occupations In case of failure to succeed on to purely acadenuc disophnes This will clearly create an option for secondary school leavers to either pursue post-seconuary education or graduate from school to become productive members of the sooety The creation of more comprehensive schools, we believe, would Imbue the students With knowtedge and skills In general and
vocational
education In addmon, we should create occupational Internships, which would permit work related kinds of experiences that would be easily InterrelatedIQterms of career development and vocational educational optionsFurthermore, we must have programmes that reiterate the Importance of the acculturation of the adolescent In sooetybyrelating education to the world of work through actual work expenence To accomplish this goal, Increasing recognition ought to be given to the SOCialiZing and vocational education function of the secondary programme In preparing secondary school leavers to meet the developmental tasks of life
Tanner and Tanner (1980) argue that "smce some or m some cases most of the youth do not go to the university after graduating
from high-school, more systematic efforts must be given to designing the secondary school curriculum to enable adolescents to meet the
bro-sooo-psycholoqicaltasks that provide the basisfor lifesuccess" (p
459) We add that courses such as driving, typIng, basic-kncwledqe In the use of computers and consumer education be Included In the curriculum of the proposed comprehensive secondary programmes Equally Important IS the Idea that more
emphasis
be placed In the Interdependence of the various cognitive, affective and brosooal developmental process For example, the art of creation actually ISa wedding of cognitive, affective, and the various other bio-sooo-psycholoqicalprocesses Similarly, value systems are not only connected organically to moral development, but If they are founded on reason rather than bias and Impulses, such systems and development are modified through the contmuous evaluation of knowledge and experience Consequently, Tanner and Tanner concludeIIlthat the human organismISseen not as a set of mechanical responses but as bemg capable of continuous growth through the reconstructron ofexperrence" (p 459)Of grave concern to the African CUrriculum development efforts for secondary schoolsISthe aspect of mathemancs and the sciences Genuine economic development cannot take place without a mastery In these subjects Therefore, the CUrriculum concerns should focus on the soences and mathematics especially asItpertains to research, since science and mathernancs have been observed to bnng students an touch with the real world For example, mathemancs textbooks especially those written abroad do not carry examples that the learner can IdentIfy WIth We need textbooks replete WIth local examples that the adolescents can Identify WIth A Similar concern can be advanced for the sciences SCIence textbooks are, In the main, wrrtten for a foreign audience, that IS, for students who study In western secondary schools, and often WIth less than scant reference to their Afncan counterparts Similarly, all chemicals used for experiments are Imported Would It not be wise to use local substitutes for some expenments In the soencesJ
Worse stili IS the case of external examinations DUring the practical of the Advanced levelGeEbiology examination for example, foreign dead Insects or animals are shipped to local examination centresInAfrica to be dissectedbycandidates WouldItnot be much cheaper to use local Insects or animals and plants for the same purposes' In the course of their programme, the students are
Introduced to and use local plants, animals, Insects for experimental purposes Why should they be tested uSing different speamens of plants, Insects or animals dUring their final examinations 7
Finally, It IS Widely observed that students In the Afncan secondary schools receive InstructionInforetgn languages Except for rare projects such as the IFE SIX Year project In Nigeria where the mother tongue IS used as one of the main languages of Instruction, few other Afncan countnes have attempted to teach students uSing the Indigenous languages The use of the mother tongue In teaching poses a real challenge to curriculum experts and educationist However, Instruction given In the students' own language has a lot to offer The examples Cited are definitely gOing to l!>efamiliar to the learner and explanations eaSily understood because the teacher will be speaking WithIn the learners frame of reference
In the area of literature, foreign textbooks are generally used In the Afncan secondary schools From the characters In the novels to the plot of stones everythingISforeign For example literature books like Macbeth, Romeo and Juiliet, Great Expectations, Hard Times, Horace, Andromaque, and others are culturally biased We have experts In literature to wnte an African literature and folktales that have morals and messages that depict ethical standards and tell us of Afncan heroes and adventures But somehow, we are so biased against our literacy experts In favour of foreign writers Literature books byCbmua Achelse, Wale SOylnka etc should feature more In our literature syllabuses Such works Will enhance self-confidence In the African youth It ISonly after we have taught our children based on African literature and culture that they can be Introduced to foreign literature
(e)
The Tertiary LevelInstitutions of the tertiary sector Include the traditional university faculties of arts and seances and professional schools such as" the medical school, the school of dentistry, the school of engineering, the school of agriculture, polytechruques. and others In many countries the problem of unemployed graduates does not usually come from the professional or para-professional schools, but from the classical faculties Within the university Itself
The dilemma faced by the continent'suruversrties IS that they are looked upon as the source of remedy to society's developmental problems But a vast majority of the universities have not tailored their education to meet the expectations of the citizenry, satisfy their groWing aspirations to sound knowledge, and enhance achievements for a better and more rewarding hfe, since Its curricula stili bears the marks of the colonial curriculum
With an Inherited and trasported model of university education from France and Britain, much IS stili to be desred of the kind of knowtedge, skills and attitudes transmitted, because they meet the needs neither of the learner nor society What these universities need IS curricula that are adapted to the learner's needs and aspirations and oriented towards the reahties of the African culture
On may ask the question why the extant curricula are Irrelevant?
Apart from the fact that It IS an Imported model, It IS common knowledge that the bulk of textbooks used especiallyat the university level are authored and printed abroad (Berghe, 1973, Yoloye, 1986) One cannot talk of contextuahsmq curriculum and content while we continue to use textbooks conceved and produced not With the African In mind There IS therefore, a genuine obhqanon to write textbooks whICh will be the core of the Afncan arts and science curricula More Importantly, In the attempt to adapt university studies In the African context, we must put African studies at the centre of curricula, especially at the undergraduate level A great deal of research stili needs to be earned outInthis connection, Inthe-areas of history, society, language, economy, pohtrcs, ecology folklore, cosmology and ethics Such a task would require, Inter alia, an Interdisciplinary approach and cooperation among umversrnes
The products from our Universities are telling about the mappropnateness of their skills to society's demands No wonder many graduates have acquired knowledge and skillsthat are III-SUited for the demands of their respective SOCieties This rmsrnetcha of the supply of trained graduates on the one hand, and the demand of skilled manpower on the other, have compounded the rate of unemployment (Ekane, 1992) Again, ths could be blamed on our extant university curricula A possible way of redressingthrsSituation as earlier stated, ISby desiqrunq and Implementing curncula tailored to meet the needs and ambitions of the Afncan youth A second path to tackling this problem IS the exchange of scholars both at the undergraduate and graduate levels
FLU1hermore, uruversmes all across Afnca need a speaahsed Unit to monrtor programmes from Its various divIsions or departments, In order to guarantee proper and objective evaluation This unit, If created, could also follow up the evolution of each country's quantifiable needs, so that the programmes Will reflect current and projected needs of the respective countries Programme changes have hitherto been left to
the
mspaation and discretion of the variousUnitswithin the llnlverslty, which qurteoften, do not have the teehnmcal competence and expertise to carry out programme evaluation This department could be called the Centre for lnstrucnonal Development ,CID) TheCIO could also
•
•
•
•
•
•
serve as a clearing house for information In the establishment and evaluation of more realistic Instructional goals for all higher educational Institutions,
translate In a systematic manner, the country's broad educational goals Into measurable alms and objectives attainable within a speofied time,
systematically review all course level processes as a necessary first step towards the acquismon of usable knowledge for the Improvement of the quality of undergraduate, graduate and professional education, and to develop programmes for retraining unemployed graduates,
develop Interdisciplinary curricula
that
would gocus on the application of prevailing cultural, social, economic and political problems, and test such alternative approaches against the eXisting traditionaldrsophnary approaches, Introduce Into the traditional faculties sern-professronal courses which would bnng about the shift from the traditional arts and saence subjects to degrees In Journalism, nursmg, creatrve arts, mUSIC, counsellmq, computer programmmg, agriculture, vocational and distant-education,serve as a national centre for m-service training for curricula personnel,
• encourage, promote and foster the production, evaluation, and drssemmatron of all instructional matenals and textbooks,
• estabhsh relationships With other umversrty (IDs In the continent and around the world for mutual exchange of Ideas and publications
This brings to the third and final phase of this paper, In which we attempt to diSCUSS and analyze subjects which promote or hinder the development of self-confidence
VI. Subjects which Promote or Hinder Self-Confidence
The quality of education Inany given country IS reflected In the content of the curriculum resources and the quality of teachers A curriculum content should therefore reflect the social, political, cultural and economic needs and objectives of that particular community, sooety or nation In addition, all curnculum material must be carefully produced to ascertain their relevance and suitabihty VIs-a-VIS- the syllabus
Most national curricula Include subjects chosen from the foilowmq social studies, moral education, vocational subjects, rnaths and SCiences, creative arts and languages Let us bnefly examine each of the named areas
(a) SOCial Studies
Subjects such as history, geography and (IVICS when conceived and taught from an African perspective, have much to do In restoring and fostenng self-confidence In the students, because the courses offer them a rare opportunity to learn about themselves, their SOCieties and the world from an alternative outlook
In the teaching of SOCIal studies, adrsophnewhich ISheaVily man and environment Oriented, the focus should be to enable the learner acquire the skills to analyze, synthesise and Integrate knowledge, so that he emerges from the exerciseWith lasting behaviounal values and attitudes that are cherished by hrs society Students ought to be encouraged to put Into practice what they learn
A factor which hinders the development of self-confidence In the SOCial studies programme, would be the absence of any practical application of what IS learned or an excessive emphasis on the abstract
To achieve the practical aspectsIn the teachmq of the SOCial studies programme, a couple of teaching strategies could be considered
InqUIry learning (IL) Most
man-envronment
relationship generally produce confhcts, problem-solving Situation and Involves the analysts of relations between several van-abies Inquiry learning provokes cunosity, Interest, develops power to diSCUSS, find out, learn rules of sotvlng problems In a logical and sequential manner The knowledge acquired through Inquiry learning IS easily retained and remembered than that acquired through mernonsanon And the teacher becomes a faohtator gUIde of catalyst In the teachmq-learrunq process
2 ActiVity Method(AM) This method as mentioned earlier IS particularly usefulIn the primary school classes where the teaching ofsocalstudies should bedormnatedby the oral, listening, visual, wntten and creative activities The acnvrty method focuses on human relationships and IS
concerned With the transmission of culture, the develop- ment of community skills, and the formation of desirable attitudes and values which all go to build self-confidence In the mdrvrdual
The
sooel
studies core curriculum could also be organised according to the problems and needs of the students that demand personal and social understandmq and action Consequently, the divsion of subject matter characteristic of the subject curriculum as dissolved, Since the problems are not confined to simple disciplines or subjects, or subject fields that constitute the separate bodies of organised knowledgeAccording to Tanner and Tanner (1980), there are essentially two kinds of core-the preplanned and open core In the preplanned core the faculty prepares the problem areas and learning activities, whereas In the open core the problems and activities are developed cooperatively by the student and teacher Let us examine each In greater detail
(i) The Preplanned Core
Under this type of core, the faculty IS responsible for preplanrunq the content, resources and activrnes that are organised around key societal problemareasand Issues - arranged In an articulated sequence through the various grade levels These problem areas encompass signifICant personal-social concerns common to all youngsters In many core programmes ofthrsnature, the students are provided some latitude In selecting from a large number of problem areas, and are encouraged to add to, modify, or even eliminate certain problem areas
they consider inappropriate or Irrelevant Smith et al (1957 have observed that this core curriculum"places considerable emphasisupon the deliberate study of the moral content of the culture especially as this content bears upon the resolution of the social Issues thatdwide
people and thereby prevent effective SOCial action" (p 315)
It mustbeemphasrsedalso thatInthepreplanned core, problem areas transcend the traditional subject drvrsion, encompass a Wide range of pupil acnvrnes,Involves the extensive use of library resources and demands that the teacher draws upon commuruty resources This core also needsateam-teaching approach to enable the faculty share their particular talents and expertise
Since no standard textbook of prepackaged CUrriculum material are available commercially, the faculty works together to develop resource units for each problem area Identified An example of what a resource unit could compnse, may Include
•
•
•
•
a statement of objective or rationale,
a descnption of the problem area and Its scope, Including related topics,
an rdentrficatron of speofic problems and Issues for
mvestrqatron,
including key concepts, Skills, and generahsanons,suggested learningacnvmesand projects,
• a descnption of the teachmq-learrunq resources and matsnals, and quides for evaluating acnvmes
Students sh'Ould know therefore how to
•
•
•
•
make choices,
appreciate SOCietal problems and find solutions, develop and clarify their own values and beliefs, appreciate their culture
•
•
adjust to the fact!~dtcertain human Issues have nodear-cut answers to resolve human problems,
appreciate the fact that our world IS becoming Increasing complex,
• and continue to seek for solutions towards a better adjustment to our rapidly changing environment
The content of the preplanned core ought to
exert
such an Important influence Inthe acqursrnon of knowledge, concepts, Skills, attitudes and values, whereas the teaching techniques and learning resources ought to enhance the transmission of the knowledge and skills necessary for useIn national development activities(iI) The Open Core
This IS based upon the teacher-student plan91ng activities which do not have a format structure of preplanned problems and learning activities In other worlds, there IS no preplan ned curriculum and the students and their teachers cooperatively formulate the problem areas tobe studied dunnq the school year
The lack of Interest on the part of students which consequently leads to a hinderance to the development of self-confidence In students, can generally be attributed to the fact that they have no part to playIn the formulation of the syllabi or critique thereof However, theopen core option allows the pupils to haveconsiderable freedom and responsibility towards curriculum determination
In the elementary grades, youngsters assess the proposed problems In terms of a number of suggested cntena by the teacher, such as Is the problem pertinent to all pupils? Are there suffment resource matenal and data for the intelligent Investigation of the problemJ Is the problem one that can be treated effectivelyInterms of the capabilities of the pupils and the time available dunnq the term or year') What pnonty should be given to thiS problem In relation to others, In terms of time allocation durmq the school year
'
The benefits to be derived from the SOCial studies programme via the open core strategy, are enormous It makes the curnculum highly relevant to the lives of the pupils, and problems for investigation
have greater focus on the concerns of the adolescents rather than on the demands of the adult society
Usually, at the secondary and university levels, there IS a mixed type of strategy ThatIS,we have a blend of the preplanned and open core Thecrrtenaand Issues to be considered are similar to those of the pnmary level, with relevant modifications to SUit the age and ability of students at the secondary and university
Another benefit of this approach IS thatIt addresses not only the problems, needs, Interests and ambitions of the youths, butItalso deals With the values and Ideals of hvmgIn aparnopatorysociety
The need for such anmterdrsophnaryapproach to teaching and learning IS highly relevant at all levels and fosters self-esteem In the learner Teachers need to design CUrricula that show Interrelationships between bodies of k.nowledge across drsciphnes Schwab (1970),commentlng on the Interdependence of knowledge and the curriculum, stresses that "acurriculum must not only be wedded to a singular View, but must take account of the necessary Interrelationships among the venous onentanons In domq this, It must be concerned With the rndividual, society, and organised knowledge- (p 25)
The crYing need for African governments and people today IS to make curricula relevantfordevelopmental concerns The Viable option IS developing mterdisophnarv and SOCially relevant programmes m our curriculum efforts But what one observes, are largely piecemeal reactions to the demands of society or parts of It Cosmetic or fragmentary and au courant alternatives are likely to accomplish httle, Just as new fashions invariably fade away Tanner and Tanner bring an added dimension to this debate when they assert that "he need to use knowledge to solve the pervading SOCIetal problems requires a reconstruction of the curriculum so that the interrelationships of knowledge are revealed to the rising generation and so that they Will
be
equipped to deal With their problems more Wisely than the present qeneratron Such a reconstruction of the curnculum remains to" be undertaken"(p 564)A further potent rationale for promoting self-confidence lies In developing skills and understanding through Cl comprehensive curriculum that Includes learning acnvitres In the SOCial studies, SCiences, the arts, Industrial arts, health education and so on This
comprehensive model has as Its ultimate objective to produce individuals who can think cntically and reflectively on personal-social problems and Issues Youngsters should generally be given frequent overviews of schooling so they know what they should be able to do when they complete It, and so that always a view of the whole ISever before them For example.chudren are dnlled In school to read But thereIShardly an opportunity for children to apply their skillsInreading for pleasure or for Information In our Afncan homes or community IIbranes Sad to~ay, many school libraries are dl-equlpped, let alone the community ones If our goal for example, IS to Inculcate good reading habitsIn our children then we must aim at produonq children who are readers rather children who can read We must allow children to read bygiVingthem the opportunity to do so Thrs may sound too obVIOUS to mention, but In many Instances, children are learning the mechanics of reading without applying them little wonder therefore, that many children have been observed not to see learning to read for pleasure as being worthwhile
To Instill self-confidence In writing, reading or other Skills, children must be given the opportunity to
see
the real purpose of these skills But when the goal ISto enable learners use these skills for generative learning purposes and take pleasure In their use.self-confidence would be heightened In them Consequently, reading and writing become processes for productive thinking
Many teachers around the world. and those of Africa In
particular, have been led to gear classroom acnvmes to quizzes, tests and examination In such classrooms. attitudes towards learmng have become distorted because children see skIll acqursrtion as something to be mastered for testing purposes only. and not for learner purpose Therefore,Ifthe goal of the curriculumISto help learners think, speak, listen. read and wrrteto the limit of their capacities, then the most reasonable premise ISthat they should do exactly those things that have been predetermined In the instructional objecnves package
Finally, the curriculum must be dealt with In Its ecoloqrcal Interaction In designingrurnculaIn Afnca, we must take Into account the interaction of the elements Instead of each IndIVIdual elementIn Isolation What needs to be considered In curriculum ImprovementIS
the relationship of the parts to the whole We must focus on the macrocurnculum aspectsrather than on the mlcrocurnculum concerns
Operauonatly,what this means IS that In reVising one element, we need to take Into consideration the-effects on other elements of the curriculum For example, we must show the mterrelationship between the new mathematics programme to the physicsprogramme, between the new CIVICS programme to the geography or history schemes
A second Issue of Interest that has traditionally mfluenced the lives of African IS religion And we shall now discuss religion under moraleducation
(b) Moral Education
A charactenstic concern of traditional education has been to
mstill
mto Afncan children and youths the moral virtues through a list of moralistic homilies and commandments, rangIng from obedience, constituted authonty to honesty and fair play This has worked to some degree In our sooetles But If conceived of Intelligence and knowledge as organically connected With conduct, then such Intelligence and knowledge could bind IndIVIdual growth to sooal growth Morals that are not shaped and directed by Intelligence tend to be reduced to mere shoppmq lists, slogans or catechencal commandments No wonder many areIn African pnsonstodayWIth ChnstrannamesWhen curnculum IS desjqned organically so that the power of reason prevails,Itwould foster universal ethical pnnoples such as those pertaining to Justice, equity, fairness, reoprooty, and equality of human nghts and respect for the dignity of man
A major mistake In today's world of separating the soences from moral concerns, has placed humanity In the Impossible condition of hVlng In two unrelated worlds, and kept mankind from utiliSing soence
In waging a full attack on the most acute and deepest problems of life We share the opinion that god IS the author of soence and religion, and agree With those who support the premrse that both should work hand In hand A CIVIlisation cannot hold Its
acnvrnes
apart or put soence In a world of Its own Just as we cannot separateth, studio and performing arts from the humanities,by
the same token we cannot separate soence from moral educationAny curnculum development effort should be centred on human beings because an understanding of our nature, needs, and problems
through religion IS essential African religion mclude beliefs, ceremonies, rituals and religious offioanon
Philosophy generally provides Justification for claiming that this or that concept ISworth teaching and learnmg In the same vein, Afncan philosophy ISImbedded In the African religion, proverbs, oral tradition, ethics and morals It ISthrough this system of values and beliefs that we expressthe uniqueness of African IIfeways Curnculum experts and educationist must never lose sight of the fact that In their attempt to reconstruct curricula rationally, the African belief system and actions must never be separated
A real challenge to curriculum expertsInAfrica today IS the ability to weave Into the curriculum the vanous rehqrons found In our pluralistIC SOcieties These religions mdude christianity, Islam, and the traditional belief systems Since religion has a lot to do In shaping Afncan values, belief, character, attitudes, personality and thought, curriculum developers and tmplementors must seek to promote morality, extended family relations (on which our SOCial and structural networkISbuild), care for one another and nationalism
A third subject area that could promote self-reliance and foster posmve attitudesISthe study of vocational drsophnes
(c) Vocational Subjects
Vocational education has a direct and real contribution to
mdustnatachievement and development If educauon ISdesigned to produce self-reliance, then we agree with the slogan developed and used by many African states that they desire their educational products to be self-reliant Self-reliant education begins from the classroom It expects the pupil to use his general intelligence to solve practical and perncular problems In thiS Wise, under the comprehensive school curriculum suggested earlier, the vocational and academic studies would receive constant reciprocal stimulation and permeation, and different pupils would be In constant personalassooatron
Such a comprehensive programme ought to trainInoccupations that society needs The programmes should prepare youngsters for skilled employment In Industry, In trade, In agnculture, In starting small business enterpnses and encourage others to go to the university for advanced preparation Inthese fields and In tool desiqn
A negative attitude which has long hindered self-determination IS the lack In Afncan institutions of the Inventiveness necessary to deliver us from excessive dependence on foreign-made basic agricultural tools We use the hoe, cutlass and rakes for example, but few of these tools are produced locally Our African youths must be Involved both In the design anti production of these essential tools This Will foster a sense of accomplishment and enhance a feeling 0
competence and self-determination
Equally Important In the vocational field should be the opportunity to provide Internships where students gain practical experiential knowledge to function effectively once they graduate For example, a home economic internship could be offered In child-care where chrld-care homes exist, andInnutrition, serving In a restaurant for a couple of months, and preparing food of different kinds for a heterogenous clientele
At the secondary or post secondary level, a youngster who IS
aspiring for a career In law might be assigned to courtroom observation, the adolescent Interested In a career In nursing or the health servicesrnrqht be employed as a hospital aid, medical offrce or dental assistant, and medical record or laboratory techrucran, to mention Just these Other youngsters might, on the other hand, be senously thinking of a career In merchandising and Industrial education These should follow Internships In a departmental store offermg construction work, manufacturing, machine trades (maintenance and repair), specialitiesIn distribution and marketing (apparel, general merchandise and food), and a youth who IS
contemplating a careerInpre-technical and technical education might be engaged In an electronic store where heWill practisehrs trade In electronics, computer programming and manufacturing of tools Such expenences, according to Tanner and Tanner, could be conducted under the supervision of the school Thus the learning environment could be extended far beyondthe school setting while, at the same time, the school would be c-ompelled to make Its curnculurn more meaningful to adolescents by exammmq and dealing With social Issues In reahstic settings Tanner and Tanner add that career education would help youths to continue their education and to make a successful transition to adulthood These might help to reduce the prevailing divtsive attitude that attnbutes the academic studies a higher status In Africa and elsewhere than the vocational studies In the curriculum
Also of prime Importance to Africa, ISthe studyInagricultural education Agriculture IS the main economic activity In Afnca supported by some small scale industries, handicrafts, trade, and services In office occupations bothInthe public and private domains
It IS observed that many of the urban schoolsIn Africa and some of the rural schools teach agnculture related subjects mostly theoretically, With little practical application When schools are built, especiallyIn urban centres, there ISlittle or no provision for schools farms The divorce of the practical aspect of agriculture only promotes neqanve stereotypes and a dislike for manual labour Even In schools where rural soence IS practised, a very small portion of time IS allotted for Its activity on the school time-table
Another major handicap to developing self-confidence IS that manual work IS used as a method of purushrnent to drsophne recalctrant students This practice sends a clear message to students that manual work IS punishment Practical agriculture should never serve as a means of punishment Instead, we ought to teach agriculture and Its related subjects based on soennfic pnnoples
In fact, a POSitive use of ones envircnment, starting With the school Itself, should be encouraged In this case, the school garden ought to serve as a laboratory for teaching agricultural pnnoples, Village markets serving the purpose for marketing products and teaching basic economics of supply and demand The classroom setting ought to be used for discussing and Investigating new agricultural and marketing techniques, create clubs In school such as the pig or cow, banana or coffee clubs, With a real purpose to determine how best to rear the animals and tend the crops for maximum yield and profit Given the continent's reliance on agriculture,It ISbut normal to InculcateIn the youths from a~erytender age, a culture of love and respect for manual labour and the soli
(d) Mathematics and the Sciences
Many educated parents wonder why students In Afnca In
particular avoid mathematics and the soences Studies earnedout by psychologist have shown that learners learn best the things they like To arouse Interest In learner, curriculum ought to be chlld-centred Therefore, educational objectives must be the rules for speclfyN1g the kind of knowledge, Skills, attitudes that the learner In the school Will
