مجتمع المترجمين داخل الفضاء الافتراضي

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Abstract:

ICTs are quickly shifting the traditional landscapeof how people work, invent, fund new enterprises, andcreate new artistic works.Yet the truth is that ICTs are as much changing our world as

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they are creating new realities, the threshold between here (analogue) and there (digital) is fast becoming blurred, but this is asmuch to the advantage of the latter as it is of the former. The digital is spillingover into the analogue and merging with it.

In this paper, I will talk about the community of translators in the virtual sphere, and describe how they collaborate and organize their work, the motivations behind their volunteer work, copyright and legal issues, and how their professionals see their activity.This paper will also examine the case of Twitter translation center and the Moutarjam project as two examples of a not-for-profitvolunteer translation facilitators, and I will explore how The Moutarjam project and Twitter translation center might better motivate volunteers to contributetheirskills and expertise.

Key words: Community of translators, Virtual sphere, ICTs, Moutarjam project, Crowdsourcing.

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v; .ا p†9 ﻩ ST B ; ة56@V ت'OC ا vg a 8 •') ا

(Moutarjam.com)

.

ر >C ا C*L نإ

(The wisdom of the crowd)

C9ا2 ا ة ا Zh ،

ةا > ا ن6C(5?.ا ءارو : + G ا

(Wenjing Li 2015, 155)

، 5™9 2;و

"

P»* رإ

24 C1ا

"

ﻩ˜E ة *D ا

E ا

ا2 (ً ن6L

• :

"

2)9 د (و د29 ف'“

ن69V 8

± /+

m'“

B ا m S*

ة E'dو اذإ ى (أ B“

ÕÁÖ و'

'> `

"

يأ l4أ

<

2( 1 œS

* '•

ةر' £ ، 1'

،ى @أ B_ oP ' ً ود

9 Ct 5™ أ 2•أو

' ً9 )+

8 ص'ÁÖV pqإ

BL Bym•و 'C

B_ ŠP '>

5µ أ ص'ÁÖV E

' ً_'/ @او ) .

،و'E : ( 55

(.

ن C(5?.ا 'M¦ م 1 G ا C 3) ا د > ا B“ 8 =§ ا p†9

9 .ا د' 4s ن g 1 ' 'C اد =M„أ <إ ، C(5? ا v«ر'S p†9 ن C ' او ن

=MN'C( + 9 4و ةد ( Õ]1 'C m .

لو'L ،Ba' .ا Z[و 8*

ي 3) ¢ £

C(5? ا

،ت'C(5? ا = + Z[ 2] O.ا 12 ا 561' .ا ¢ £ نأ pqإ ةر'•ˆ pqإ 'Eد')Pإ = 1 G ا C(5? ا = C s 2 7 = نأ J ذ ،ن69 .ا ر >C(

56 7 2; ة56@V تا )O ا Z[ ةءا ا ب Pأ .

(9)

ا ، ا 18

د ا ،

1

نا ،

2018

79

لود =3 Z[ ‰45?4ˆ j 2] O نأ pqإ –12L Pارد تر'•أ 2 و

Zqا L ،B;أ ' ;و ن y 1 = ' ا 19

1'§ pqإ 27

ة2Lاو D_ ±D/+ Z[ ، 4'ž

‰45?4ˆ * • p†9 'MNءا ;و

Haile 2014)

.(

L' ا ى و '

Bœ1' ن64و ' نأ ،

\a'O ا Z[ ن'“ نأ 2 m ، ; ا / ا Z[ ير˜( BœS£ 56 7 2; ةءا ا C4 l4ia ¨6C 1 :

‰a'ž (steady) Z¬ Ct+و ،

(cumulative)

j @و ،

(linear)

± _أ ،

s Þ O ' D/+ م ا s '•و

(power browsing)

* S ا ت' D/

+ *) ا

(Cronin 2013, 100)

.

ي˜ ا 56 ا نإ v; + pqإ 'y1أ '4 921 ةءا ا ب Pأو C4 p†9 أ ƒ

'C m 56 7 ثو2L ﻩ ﱠ2 T نأ 8*C1

"

ة2 ا C(5? ا

"

(good translation)

. 2 • =

ة 3)a C(5?.ا ص /) ا وأ ت't ).ا pqإ نو 3)1 ءا ا وأ ن œ M³O.ا نأ يرو y ا 8 l4»m J ˜ ' +و ،\a'O ا Z[ '>OD4 ءا ا وأ ن6* M³O.ا

= 1

212( + م'34 \mو 56E'C ا pqإ 'Eد')Pإ = 1 G ا C(5? ا pqإ 3) ا

.

2 - 3 4 ا R\ ; KLا 4Pر 6 :

Zw'C ا 2 > ا ر'ƒإ Z[ ن C • 81˜ ا ن6C(5?.ا ن6a دو2` ا نإ

DCa C(5? ا فs@ p† m ، `Éاو56§و a' g ن œ+ د'œ+ =Eد' 4و =MRا ;و '> >

ن»m ، 9 CO ن6 (ا .او د' ) او 8 •') '“ ن6m5? .ا ءارآ ن œ+ 81أ ،ي2 ا Z† m BœS£ ا “ر'S• نia 'y1أ ءا ±CO7 ‰45?4ˆ ŸŠa C(5? ا v«ر'S نإ .

E ‰ ّ L 2; ' C9 Zw'C ا 2 > ا ) + p†9 2C 7 G ا

"

ن6* M³O.ا "

وأ

"

ن6 2] O.ا "

أ 2 m ،ير˜( BœS£

ن6 P ن6 £' وأ ن6( D د t ا 4'“ ن

(passive spectators)

pqإ ا + ، )"

ن6t ) - ن6* M³O ( ء' ST "

(active

"

(prosumers

ن6–L' ا 8 د29 J ذ 89 5™9 'C ، B–

"

ن64و Bœ1' ."

' mوو

ن»m 212 ا ر 3).ا ا˜>

"

ن6* M³O.ا

"

(consumers)

‰; ا Z[ ا _أ 2;

lOD4

"

t ) ن6 "

(producers) ن6C(5? ءا ا ر'_ ﻩ˜E ') 'L Z[و ،

(Tapscott

and Williams 2006 ; Cronin 2013, 100

(.

(10)

80

ا ، ا

18

د ا ،

1

نا ،

2018

\a'O '“ ا C 1 نأ =M„'œ »a 2 • = ، ا ä ')ž ن6CMº ا ءا ا نإ p†9 Ba ،ن m5? .ا ن C(5?.ا 'M¦ م 1 G ا ت'C(5? ا رو2_ ر'3 4ا S

أ 2 ،J ذ 8 ©* ا م ا =M„'œ »a ± _

- تار ا ByDa J ذو

_'` ا ( )* ا -

=M¦ _'Á ا gا5?m0 =MN' C t ء'ST»a ا 1 نأ

v كا5?•0و ،فر' .او ت' .ا =P' + =Mº*C1 81أ ،‰45?4ˆ * • p†9

=MN'/) 5™9 =MN'C( + ST J ذ 8 5µ أو ، C(5? ا ت' C9 Z[ =>y £ gا5?m0 .

8 L' ا 'M¯ إ ر'•أ G ا 'œ•ˆ تء'( ')E

"

ن64و Bœ1'

"

،

ن6C ' ا ن6a ¨6 C ا _ pqإ ر'•أ ي˜ ا C(5? ا C9 p†9

(translation

agents

،(

C(5? ن6mو .ا 56§و ن6 O ا ن6 .او

(passive or unknowable

translation recipients (

(Cronin 2013, 100)

.

و 8* و C(5? ا 9 4 89 ل' 1 2; 'C “ 8 =§ ا p†9 'MNد (و

- G ا

ن 9 .ا 'M¦ م 1 Zw'C ا 2 > ا v«ر'S ر'ƒإ Z[

ق D+ ت<'L ك')E نأ <إ-

ن6m5? .ا ن6C(5?.ا p†9 =MN'C( + Z[ ةا > ا ن 9 .ا 'M¯m

(Wenjing Li,

C (0 v;ا .ا ما2] Pا َ (155

ƒ =M³m ByDa J ذو ،

B– 9'

' ك O•'m '

وأ ' 5? + '

=> \ O• = 81˜ ا ن6m5? .ا ن6C(5?.ا ¢ £ v 4ر' ،

ـa 8 3).ا 2Lأ lD/1 ' Eو ، 9'C (0 v;ا .ا ﻩ˜E B– ما2] Pا

"

m .ا

ا ع g . ة¨6C .ا "

(Garcia 2009, 209)

. 'M¯m ق D 1 'y1أ ت<'L ك')E

ا p†9 ،ن69 .ا ن6C(5?.ا ¢ £ وأ Z† ; 8 œ+ يأ p†9 => /L م29 8 =§

Z[ Pا ا =M³m Ca Õ ) ا J ذ ن g • =Mº* و ، C(5? ا Z[ \a'P • ر2+

'M³C( + اور' @ا G ا v gا C =>OC +و ،ن6 نا2 وأ ل't .

(O’Hagan

(2009, 100

.

2 - 4

` U نود وأ ;cز5 أ ` U ا :

.ا ت' C t تا¨6C =Eأ ى2Lإ نإ

= ' ا Z[ ن S‘1 81˜ ا ن6C(5?

Z[ / )+ ، ‹Œا5?m0 C(5?.ا ن “

6

=> '>Ca ن 1 ،ةا > او ن69 .ا 8 ن

8 =§ ا p†9 B “ نود ن C • =M„أ يأ ،Ba' نود وأ ل'.ا 8 B ا Ba' L' ا : y1 د2/ ا ا˜E Z[و ، 1د'.ا ةim'œ.ا ب' § '

و'E : ( '

(Jeff Howe)

(11)

ا ، ا 18

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1

نا ،

2018

81

s ';

:

"

:S 2 > 7 ل'C9V 56E'C ¹

l4أ p†9

©* ا 'C

E 2 'P ن»m S· ا

<

ن )· 1 ' ًC اد 'ً

ƒ'C4أ P 8*C1 '> ; +

=Oo+

ص ` 'a p†9

`¹/.ا

؛ +ا˜ ا

ن C>O• س') 'm ةد'9

Z[

ت'9و S 2 > 7

ل'C9V 56E'C ¹

5™9

‰45?4ˆ sa'

B 8 ل'.ا وأ نود

،Ba' يأ نو2*1 نود B “ p†9

=§ ا 8 ب' § ةim'œ.ا

1د'.ا . نإ ا˜E ك O ا و2 1 56§

j ) 2)9 3) ا l إ واز8

= 9 د'/ ;0

،ي2 ا

l4أ56§

<

'))*C1 س' ; ةim'œ.ا ر<و2 'a وأ ور ا ' ًC اد ) ".

و'E : (

2012

، 21 .(

5? ا Z[ ر'S.ا pqإ ن69 .'a vm2+ G ا vmاو2 2 ا =>D ا نإ C(

J ˜m ،Zw'C ا 2 > ا v«ر'S ءارو ن D 1 81˜ ا JŸ و• _'@ ي L أ E ر >C ا وأ 2S` ا ;' B– V لs P0 8 'C L =Mº*C1

(crowd)

vy+ نأو

'M¯ 9 ًء')a ¨6D ت' O و ت'Ÿm'œ

.

‰o žأ 2

s mا L vy+ = G ا ت'“ S ا نأ بر't ا

،v«ر˜ ا BSD ا '> «ر'S. • C

Zw'C (0 B_ا ا v; p†9 B/L ' J ذ ل'–

(Linkedin)

م'9 2009 Eو ،

) + : d + l 9 ن C ' ا دارأ ، )> B_ا + * S م2] O• v;

8 ن6m5? .ا ن6C(5?.او ن6 ا ا iP L ، C(5? ا Z[ Zw'C ا 2 > ا 4'“ نإ ،v; .ا j 2] O ن6ƒ +و C( + عو S Z[ ع ا Z[ § ا =M•2 ‰

v;

(Linkedin)

ن6C(5?.ا B m در ن'“ ح ا ا˜E م' أ ،يد' Ba' نود

v; 56§و 'D )9

(Kelly 2009)

. Zw'C (0 v; .ا S ت'“ S ا ¢ £ ' أ

"

5? +

"

(twitter)

ن6 S‘ ا 'M¯C(5? ±)C+ نأ تر ; 2 m ،s–

"

=(5? ةر'•

"

translator badge)

،(

ىدأ ي˜ ا •·O ا Eو ، ر '1ا2E =Mº 81¨6C C BP +و

pqإ 'C(5? ± _أ ي˜ ا ،Zw'C (0 v; .ا ا˜> v« O ا ر'So40 pqإ 48

.

=+ C(5? ا v«ر'S Z[ 9 ا ر'S.ا ءارو : + G ا vmاو2 ا نإ

ia ا '; 81˜ ا JŸ وأ B ; 8 B '• BœS£ 'MN'Pارد ث' a

Z[ · t+و 4ا2

نا2 .ا ا˜E

(Anastasiou and Gupta 2011; McDonough Dolmaya 2012;

Pérez- Gonzalez and Susan-Sareva 2012)

.(

a'P ت'Pارد pqإ m'g•'a

ع g ZåMº.ا B 'a ‰ و')+

"

vmاو2 ا "

(motivations)

ءارو 8C*+ G ا

(12)

82

ا ، ا

18

د ا ،

1

نا ،

2018

ا تارد' Z[ CE'O.ا Z[ § ا L D.ا رد'/.

initiatives) (open source

،

ن'–L' ا la م'; ' '>CEأ B

(Lakhani and Wolf)

m pqإ s_ + 81˜ ا ،

ك')E نأ

"

(ر'@ vmاود "

(Extrinsic motivations)

،ع دا m•'a vm2+ ،

[ § '“

و' وأ ، æ م2 + \ + Z[ B V وأ ،s– ا تار'>.ا + Z

p†9 ل /` ا Z[ § ا ن' LV ¢ £ Z[و ،=(5?.ا ى .ا 8 ةد'D P0 1د' و ' ت'Ÿm'œ .

د (و pqإ 'y1أ m'g•'a

"

@اد vmاود "

(Intrinsic

(motivations

[ § ا وأ ،تا˜ ا ء'gرإ Z[ § '“

Z ما5?Lا p†9 ل /` ا

8 @Ò ر'–1ˆ وأ ، gا5?m0 ت'/).ا 5™9 => B_ا او

(altruism)

وأ ،

vC tC 2@ =12 + •(ا a س'OLˆ

(Lakhani and Wolf 2005)

.

فا2Eأ ز aأ ˜4 نأ jD*1 ،v;ا ا 8 – ia J ذ kÉ 4 نأ '4درأ اذإ عو S

"

=(5?

"

(Moutarjam)

'C تء'( G او ، Z†1

" : ء')§إ Z[ CE'O.ا

‰45?4ˆ p†9 j‚ ا ى .ا ...

/ ا ء'C £ ب ا ب' S ا 56 ˜+ Z[ CE'O.ا

') ' @أ 8 = ) ب ا ç ر' و ، ÄE˜ ا ".

(moutarjam.com)

ىدأ ' Eو ،

8 5µ أ ب' Pا pqإ 9000

j7i1 ،j‚ ا = ' ا ء' 4أ m'“ 8 =E'O و ع

=>Pأر p†9 .ا ا ن 9 ن ا

، ا Z[ =M¯ 1 ' ر P 8 ن CE'O.ا •Š+5?

/ و . v; ' أ '

5? + '

(twitter)

ع ا Z[ ن6 2] O.ا • §5? BC Pا 2 m

B ; 8 تار' 9

" : J.'9 56 a =;

change your world

"

، "

ن6O a =;

J+ار'>

improve your skills

"

، "

J C t p†9 5µ9ا

find your community "

(translate.twitter.com) .

3 - ت

4 ا 4T> و 4;Aا %& ن ا :

3 - 1 4 ا 4T> CDE 5d ن E d ا ن ا :

pqإ C(5? ا ل'C9أ د')Pإ pqإ ء ¹ ا ن m5? .ا ن C(5?.ا 5™ 9ا '.'

ا C(5? ا v«ر'S pqإ او 34 2 m ،=M³)> p†9 @ a'–Ca 56E'C ا 9

9 4 ل L ة56– ت'•' 4 ت >d 'C ،'MN'1ا2a ˜) J ذو ب' +راو J• ة 34 561' . =MšOL '> ا5?Lا م29و ،Zw'C ا 2 > ا p†9 2C 7 G ا ت'C(5? ا )>.ا ت' ;s@أو

(Mc Donough Dolamya 2011)

. ن6ƒ +و C( + ‰4'“ اذإو

ـ 9'C (0 v;ا .ا :

' ك O•'m '

و ' 5? + ' pqإ C( + Z[ ;2 ا م¨? + ،= ' ا ت'

(13)

ا ، ا 18

د ا ،

1

نا ،

2018

83

m' – ا ت<' .ا ¢ £ C( + Õ]1 'C m J ˜ ©Š V ن»m ،ت'`¹ /.ا C( + وأ C او

(fansubbing)

.ا م P او تsO O.او مsmV

4'a' ا

"

4V "

(Anime)

G ا ت' t +ا5?P0 ن D/1 ' ةد'9 ن6–L' ا ن»m ،

.ا '> o1 'M„iـa ت<'t.ا ﻩ˜E Z[ ن 9

"

561' .ا ى2 +

Norm - defying

"

،

'M„أو

"

12 + 56§

Unorthodox

"

، 'M„أو

"

Z[ .ا 2 ' او فا 9•'a ئ M³O7

C(5? ا

flouting the formal conventions

"

(O’Hagan 2009, 100 Dwyer

2012, 226 ; Diaz Cintas 2005, 12

.(

.ا ن C(5?.ا 2C •

· 7 ر' p†9 دا .ا ﻩ˜> =M³C( + Z[ ن 9

C(5? ا Z[

(foreignizing approach)

ن69 .ا ن6C(5?.ا نأ J ذ › و ،

‹èا ` ا m'gإ 5™9 C(5?.ا ةد'.ا Z[ ن @2 1

(glosses)

مs;أ سوؤر وأ ،

(head notes) m' – ا = E'D.ا وأ ت'`¹ /.ا '> s@ 8 نو OD1 ،

O.ا '>C>m l 9 • /1 2; j .ا نأ نو 1 G او C(5? ا p†9 /

(Dias

Cintas and Munoz Sanchez 2006, 46

.(

8*C1 C(5? ا Z[ ا ﻩ˜E نإ

Z†_V Õ) ا '_أ p†9 ظ'D` ا Z[ ن69 .ا ى2 §ر 'M„ia OD+ نأ

(a

passion for authenticity

Z[ ن6ƒ ا • 'Pأ p†9 =E'gر م29و (

C(5? ا

(domesticating methods)

CP ا ت'C(5? ا¨6C+ G ا ، .

p†9 إ ل ا 8*C1 ،ﻩر'œ4إ 8*C1 < 4 ن6m5? .ا 56§ 8 9 Ct ن

نو2a BC دا2 P0 =+أ p†9 =Eو C(5? ا ل't Z[ ') œ+ ا 1 = 81˜ ا

@ أ a'–Ca pqوV E 5™ • 2; ، C(5? ا ل't Z[ Ba' ق P د2M• 56

l)9 ت5™9 ' Eو ،ن6m5? .ا ن6C(5?.ا íŠ9 B Pو C(5? ا

"

ن6C(5?.ا C(

' 4ر D '“ ل'CS ن6m5? .ا "

=Eأ 2Lأ l4ia Zw'C ا 2 > ا ‰D_و G ا

ن6C(5?.ا C(و C(5? ا )> د2MN G ا ر' @V

(Baer Naomi 2010)

'C ،

'M³ t 5™9 'y1أ C ا ¼Tا + = :_و 89

' Zw'C ا 2 > ا '

ـa

"

9¨î ا

9 .ا ر't ا "

(an alarming business trend)

. ن6C(5?.ا ء<QE ¢ £

ا ا ﻩ˜E Z[ نو 1 < ن6m5? . ' ا ت'“ S ا 'M¯ إ i ¹+ Pو د t <إ

'> ' •P'œ \ +و ،' ' sa' ن 1 < 81˜ ا ن69 .ا B O7 jœ 'E2Lو 56–* ا O]+ نأ نود

(Dodd 2011)

.

'D; :;و @Ò ¢ ا 8*

(14)

84

ا ، ا

18

د ا ،

1

نا ،

2018

= '9 Bd Z[ م ا íŠ T 8 4و ،‰; ا ن'L 2; l4أ ىأرو ، iO.ا 8 ' a't1إ C(5? ا )> Z[5? p†9 ' ا ± _أو ،نو' او ر'S.او ح' D4<'a ¨6C 1 ;ر _'` ا تا56 ا ل ;و ن'y L'a ا و ' او *D1 نأ

ﻩ˜E 7 £ ،

'E +و )>.ا

(O’Hagan 2009, 16)

.

'M¦ م 1 G ا ، C(5? ا ةد (و 9 4 89 ل' 1 2; ' B“ 8 =§ ا p†9

'M¯m ق D+ ت<'L ك')E نأ <إ ،Zw'C ا 2 > ا v«ر'S ر'ƒإ Z[ ن 9 .ا ن6m5? .ا ن6C(5?.ا p†9 =MN'C( + Z[ ةا > ا ن 9 .ا

(Wenjing Li, 155)

،

B– 9'C (0 v;ا .ا ما2] Pا a =M³m ByDa J ذو '

ك O•'m '

وأ

' 5? + ' ن6C(5?.ا ¢ £ v 4ر' ،'M³C(5?a ن 1 G ا v gا .'a => '.إو ' Eو ، 9'C (0 v;ا .ا ﻩ˜E B– ما2] Pا => \ O• = 81˜ ا ن6m5? .ا

ـa ن6–L' ا 2Lأ lD/1

"

ة¨6C .ا m .ا ا ع g .

"

(Garcia 2009, 209)

.

=§ ا p†9 ،ن69 .ا ن6C(5?.ا ¢ £ 'M¯m ق D 1 'y1أ ت<'L ك')E

=Mº* و ، C(5? ا Z[ \a'P • ر2+ وأ Z† ; 8 œ+ يأ p†9 => /L م29 8

=>OC +و ،ن6 نا2 وأ ل't Z[ Pا ا =M³m Ca Õ ) ا J ذ ن g • M³C( + اور' @ا G ا v gا C '

(O’Hagan 2009, 100)

. CE'O /9 Z[

8 2 Ca p† 1 212( : 7 pqإ 'C L ج' 4 ،‰45?4ˆ 'M³L'+أ G ا 56E'C ا C œ 4و .ا

"

و'E ."

از't4إ C(5? ا Z[ • ر2+ يأ \ 1 = ٍو'E =(5? \ L اذإ

؟ ٍو'E l4إ ل )P B>m ‰45?4ˆ * • p†9 ى وأ ب' * l C(5?a 'C>

ل 1

"

5? a2 ر'S7 "

و

"

ل a "

'CM¦' Z[

) ن6m5? .ا ةا > ا ةر ž :

56 • :

') C t و '4د'/ ;ا ن OC .ا " :(

'E ةد' ز ا2>• '>D و ةا > ا د >( = نإ

'ž • pqإ ج' 4 a ة56@V ما 9V Z[

" : ةا > ا - ةا > ا =Eو ،ن m5? .ا

ن6m5? .ا 561' \mو ن C • 81˜ ا ".

l4أ 'CM¦' Z[ 'm'gأو

" :

،8 S ا ن ا Z[

ÁÏ ا56– '`¹ / ةا > ا C “ ‰ _أ ) ".

و'E : ( 2012

، 33 .(

3 - 2 e; f او 567 ا ق Uﺣ 4 =6 :

'))*C1 < l4»m ،Zw'C ا 2 > ا ر'ƒإ Z[ C(5? ا 89 ث2 4 'C) L

لوV م ا ˜)Cm ،jT 4' ا v£' ا تاذ B“'S.ا BD T نأ د'C 90 l m =+ ي˜ ا

(15)

ا ، ا 18

د ا ،

1

نا ،

2018

85

C ا ﻩ˜E p†9 ن C ' ا م2 _ا ، C(5? ا ل't Z[ ) ا ﻩ˜E p†9 او5™ 9او Ba ،: i او S‘ ا ق L œSCa = اد BœS£ ن 9 .ا ن C(5?.او ن 4' ا 89 ن6(ر'@ a'–Ca ن' LV 8 56– Z[

. ا˜E ل L ل'– ب ;أ B

ﻩ' + ي˜ ا را˜4ˆ E ،ع g .ا 8 ،ن6 )Š/ ا ةا > ا ن6C(5?.ا 8 9 Ct

ب' * )Š/ ا pqإ =M³C( + •·O£ ، S‘ ا ق L jœ ' ف ƒ

"

+ a ير'E

ت .ا ت'P2 و "

(Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows)

8 نذإ نود

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3- Anastasiou, D., and R. Gupta (2011). “Comparison of Crowdsourcing Translation with Machine Translation,” Journal of Information Science 37: 637–658.

4- Baer, Naomi (2010). “Crowdsourcing: Outrage or Opportunity?”

Translorial: Journal of the Northern California Translators

Association (February 1),

http://translorial.com/2010/02/01/crowdsourcing-outrage-or- opportunity/, accessed June 10, 2016.

5- Brabham, D. C. (2013). Crowdsourcing (Cambridge: MIT Press).

6- Cronin, M. (2013). Translation in the Digital Age (London:

Routledge).

7- Díaz Cintas, J. (2005). “Back to the Future in Subtitling,” pp. 1–17 in H. Gerzymisch-Arbogast and S. Nauert (eds.), Challenges of

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Multidimensional Translation: Conference Proceedings, (Saarbrücken:

MuTra).

8- Díaz-Cintas, J., and P. MuñozSánchez (2006). “Fansubs:

Audiovisual Translation in an Amateur Environment,” The Journal of Specialised Translation 6: 37–52.

9- Garcia, I. (2009). “Beyond Translation Memory: Computers and the Professional Translator,” Journal of Specialised Translation 12:

199-214.

10- Haile, T. (2014). “What You Think You Know about the Web is Wrong,” Time, 9 September, http://time.com/12933/what-you-think- you know-about-the-web-is-wrong/.

11- Howe, J. (2006a). “The Rise of Crowdsourcing,” Wired14.06, http://archive.wired.com/wired/archive/14.06/crowds.html, accessed February 11, 2016.

12- Jimenez-Crespo, Miguel A (2017). Crowdsourcing and Online Collaborative Translations, Expanding the limits of Translation Studies. John Benjamins Publishing Company Amsterdam / Philadelphia.

13- Kelly, N. (2009). “Freelance Translators Clash with Linked In:

over Crowdsourced Translations,

”http://www.globalwatchtower.com/2009/06/19/linkedin-ct3/, accessedFebruary 14, 2015.

14- Lakhani, K., and R. Wolf (2005). “Why Hackers Do What They Do: Understanding Motivation and Effort in Free/Open Source Software Projects,” pp. 3–22 in J. Feller, B. Fitzgerald, S. Hissam, and K. Lakhani (eds.), Perspectives in Free and Open Source Software (Cambridge: MIT).

15- McDonough Dolmaya, J. (2012). “Analyzing the Crowdsourcing Model and Its Impact on Public Perceptions of Translation,” The Translator: Non-Professionals Translating and Interpreting 18: 167–

91.

16- O’Hagan, M. (2009). “Evolution of User-Generated Translation:

Fansubs, Translation Hacking and Crowdsourcing,” Journal of Internationalisation and Localisation1: 94–121.

17- Perez-Gonzalez, L., and Ş. Susam-Saraeva (2012). “Non- Professionals Translating and Interpreting: Participatory and Engaged Perspectives,” The Translator: Non-Professionals Translating and Interpreting 18: 149–165.

18- Tapscott, D., and A. Williams (2006). Wikinomics: How Mass Collaboration Changes Everything (New York: Portfolio).

19- Wenjing Li (2015). Crowdsourcing Translation in China: Features and Implications. In: Translation and Academic Journals (The

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93

Evolving Landscape of Scholarly Publishing) Ed by: Yifeng Sun. PP.

149 - 164.

4;Zو ^ / hا ا :

1- Moutarjam.com, accessed: January 30, 2016.

2-Translate.twitter.com/user/hemza_zeghar, accessed: December 14, 2017.

3- W3Tches (2015). “Usage of Content Languages for Websites,”http://w3techs.com/technologies/overview/content_languag e/all, accessed February 10, 2016.