Research and development for engineering in cold regions

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Research and development for engineering in cold regions

Report of a study carried out for the

National Research Council of Canada

A report prepared for consideration of the National Research Council of Canada

Special Technical Publication No. 5

of the

Division of Building Research

assistance of government departments and agencies, undertook to define programs to increase Canadian capabilities in ice-covered waters. As part of that activity, a Task Group was set up to consider the need for a Centre for Arctic Engineering Research. The Task Group found that there was insufficient information on which to base a decision and recommended that a study be carried out on the need of government and industry for facilities and capabilities for Arctic engineering research and that an inventory be made of the current Canadian facilities and capabilities. It also recommended that, because of the nature and importance of engineering in the North, the two projects not be restricted to ice-covered waters but include engineering work on land as well.

The National Research Council of Canada was asked to undertake the projects. It set up a steering committee composed of:

Dr. L.W. Gold, DBR/NRCC, Chairman

Mr. R.A. Hemstock (R.A. Hemstock Engineering Services, Calgary) Dr. G. Jacobsen (Tower Company, Montreal)

Dr. H.R. Kivisild (FENCO Consultants, Calgary)

Dr. O.H. ｌｾｫ･ｮ (Department of Indian and Northern Affairs, Ottawa) Dr. D.S. Walkinshaw (Department of Public Works, Ottawa)

Mr. T.H.W. Baker, DBR/NRCC, Secretary

The inventory of current capability was prepared under contract by Acres Consulting Services.

The present report was prepared by the Steering Committee for the consideration of Council. The conclusions and recommendations expressed therein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views or final decisions of the National Research Council.

The report, which was tabled at a meeting of Council, June 27th, 1979, ｰｲｯｶｩ､･ｾ a most valuable background document on the research and development needs for engineering in cold regions. It identifies

significant gaps in current Canadian capability to support and carry out such research and recommends how these gaps can be filled. In view of the great need for knowledge, technology and competence required for

engineering under the conditions imposed by the North, the Council is considering steps that can be taken with respect to implementing the recommendations. The report is being distributed at this time to

ｦ｡ｾｩｬｩｴ｡ｴ･ consultation and inputs from interested individuals and organizations.

W.G. Schneider President

excellence in the capability to do this work under the conditions

imposed by the North is an exciting and pressing challenge. It requires research and development that involves not only the engineering

disciplines but also several of the sciences, particularly those that provide a basic understanding of the land and the oceans and of the biological activity associated with them.

The Committee set up by the NRC to guide the Study of the need for facilities and capabilities for research and development for engineering in cold regions, obtained the information it required primarily through seminars that brought together individuals directly concerned with engineering in the North or who provide complementary or supporting services. Additional information was obtained through interviews and written submissions, particularly in response to the seminars. The

Inventory*of current Canadian capability provided an appreciation of the existing facilities and capabilities that was required for formulating the recommendations arising from the Study.

This Study could not have been carried out without the active

interest and support of many individuals. The Steering Committee wishes to express its sincere thanks and appreciation to all who contributed their time and experience through the Workshops, written submissions and interviews. L.W. Gold Chairman Steering Committee on Cold Regions Engineering Research

* Inventory of Canadian Research and Development Capabilities for Engineering in Cold Regions. Prepared by Acres Consulting Services Limited for the National Research Council of Canada, Canadian Government Contract No. l8SR3l077-7-0444, Ottawa, 1978. (Copies available from Publications, Building M-58, National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, KIA OR6; Price: $15.00.)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Executive Summary

Introduction

Northern Settlements

Resource Development

Major Engineering Works

Transportation Communications Current Capability Needs Recommendations References Tables I to XIV

Attachment I - Workshop on Northern Sett lements Attachment II - Workshop on Resource Development,

Transportation and Communications Attachment III - Workshop on Major Civil Works

Attachment IV - Workshop on Ocean Engineering

i 1 3 7 12 20 25 26 31 33 37

Executive Summary

The National Research Council of Canada has carried out a study of Canadian needs for research and development for engineering in the North.

It has also had an inventory made of the current capability in Canada to do this work. A Committee of three from the private sector and three from government guided the study. Five topics were considered:

1. Northern settlements 2. Resource development 3. Major engineering works 4. Oceans engineering

5. Transportation and communications

Recommendations

The study showed that there was a need for increased capability for research and development to ensure recognized Canadian excellence in engineering work vital for northern development. The following action is recommended to the Canadian government as strongly desirable for the growth of this excellence:

I There be established in Western Canada an Institute for cold

regions engineering research and development.

The roles of the Institute would be:

- To collect, evaluate and consolidate past research results and experience concerning engineering in cold regions;

- To undertake and provide financial support for performance studies on existing and future structures, facilities and equipment in cold regions;

- To bring together experts from the private sector, government and universities that would evaluate planning, design,

construction and operational practices for engineering in the North and define research and development needs;

- To undertake and provide financial support for research and demonstration projects directed toward the development of excellence in northern engineering practice;

- To manage the knowledge provided by the above work and make it accessible to those concerned with cold regions engineering work;

- To maintain a research facility for its own program that would be available also to industry and university researchers;

- To monitor R&D in other countries that is relevant to engineering in cold regions.

II Thepe be established a Centpe fop peseapch on sea ice.

The roles of the Centre would be:

- To collect, evaluate and consolidate past research results and experience concerning the ice covers of the Arctic and off the east coast of Canada;

- To undertake and provide financial support for studies on the characteristics of ice covers and floating ice masses;

- To foster the development of capability to provide sea ice distribution and movement forecasts on an operational basis;

- To manage the knowledge provided by the above activity and make it accessible to all concerned with cold regions engineering work.

III A Gpoup be established in the Teppitopies to undeptake and suppopt

peseapch and development that would contpibute to the establishment

of sound ppactice fop the ｰｬ｡ｮｮｩｮｧｾ building and maintenance of

nopthePn communities.

The principal roles of the Group would be:

- To collect, evaluate and consolidate records of current practice and experience concerning northern community development.

- To conduct and provide financial support for performance studies of buildings and municipal services;

- To identify problems that require research and development and see that the work is carried out;

- To "manage" the knowledge provided by the above activities and make it accessible to all involved with community development in the North. This would include the preparation of manuals and guides suitable for general use and as teaching materials at the community college level.

to encourage the development of the Oceans Industries.

A committee of experts from the private ｳ･｣ｴｯｲｾ government and

universities be set up under the National Research Council of

Canada to determine the research to be carried ｯｵｴｾ manage the

program and evaluate the results. Industry should be encouraged

to provide matching support.

v

northern and cold oceans engineering ｰｲ｡｣ｴｩ｣･ｾ this study to be

carried out by the Department of Indian and Northern Affairs in collaboration with government departments and agencies with relevant responsibilities.

Primary goals to be achieved through the implementation of these recommendations are:

better and more effective use of existing R&D capabilities; - establishment of a recognized, broadly based Canadian capability

for engineering in cold regions;

- capability to pursue with greater vigour the long-term goals and challenges of northern development.

The Need

During the next ten years there will be major development of oil and gas resources in the Arctic. Mining activities will increase and special attention will be given to the development of renewable

resources. Improvements will be made to housing and community services; new townsites will be constructed. New and improved transportation, communication and navigation facilities will be required. This work will cost several billions of dollars.

Because of the conditions imposed by the North and their effects on costs and performance, it is essential that the knowledge and information required for sound planning, design, construction, use and maintenance be firmly established. This includes:

- a full appreciation of the needs and aspirations of northern

peoples;

- a proper understanding of the environment and its tolerance for

disturbance;

the development of engineering practice that is appropriate and cost effective for northern conditions.

Northern peoples and conditions. Provision of reliable and economical energy, water and waste-disposal systems is a major challenge.

Standards of municipal services and facilities are needed that relate to environmental factors and the technical and financial resources of inhabitants. The necessity for good performance under difficult conditions demands the development of high quality, functional buildings and building components.

The development of the North will include major projects such as the construction of highways, dams, railways, pipelines and harbours. To establish a recognized Canadian competence to do this work it will be necessary to:

- consolidate and evaluate information on planning, design and logistics for northern construction;

establish the construction, operation and maintenance methods that will ensure satisfactory performance;

- develop equipment and materials specifically for the North;

- improve methods for building and working on permafrost;

have a full understanding of ice and snow conditions in the North, of the forces that ice can exert against structures and ships, of methods of controlling ice and snow and of using them in a beneficial way;

have the capability to work in and under ice-affected waters;

- obtain the scientific knowledge and environmental data necessary for sound regulations and practice;

- increase work effectiveness and safety in the Arctic; - increase the capability, reliability and effectiveness of

northern transportation, navigation and communication services.

Capabilities

The inventory identified 313 performers of R&D in support of

engineering in cold regions. Two hundred and twenty-nine were companies, 50 government departments and agencies and 34 were at universities.

In 1977 there was a total of 2430 man-years of effort; 65% was in the private sector, 26% in government departments and agencies and 9% at universities. About 60% of the total effort was supported by contract or similar arrangement. Only 10 performers were identified in the

engineering topics, but it was very dispersed and, in a number of

cases, rather limited. Little attention is being given at universities to R&D for northern planning, building technology and construction. Capability for R&D in marine engineering is low in all three sectors. No university yet provides a degree program in northern or cold oceans engineering. No government department or agency has the resources required to support and coordinate on a long-term basis the desired level of R&D for establishing sound northern and cold oceans

engineering practice and for the development of northern settlements. Conclusions

It was concluded that:

1. A greater capability is required for the research, development, demonstration and performance studies necessary for the growth of competent northern and cold oceans engineering practice.

2. Current capability must be used more effectively for cold regions engineering R&D.

3. There must be available, in the North, the capability to do the research, development and demonstration required for planning, municipal engineering and building practice for northern settlements.

4. Improved ice observation and forecast services for engineering in ice-affected waters is required.

s.

cold regions must be made easily accessible to the practitioner and the educator and to ensure that they are used in practice. 6. Communication and cooperation between scientists, engineers,

the private sector, universities and government must be

improved to ensure an easy flow of information and technology hetween practice, research and teaching for cold regions engineering.

7. Capability to monitor international cold regions technical and scientific work should be increased; and maximum benefit

derived from this activity should be ensured.

Canada is a cold country with vast distances and relatively few people. It is a country that has been greatly influenced by imported

The challenge of the North of Canada, however, is unique and has been uniquely Canadian. It should be kept that way. It will not stay so if the engineering challenges posed by development, regulatory

responsibilities, environmental concerns, sovereignty, and surveillance are not met and solved by Canadians.

In meeting these challenges, a broad Canadian resource base will be established, opportunities will be provided for northerners and southerners, and knowledge will be developed for engineering in the North with application not only in southern Canada but in other parts of the world as well.

INTRODUCTION

Engineering is a major requirement for economic and social develop-ment. In the Arctic, harsh climate and remoteness impose severe condi-tions and constraints on this work. Permafrost and thick, persistent ice covers cause serious problems. Lack of sunlight, severe storms, large distances and uncertain transportation and communications produce additional technical and financial obstacles.

Research and development is a most necessary activity for establishing sound engineering practice for the North. Although capability to do this exists in industry, universities and government departments and agencies, demand for it has been variable and

uncoordinated. As a result, much of this capability and the real need for it have been poorly identified. Inadequate attention has been given to consolidating and evaluating the results of R&D that has been carried out. Important problems are not being attacked because of ambiguous responsibilities and insufficient support.

It was in response to this situation that the present study was undertaken. Its objectives were to:

- establish the needs of industry and government for research and development capabilities in support of engineering in cold regions;

- determine the current Canadian capabilities for this work; - identify deficiencies and recommend how they can be overcome.

The economic and social development of the North is a commitment and an opportunity for Canadians. This commitment was clearly stated for the Territories by the Canadian Government in its objectives for the

North(l, 2, 3). These objectives place particular emphasis on the full ]lurticipation of the northerner in social and economic growth. They stress the need for a proper balance between the development of renewable and non-renewable resource, between large scale and small scale projects and the need to maintain and enhance the northern environment. Similar policies have been recommended by the Science Council(4) , the Berger Commission(S) and at public forums(2, 6). In response to these policies, increasing autonomy is being provided to the governments and residents of the Territories. Highways and railways are being extended northward and airport facilities upgraded. Programs for improving housing and services for northern communities have been initiated.

The study took as a premise that the North will grow. Both renewable and non-renewable resources will be developed. Within the next ten years native land claims will be settled. Sufficient minerals, oil and gas will be found to justify the construction of at least one major pipeline and the introduction of year-round shipping. There will be accelerated

community development and the putting in place of major power, transporta-tion, navigation and communication facilities. New technologies will be developed, particularly for operations in deep and ice-covered waters. Services required for increased utilization of renewable resources will be constructed. The cost of this work will be in the billions of dollars. Because of the conditions imposed by the North and their effects on cost and performance, it will be essential that the knowledge and information required for sound planning, design, construction, use and maintenance of engineered works, be firmly established. This includes:

- a full appreciation of the needs and aspirations of the northern peoples;

- a proper understanding of the environment and its tolerance for disturbance;

the development of competent, economic engineering practice. Cold region engineering problems have been considered in several meetings. These include:

- a comprehensive review of priorities for scientific activities in the North that would enhance programs related to the people, the environment, renewable resources and non-renewable resources(2); - a discussion of materials engineering for the Arctic(7) ;

- a NATO conference on Arctic systems including transportation, navigation, communications, operational, environmental protection, social and cultural(8);

- a seminar on transporting

shi p (9) ; natural gas from the Arctic by

- a study and seminars on industry needs and support services for offshore resource development activity(lO);

- a workshop to consider utility services for northern communities(ll) .,

- a workshop to define problems and research needs for civil engineering in the North(12).

- a conference on transportation in the Arctic(13).

These meetings, individually and collectively, provide a very significant expert consensus concerning problems that require attention.

The present study determined the need for research and development capabilities primarily through discussion with individuals directly concerned with engineering in the North or with providing complementary or supporting services. Many of the problems and research needs defined in earlier meetings were restated in the study. Most of the input was obtained from four seminars dealing with the topics:

northern settlements, resource development and associated transportation and communications, major civil engineering works and oceans engineering. An inventory carried out during the same period identified the very

appreciable cold regions R&D capability that now exists in Canada(14) Bringing these two projects together allowed recommendations to be made concerning the capabilities still required to ensure the healthy growth of northern and cold oceans engineering.

In this report, "Arctic", "the North" and "cold regions" are used interchangeably. Cold regions was defined as that area of Canada north of the southern limit of the discontinuous permafrost region, including the waters between the Arctic islands, and the ice-affected waters off the east coast.

NORTHERN SETTLEMENTS

The Study revealed that knowledge and the technical base were inadequate for the engineering work that must be carried out for the development of northern settlements. This same conclusion was reached by a joint United States-Canadian Workshop on Northern Civil Engineering Research(12). The anticipated development of the North, the need to rationalize and reduce costs, the great necessity for satisfactory performance and the expectations of northerners were found to be strong justification for the R&D necessary to develop this knowledge and

technical capability.

Considerable attention is now being given to the development of northern settlements. The estimated expenditures for 1978-79 on capital, operations and maintenance for communities in the Territories, presented in Table I, is an indication of this effort. Table II presents this expenditure in greater detail for the Northwest Territories.

The majority of settlements in the North are native communities with populations of fewer than 600. Few of these settlements have an adequate economic base for growth and improvement. A large percentage of the people in settlements for more than 2,000 are from the south and many of these are transient. The inhabitants of these centres have life-styles and expectations that differ little from southern communities of similar size.

There is a great desire to develop communities that reflect the traditions, life-styles and aspirations of the northerners, particularly the native northerners. In the Territories, the respective governments are responsible for community planning and for the design, construction, operation and maintenance of municipal services and facilities. Emphasis

is placed on strong local government and local employment. It is a goal to provide adequate municipal services, housing and recreational

facilities that conform not only with the needs and desires of the residents but also with their capability to operate and maintain them.

Planning

Planning is a most important step in the development of northern communltles. Planners must have a full knowledge of the needs and aspirations of the people and of the conditions imposed by terrain, climate and economics. They must be able to translate these desires and requirements into designs that are suitable for the North. This includes obtaining a proper balance between grouping and dispersal of buildings, privacy and contact, single and multiple use of space and economic benefit and community satisfaction. They must appreciate how these requirements differ between native and non-native communities.

Numerous planning studies have been carried out for northern settlements. This work, however, has been done primarily in the south using southern expertise, and many of those involved have not had

experience in the Arctic. There have been few efforts to learn through observation of the performance of existing services and facilities.

The knowledge gained through northern planning activity is dispersed and often not easily available. There is a great need to consolidate and evaluate this information and make it easily accessible to those under-taking community development projects. With the increasing

responsibility for planning at the Territorial Government and local

levels, there is a growing requirement to have in the North the capability to do the supportive research, development, performance and evaluation studies necessary to establish proper practice and designs.

Conclusions

Major expenditures ｾｩｬｬ be required to improve older northern settlements and to construct new ones. Capability for ｲ･ｳ･｡ｲ｣ｨｾ

development and performance studies to establish sound planning practiee and designs and for evaluating past information and ･ｸｰ･ｲｩ･ｮ｣･ｾ must be developed in the North.

Services

The provlslon of reliable water, waste disposal and energy systems at reasonable cost poses the greatest challenge for northern settlements. Water supply is often critical and expensive because of the lack of a

suitahle source and vulnerability of the distribution system to freezing Juring winter. Methods of solid and liquid waste disposal that are practical for the south are often not suitable for the North because of the long, severe winters and poor drainage due to permafrost. Present methods and technologies must be improved and new ones developed.

A significant difference exists between settlements in standards of water supply and waste disposal. A settlement that owes its existence to a resource opportunity such as mining or to administrative functions may need, and normally can provide, the services required to recruit and hold staff. These are usually "southern style" communities. The majority of settlements cannot afford high standards of service. The location of many was determined by early renewable resource opportunities and social activity (e.g., location of the Hudson Bay post, church, RCMP). Little planning has gone into their development and the constraints imposed by their location make it expensive to provide the services, grouping and ready access to facilities that are now needed.

The standards of service and facilities to be provided for or required by northern settlements must be rationalized. These standards should be soundly and fairly based on the requirements and technical resources of the inhabitants, environmental considerations and economic factors.

Energy is a critical factor for the North; failure of the source for a community can be a catastrophe. Practically all forms are generated from petroleum products and are expensive (fuel oil costs about $l/gal; electricity about 16¢/kW-h). Alternative sources particularly for emergency backup in the event of failure should be developed. Energy conservation is of the greatest importance. Continuing attention must be given to the development of heat recovery and other systems that will reduce demand for fuel and the cost of providing heat.

These problems, along with others such as fire fighting and nOIse, dust and snow control, are shared by all communities. The study

emphasized the need to develop and demonstrate appropriate technology. Equipment and systems for a community must be of a type that can be readily operated and maintained by the inhabitants. Considerable technology and information now exists for services in cold regions and this should be consolidated and evaluated(11). The Inventory of Canadian

capabilities showed that there is appreciable expertise for carrying out the research and development that is required.

ConelutJioYw

Ther-e Le a need to consolidate and evaluate the information and

technology now available on the provision of services to northern

communities and to develop and demonstrate reliable, easily operated

systems that are appropriate for cold regions.

Building

The quality of life in the North is greatly dependent on the quality of housing and community services. A successful building must meet the needs of the people who use it, be a functionally sound shelter from the

elements and complement the surroundings. The North imposes extreme conditions on building technology and construction practice because of its severe climate, potentially unstable terrain, lack of local building materials and distance from source of supplies.

Although a good technological base now exists for design and construction of most building types, including their foundations, this knowledge has not been fully evaluated nor its application in the North demonstrated. Much of the work that has been evaluated is not yet in a form suitable to ensure its consideration and use. Proven practice must be properly recorded in a form suitable for writing contract

specifica-tions, for field supervisors and as teaching aids at the community college level.

Building principles for the above-ground part of structures are similar to those that should be followed in the south. Because of the severity of the winter, the performance of structures in the North is more sensitive to design and quality of construction. Of great need is the development of hardware (e.g., door handles) and components (e.g., windows, walls and doors) that perform efficiently under the extreme northern conditions.

Table III presents information on the unit, freight and total costs of providing a house in various communities in 1977. It clearly

illustrates the significant contribution that shipping distance and location makes on these costs.

The problems and costs associated with northern building justify investment in development and demonstration projects to establish better and more economic building systems and methods of construction. Such projects must take into consideration the unique requirements of the different types of settlements (e.g., native, permanent, semi-permanent, temporary). Performance and costs must be fully documented so that they can be considered when determining R&D requirements. All aspects of northern building must be included - planning, logistics, transportation, construction, use of on-site labour, servicing of land, operations, and maintenance. It is only through such studies and the development of the knowledge base that those responsible for building in the North can carry out this work in the most socially and cost effective manner.

ConclwJ-£onlJ

The conditions imposed by the ｎｯｾｴｨ ｾ･ｱｵｩｾ･ high quality building and

l.ui.l.dinq component e tandarde . Preeent: nor-thern bui.l di.nq pract-ice must be evaluated and ｢･ｴｴ･ｾ use made of available technology. R&D should be aimed at ｩｭｰｾｯｶｩｮｧ ｰ･ｾｦｯｙＧｬＷＱ｡ｮ｣･ and ｾ･､ｵ｣ｩｮｧ costs.

The conclusions drawn from the contributions concerning development of northern communities are consistent with the views expressed by the

Science Council(4), by URBANorth Inc.(lS) and in the Canadian position paper(l6) .

The participants in the Workshop on Northern Settlements are presented in Attachment I along with a list of some of the research problems identified in the discussion. Papers as a basis for discussion were prevared by B.L. Van Ginkel on ｰｬ｡ｮｮｩｮｾＨＱＷＩＬ N. Lawrence on

services 18), and G. Jacobsen on building(l ).

RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

The North is going through a most intensive period of resource exploration and development. Within the Mackenzie Valley alone, the petroleum industry has spent about one billion dollars during the past ten years on exploration and research. In the eight years preceding 1977, over $500 million was spent on oil and gas exploration in the Arctic Islands(20). Off-shore drilling is taking place in the Beaufort Sea, in the Arctic archipelago and is soon to start in Davis Strait. It was estimated in the present Study that during the next ten years

$18 billion could be spent on petroleum and gas projects, $2 billion on hydroelectric projects (excluding Baie James and the Nelson River

projects), $1 billion on highways and $1 billion on activities related to mining. Approval has recently been given for the construction of a major gas pipeline from Alaska through the southern Yukon. Approval is being sought for a $1.5 billion proposal to ship liquefied natural gas from the high Arctic by tanker.

The Study showed that there must be major advances in cold regions engineering capability if these expectations are to be realized. Many projects will be "first-of-their-kind" and will challenge the limits of this capability and require new technologies and methods. At this stage in the development of the North, political and financial interests are naturally cautious and require demonstrated ability. If resource

development is to proceed with efficiency, safety, minimal threat to the environment and full participation of Canadian industry, there must be competence to prove current engineering practice to modify it where necessary and to develop the new technologies and methods demanded by northern conditions.

Oi1 and Gas

Exploration for the development of oil and gas are now seasonal activities due to terrain conditions and ice but they need to be

carried out on a year-round basis. It may not be economical to explore and develop some areas without this capability or at least the ability to work over longer periods of the year. New and improved equipment and methods for exploration, construction and production are required for permafrost terrain and ice-affected waters. A major need for ice-affected waters is the ability to:

work on, in, and under ice covers;

- "manage" ice at work sites;

- design and construct vessels and structures that can withstand all ice conditions;

- place subsurface well-head and production systems;

- monitor, inspect and repair during ice-affected periods.

Considerable attention is being given to the development of the technology for preventing, detecting and cleaning up oil spills and gas

leaks. Coupled with this urgent requirement is the need to be able to get men and equipment to sites quickly if a failure should occur. This must be a year-round capability both on-shore and off-shore.

The Inventory indicated that, with the present drop-off in northern oil and gas exploration work, there is a relatively good capacity to respond to the present needs of land-based activity. This capability would be severely taxed if the development of a major oil or gas find was undertaken. There is an urgent need to increase Canadian

capabilities for the research and development required for work in ice-affected waters.

Conclusions

ｔｨ･ｾ･ is an ｾｧ･ｮｴ need to build up cold ｾ･ｧｩｯｮｳ ｾ･ｳ･｡ｾ｣ｨｾ develop-ment and enqineer-inq capability in Canada so that it can reepond

｡ｧｧｾ･ｳｳｩｶ･ｬｹ to ｯｰｰｯｾｴｵｮｩｴｩ･ｳ in the oil and gas ｩｮ､ｵｳｴｾｩ･ｳＮ

Mining

Permafrost is the principal reason for the unique mInIng engineering prohlems which include drilling, blasting, excavating frozen ground and effects of freezing and thawing. The disposal of tailings is also a major prohlem. Methods are required that will be satisfactory under all conditions imposed by waste material and weather. Soundly based

environmental standards and land use regulations must be developed. Monitoring of the environmental effects of effluents and wastes should be carried out because this information is required in the development of

technology, standards and regulations.

Costs of working in the North must be reduced. The development of northern mining and similar resource-based communities is a particular challenge. These towns may have only a limited life and a large

percentage of their occupants may be transient workers. All the factors Jiscussed in the section on Northern Settlements apply here.

The mlnlng industry has experience in cold regions which should be recorded and consolidated for the use of others carrying out northern engineering work. The Inventory indicated that capability exists to do this task as well as the research necessary to establish sound northern mining engineering practice, environmental standards and land use

regulations.

Conclusions

1he mining ｩｮ､ｵｳｴｾｹ has a need ｦｯｾ ｾ･ｳ･｡ｾ｣ｨ and ､･ｶ･ｬｯｰｭ･ｮｴｾ

ｰ｡ｾｴｩ｣ｵｬ｡ｾｬｹ on ｧ･ｯｴ･｣ｨｮｩ｣｡ｬｾ ･ｮｶｩｾｯｮｭ･ｮｴ｡ｬ and community development

ｰｾｯ｢ｬ･ｭｳＮ ｔｨ･ｾ･ is a need to establish soundly based ･ｮｶｩｾｯｮｭ･ｮｴ｡ｬ ｳｴ｡ｮ､｡ｾ､ｳ and ｾ･ｧｵｬ｡ｴｩｯｮｳ ｦｯｾ the ｩｮ､ｵｳｴｾｹＮ

Renewable Resources

Tables IV(a) and (b) give the value of production of renewable and non-renewable resources for the Territories. In terms of dollar value, the contribution of renewable resources is much smaller than that of non-renewable resources. The development of renewable resources is important, however, because they are the basis for the economy of many northern communities and a major source of employment and food(l, 4, 5)

Outside of desirable developments in community facilities,

transportation, navigation and communications, the current needs for the renewable resource industries were primarily non-engineering. There is a need to establish the optimum yield for each harvestable resource; a task that requires extensive data collection and analysis. Once this is done, the applicability and effectiveness of present technology can be evaluated for each case resulting in a clear definition of the need for engineering and supporting research and development. The Inventory showed that capability now exists for the R&D that will be required over the next five years for engineering in support of fishing, forestry, hunting and agriculture in the North.

ConclusionD

Ｑｨ･ｾ･ is a need to establish the optimum yield ｦｯｾ ｾ･ｮ･ｷ｡｢ｬ･

ｾ･ｳｯｵｲ｣･ｳｾ to evaluate the applicability and effectiveness of ｰｾ･ｳ･ｮｴ

technology and to ｳｵｰｰｯｾｴ the ｾ･ｳ･｡ｾ｣ｨ and development ｾ･ｱｵｩｾ･､ to

exploit and enhance these ｾ･ｳｯｵｲ｣･ｳＮ

Hydro-e lectric Power

The North has considerable potential for hydropower generation. Major projects are now in progress in northern Quebec and Manitoba;

similar possibilities exist in the Yukon and Northwest Territories. Hydrologic and hydraulic studies are needed to fully define this

potential and the feasibility for its development. Current experience in constructing power generation and transmission facilities in permafrost regions must be consolidated and evaluated; the necessary engineering technology and expertise must be available when required. Major develop-ment may take place far from energy markets and efficient long distance power transmission will be important. The Inventory showed that there exists a relatively good capability to respond to the research and development opportunities anticipated in this area over the next five years.

Conclusions

The North has major potential hydro-electric resources. There is a need for hydrologic and hydraulic studies to establish the possibilities and feasibility of utilizing these resources for future energy needs.

Inland Waters

Water may be Canada's most important natural resource. Our

knowledge concerning the hydrologic regime of the cold regions of Canada and the factors that control the movement of water through and over perma-frost is still incomplete. Such information is essential for the

decisions that must be made with respect to engineering work that will modify or otherwise interfere with the natural flow of water.

Long-term records of precipitation, runoff and stream flow, particularly in regions of expected development, are required as is a better understanding of:

the hydrology of northern rivers and river systems

the characteristics and behaviour of river channels in permafrost - ice cover formation, hreakup and ice jams

the capacity of rivers and lakes to absorb municipal and industrial wastes.

There must be competence to make the required measurements not only during the ice-free period, but in the winter as well. The development of

effective methods for flood control, drainage, erosion control and stream and river crossings is essential for the North.

Conelusions

There is a need to develop the base line data and the science of hwiY'ology for inland waters in the North.

Government

The study brought out differences between the nature of the require-ments of government and of the private sector for engineering research and development capabilities.

For industry, there must be general economic incentive before a project is undertaken. By the time the decision has been made to proceed the studies required to provide necessary information are usually well-defined. The capabilities to carry out the work are then assembled, subject to the economic and political constraints of the project. Upon completion of the studies, the capabilities may be discharged or

transferred to other activities, sometimes of a completely different nature. This may diminish or dilute Canadian expertise.

Although economics is an important factor with respect to the requirements of government, often it is not as directly relevant as is usually the case for industry. Governments generally put in place the infrastructure required for development. They also have approval, regulatory and monitoring responsibilities and for these require continuing in-house competence. The research capabilities that are required to establish soundly based regulations, to be able to confirm conformance and to construct and monitor the performance of engineered works are similar to those industry must have for its engineering work.

In addition, government has a responsibility for policy formulation, over-all planning and sovereignty and to ensure that knowledge and expertise will be available when required. These are long-term needs for an adequate research and development capability.

Both government and the private sector have a common goal: to develop resources safely and efficiently. If Canada is to have the technical sovereignty for the North advocated by the Science Council(4), it is imperative that the knowledge and expertise developed through both industry- and government-supported activity be shared and retained. Information that contributes to the safety of practice and operations must not be held proprietary but be put in the public domain as quickly as possible so that it can be fully vetted and tested. This should be a requirement for projects supported by public money.

Conclusions

nlC reseapch capabilities required by governments for establishing

regulations and for ｡ｰｰｲｯｶ｡ｬｾ construction and monitoring ｲ･ｳｰｯｮｳｩ｢ｩｬｩｴｩ･ｳｾ

are similar to those of industry. There must be close cooperation between

government and industry to ensure minimum duplication ｾｨ･ｮ establishing

the information and knowledge base required and to ensure that useful results of research become a part of cold regions engineering practice as quickly as possible.

Participants in the Workshop on Resource Development are listed in Attachment II along with a list of some of the specific research needs that were identified. Many of these needs received more detailed

consideration in the Seminar/Workshop on Northern Engineering and Oceans Engineering.

MAJOR ENGINEERING WORKS

The development of the North requires the construction of major facilities such as highways, airports, railways, harbours, pipelines, hydro-electric plants, dams and offshore structures. Table V gives recent expenditures in the Territories on construction and associated machinery and equipment. The total is now well over $500 million per year.

The capability to do this work must be increased. Much available technology is still to be evaluated and shown to be appropriate. Design criteria must be established and new methods and technology developed. Without these improvements costs will be excessive for some projects; others may be ruled out altogether.

For the Study, cold regions engineering was divided into northern engineering (essentially land based or bottom founded works) and cold oceans engineering. A comprehensive paper was prepared on the research and development needs for each of these two subjects and discussed in concurrent workshops(21, 22). As these two topics have several common R&D capability needs, they have been combined in this report under major Engineering Works.

Construction

There is a well established Canadian capability for construction in cold weather and it is being extended to the more severe conditions that exist in the North. Practice, materials and equipment that require further development are being identified.

Most of the planning and design for major engineering projects is carried out in the south. The majority of the construction materials and equipment must be purchased in the south and transported to the work site. Because of the lack of supporting services and the seasonality of transportation and construction, logistics and scheduling become

particularly important. It is imperative that these factors, along with all the effects of Arctic conditions, be fully considered in the

specification, contract writing, construction and operation stages. Components of the information base required to do this effectively and efficiently exist in the files and accumulated experience of companies and government departments. The study identified an urgent need to consolidate this information, organize and evaluate it, add to it where necessary and make it an integral part of northern engineering practice.

The establishment of the ability to design and build shoreline and offshore structures that will perform successfully in ice-affected waters was identified as an activity of high priority. This requires taking

permafrost conditions, the marine environment and effects of ice into full account in design, construction and operations. In many projects it will be necessary to work from or under ice-covers and to "manage" the ice about the structure (e.g., construction and use of harbour facilities).

Contributors to the Study stressed the need to

- collect and synthesize available information on northern construction practice;

monitor the performance of existing and future structures;

evaluate current construction methods and equipment;

- develop standards and codes;

- undertake the research, development and demonstration required to establish competent practice.

There is capability to do this work but it is not being effectively mobilized and coordinated.

Conc lusions

There is an urgent need to consolidate and synthesize available information on planning, design and logistics for northern construction;

to evaluate construction methods and equipment; to monitor the

performance of structures and to carry out the R&D necessary to establish sound construction practice.

Construction Equipment and Materials

Appropriateness and performance of equipment is a major factor in the cost and success of a project or operation. Although the Arctic market has not been sufficiently large to encourage manufacturers to develop equipment especially for it, the scale of northern engineering activity justifies the development of special equipment. This work should be supported by both government and industry because of their extensive construction activities and operational responsibilities. Attention should be given to:

- documenting failures and their causes;

- improving low temperature operating capability and dependability of equipment;

procedures for preparing equipment for the Arctic environment;

- improving repair and maintenance procedures;

- preparing handbooks on equipment and practice appropriate for the Arctic.

There are strong technical and economic reasons that the materials of construction used in cold regions should be improved. These were discussed in some detail at the Conference on Materials for Engineering in the Arctic(7). Durability, cost effectiveness and low temperature performance need to be improved for all the common construction materialS,

e.g., concrete, bituminous concrete, metals, insulation, and plastics. Because of the high cost of transportation, attention should be given to developing ways of using indigenous materials. The Inventory indicated that a reasonable capability exists to respond to these needs but it must have support. Successful equipment and materials developed for the North will have a market in southern Canada and other countries.

Conclusions

Because of the severe conditions imposed by the North and the necessity for good performance> special attention must be given to the development of construction equipment and materials specifically for use

in cold regions. Performance of equipment and materials should be

documented and performance criteria developed.

Permafrost

Considerable progress has been made in the ability to design for and construct on permafrost. Failures and poor performance still occur due to insufficient information on its behaviour and disregard of available knOWledge and past experience. Contributors to the Study emphasized the need to:

- review knowledge concerning the engineering behaviour of permafrost;

- carry out the research needed to provide required knowledge; - evaluate the results through application and observations of

performance.

Sound permafrost engineering practice is vital for the successful development of northern resources.

Conclusions

It is essential that there be strong and continuing support of research on the physical properties and engineering behaviour of perma-frost.

Hodifications to the ground surface may change the natural thermal balance, and destroy the integrity of the underlying frozen material. Construction must be carried out in a manner that will not cause

unacceptable disturbance and temperature changes. The type and level of disturbance that can be tolerated and acceptable methods of constructing, operating and rehabilitating, have still to be optimized for the North.

When building in the North, the condition of the permafrost must be determined at all locations where construction activity will take place. The traditional methods of obtaining this information - probing, drilling,

sampling and laboratory testing - are too expensive to obtain the detail required for some projects. Less costly methods must be developed; geophysical techniques show considerable promise. There is a good theoretical and experience base in Canada with respect to geophysical methods, resulting particularly from petroleum and mining exploration activity. In view of the importance of determining the characteristics of permafrost over large areas, both on land and offshore, the applica-tion of this capability to geotechnical engineering should be exploited.

Conclusions

There is a need to establish for permafrost terrain the tolerable

level of disturbance and acceptable ｰｲ｡｣ｴｩ｣･ｾ including ｲ･ｨ｡｢ｩｬｩｴ｡ｴｩｯｮｾ

for engineering activity. Economic methods should be developed to

determine the characteristics of permafrost in the detail required by some engineering projects.

Ice and Snow

A major challenge for engineering in cold regions is to develop the capability to design, build and operate under the severe conditions imposed by ice. A better understanding is required of the physical and mechanical properties of ice and of the measures that can be taken to minimize its effects. Observations are required on the behaviour of ice around structures and ice pressures should be measured. The development of methods and equipment for making such measurements is still a

challenging research and engineering problem.

Our knowledge of sea ice and the factors that control its formation and movement is still very meager. Canadians must be thoroughly

knowledgeable about sea ice if they are to participate fully in resource development work, extend the work period into the ice-affected seasons and effectively carry out support and regulatory responsibilities. This

includes having the capability to:

- observe the distribution, movement and physical characteristics of ice covers and ice masses;

- provide, on a real time basis, information required for ship routing and operational decisions.

Existing capability has been used on an ad hoc basis; none of it is yet adequate to meet the challenge posed by anticipated engineering and

shipping activities. We are not using effectively the capability we do have to develop the required expertise and knowledge base.

Accessibility is a major factor for northern development. The best time to move over unprepared terrain in most regions is in winter when the ground, lakes and rivers are frozen. This activity has resulted in appreciable experience in the construction and use of snow and winter roads both on land and on ice. Ice covers have also provided economical platforms for the support of engineering work such as erection of bridges, ocean bottom surveys and drilling of wells. There is a need to

consolidate and evaluate this experience and to extend our ability to use ice and snow for useful purposes.

Snow can seriously disrupt engineering and other actlvlty. There is appreciable knowledge on snow removal and control and on minimizing the effects of snow accumulations. This knowledge must be evaluated and its application in the North further developed.

Conclusions

Better information is required on the properties of ｩ｣･ｾ on ice

forces and on the characteristics and behaviour of ice covers; there is

a need to develop knowledge on how to control snow and ice and to use

them in a beneficial way as engineering materials.

Ocean Engineering

This was identified as a subject of highest priority for development. There is now considerable international capability for doing engineering work in the ocean and on the seafloor. The challenge for Canada is to adopt this technology and develop the techniques and equipment required for resource exploration and development in ice-affected waters. There

is an urgent need to build up Canadian industry so that it can participate aggressively in this work. This includes capability for:

- equipment and instrument development;

- offshore geological, geotechnical and geophysical investigations; - hydrographic, oceanographic and ice cover measurements;

- under ice work including developing manned and unmanned submersibles for construction, inspection, monitoring and maintenance of

underwater systems; - search and rescue;

- providing dependable underwater communications and power supply systems;

the design, construction and operation of structures and seafloor systems in ice-affected waters;

- drilling in deep, ice-affected waters.

It will be essential to have good hydrographic and oceanographic data and sound basic knowledge in cold ocean science. Industry, government and universities must work together in carrying out the research and develop-ment that is required. Strong government support of R&D and a clear statement of long-term policies and objectives will be required if Canadian engineering companies are to participate fully in the offshore

activity anticipated in ice-affected waters. This action is consistent with the ocean science policy stated by the government in 1973.

The need for improved hydrographic data and ice and weather fore-casts was established in the study carried out in 1976 by the Mi ni stry

of State for Science and Technology on increasing capability in ice-covered waters. Sound engineering practice in ice-covered waters is greatly dependent on the information that can only be provided by vigorous programs in these subject areas.

Conclusions

High ｰｾｩｯｾｩｴｹ must be given to the development of ocean ･ｮｧｩｮ･･ｾｩｮｧ

in ice-affected ｷ｡ｴ･ｾｳ and to ｧ｡ｴｨ･ｾｩｮｧ basic ｯ｣･｡ｮｯｧｾｰｨｩ｣ data. ｔｨ･ｾ･

is a need to ｳｵｰｰｯｾｴ the ｾ･ｱｵｩｾ･､ R&D on a ｢ｾｯ｡､ basis and to ･ｮｳｾ･ the

｣ｯｯｾ､ｩｮ｡ｴ･､ ｰ｡ｾｴｩ｣ｩｰ｡ｴｩｯｮ of ｩｮ､ｵｳｴｲｹｾ ｧｯｶ･ｾｭ･ｮｴ and ｵｮｩｶ･ｾｳｩｴｩ･ｳＮ

Environment

Environmental assessment has become a major requirement for

engineering in northern Canada. This has occurred so rapidly that the guidelines and regulations governing engineering practice and the methodologies for taking environmental factors into consideration have not yet been fully developed and proven through application. The

scientific studies and base line data that are absolutely necessary for effective resource planning and for formulating sound, realistic

regulations and guidelines, are not complete. Because of this, the

approval process for many recent engineering projects, particularly those that have been "first-of-their-kind", has often been long and costly. It has heen stated that delays due to environmentally related concerns

Jouhled the cost of the Alyeska pipeline(23), but the incremental cost for adequate environmental protection probably accounted for less than 2 percent of the total project cost(24)

Effective long-term programs are needed to develop the geological, climatological, biological and oceanographic data base. Such programs

should provide within a reasonable time the basis necessary for

formulating policies, regulations and guidelines on which the specific site studies required for engineering projects can be based. Quality and quantity standards must be established to ensure useful data. National data banks must be developed so that information will be readily available for all requirements.

Insufficient attention is being given to assessing the impact of completed engineering works on the environment. Although capability exists for carrying out such studies, the responsibility for doing them has not been established. At this early stage in the development of cold regions engineering, they are a rich source of information and experience and absolutely necessary for establishing and confirming good practice and regulations. Such studies must be carried out for a period of time sufficient to enable the determination of long-term effects. There must be a capability to maintain continuity of observations and to analyze and manage the results properly.

It is usually the responsibility of government departments and agencies to support or carry out such long-term programs. Current constraints and emphasis on short-term programs have seriously handi-capped their capability to do this. Government and the private sector must work together to ensure that they are done and that the results are used effectively to modify engineering practice where necessary and to develop sound, realistic regulations.

Conclusions

Environmental baseline data are required as is a research and

monitoring capability to establish sound environmental ｲ･ｧｵｬ｡ｴｩｯｮｳｾ

guide-lines and practice for engineering in cold regions. Quality and quantity

standards of measurement and readily accessible national data banks must

be established for environmental data. This work requires long-term

support.

Remote Sensing(2S)

Because of the size and remoteness of the North, remote sensing

methods are essential for obtaining information required for the planning, design and construction of highways, railways, airports, power projects, pipelines and communications. They are also vital for providing on a real time basis information for management and operational decisions. Their uses include:

- determining the characteristics of the land surface and the location and properties of permafrost;

determining the properties, distribution and movement of ice covers;

detecting and monitoring the movement of ice flows and icebergs;

- providing information for environmental studies;

- bathymetric and oceanographic observations.

Remote sensing theory, sensors, equipment, application and methods of analyses are developing continuously. There should be a coordinated effort to identify northern applications and requirements to ensure that these needs are considered in the development work. The Study emphasized the need for sensors of high resolution, greater specificity and all weather, day and night capability, particularly for observations on ice covers. Improvements are required on methods of analyzing records. Ways of obtaining regular coverage must be established if information for decisions concerning transportation and operations is to be provided on a real time basis. The development of promising satellite, air-borne,

land-based and underwater systems should be aggressively pursued. The importance of remote sensing capability has been recognized through the formation of the Canada Centre for Remote Sensing in the Federal Department of Energy, Mi ne s and Resources and of the Canadian Advisory Committee on Remote Sensing. Recently the Advisory Committee established a Working Group on Engineering Applications. Canada

currently holds a leading position in the development and use of remote sensing technology. Appreciable capability has developed in industry, universities, and government departments and agencies in response to opportunities in this field. Support of this capability is required to ensure that the remote sensing technology necessary for sound cold regions engineering practice is developed.

Conclusions

There is a need to support research and development in the

applica-tion of remote sensing methods to northern and cold oceans engineering.

lIuman Performance

The performance of individuals is a most important factor for the success of an engineering project. Experience has shown that a better understanding of the physiology and psychology of man in the Arctic environment is required for the development of appropriate work methods and equipment. Attention must be given to protection from cold in winter and insects in summer. Tools, vehicles and workspace must be designed so that they can be used properly and safely by an individual wearing bulky clothing. Human performance should be an important consideration

in the design of equipment and organization of all projects for the Arctic. The clothing to wear, precautions to take and survival techniques must be part of the working knowledge for northern engineering. These needs

justify special training courses that should be obligatory for those doing engineering and construction work in the North.

Considerable information and experience has been obtained on the performance of man in cold regions; it should be consolidated and

evaluated. Some capability exists for doing the research and development work that is required, but this should be increased and given the support it deserves.

Conclusions

Research is required on the performance of individuals in the Arctic and for developments that will increase the effectiveness and safety of work.

A list of those participating in the Workshop on Northern

Engineering and on Oceans Engineering is given in Attachments III and IV along with a list of specific research problems that were identified.

TRANSPORTATION

Transportation is a most important factor for resource development, maintenance of sovereignty and security, the quality of life of the northerner and for leisure and recreation. It is particularly important for engineering work in the North. Careful attention must be given to it at all stages of planning, design, construction and operations. Two aspects of R&D relevant to transportation were considered in the Study: that necessary to carry out the engineering work associated with putting a transportation system in place, and that necessary to ensure that a transportation system will perform properly as a service in support of, engineering work in cold regions. The first aspect is covered in the section on Major Engineering Works; the second is considered in this section.

Table VI(a) presents the annual tonnage of material moved into the Yukon and NWT in the period 1972-76 inclusive according to mode of transportation; Table VI(b) gives the cargo loaded at ports in the NWT and loaded onto railway cars in the Yukon and NWT for the same period. Morc than 99.5% of the outgoing rail freight was raw materials, mainly ore and concentrates.

Present traffic both in and out of the Yukon and NWT does not, in itself justify a special R&D effort. In fact, current technology would allow a significant increase in capacity should the need arise. The nature of resource development in the North, however, does provide a strong rationale for a special effort. It is highly probable that an exploitable mineral deposit, and certainly an oil or gas field, will require a dedicated transportation system. It is reasonable to expect that some of these systems will be subject to heavy use under extreme terrain and climate conditions. When such opportunities arise, the time

available to decide on type and route and to put it in place may be relatively short. Even one major project would justify the continuous support of a reasonable R&D effort to provide the knowledge base and capability that would allow a rapid response to such opportunities.

Water Transport

The principal method of moving material into the Western Arctic is by barge down the Mackenzie River. From 1972 to 74 inclusive, the height of the oil exploration period, over 400,000 tons were shipped annually in

this way. Barges are also used for transporting goods from the

Mackenzie to communities in the Western Arctic accessible from the Arctic Ocean, and along the West Coast of Hudson Bay.

Development requirements for this mode of transportation over the next five years appear to be within current engineering capability but

there is a need to consolidate and evaluate the knowledge base available for future expansion. There is also a need to increase the capability of barges to operate in ice-affected waters.

Marine traffic into the Eastern Arctic now amounts to about 100 ship passages per year. This volume of traffic, does not justify significant expenditures on R&D. Resource development opportunities such as the Nanisivik Mine on northern Baffin Island, asbestos deposits in northern Quebec and gas and oil fields in the Arctic, are imposing an increasing requirement, however, to lengthen the shipping season. There is a growing need for:

- increased capability for providing information on ice conditions on a real time basis;

- Improved shipboard capability for observing ice conditions within a 10-mile radius;

better methods for anchoring, mooring, offloading and loading in ice-affected waters;

improved methods for accurately establishing positions and maneuvering in confined locations.

The design of ships capable of operating in ice is governed by the Arctic Shipping and Pollution Prevention Regulations administered by the Ministry of Transport. Although consideration is being given to the design and construction of Class VII to Class X icebreakers, ships in these classes have not yet been built. The Regulations should be

validated through research and observations of operational performance. This work is of the greatest importance for the future development of Canadian shipping in the Arctic. It requires being able to fully determine the performance of ships and the forces experienced when