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,n:US"OISSERTATION

HASB~ENMICROFILMED EXA CTLY'A$,RECEIV ED

TESTING AND TEACHINp GRAMMATICAL CONNECTIVES IN A SPECIAL'GRADE SIXCLA'SS \

septe,mber1979

."

^{, - ' . "}

^.

^{",; ,}

" The'main purpose ofth~;intern-ship,we svtc eest. stridents

~n

^'a'speci..a"l:grade six'class"

for, ''thei~: u~~e~s\a~­

in~'

^o'f

6~nnectives '

^in-

prin~

^{ahd,"to.te a'eh}

-' those" st~en~s-,

who

indicated ~_.nee~ o~,' t~e:

^{bas Ls of}

t~s~: '~c~res ~

^:

^hOw

, • _. _. ' , . ,c , ,' . ,.,,':

connectives signify.c erjia Ln~ental o~erati.o~sessenti,al:-to

.\

}:.

APPEN DICES

A.

.B•

Page

"TheLesson ~Plan s 54

ThePretest

r d

^{Pq8tt~ St...".. . ....}.. . . 98

<i

l\ ' 'J

~i:ST · OF TABLES ~

";,.

.. _'"

^{2. To ~prove}their comprehensio nof poorly unde r stood connectivesby.pr o v id i n goutside of regul a r''Cl.a s s r oorn·i n s t r u c t i o n a 30-lIiinute tea c hin gunit which

·A.

'emphasi~ed

^her.:·

co'nnect~ves"

^{sig n ify}

rela t io n s hi p s'by providing a specific

kind of ~ink :. .

.

^,

.

^{- ~}

B. shoWedb~th e kind of l inkvar ies withthe connec ti'(es'cee e,- .

'. ,'. , . , r '-,.

..3. To reinfo rcethe!irundetsEandingof poorly:,>

: " -,' ~~i~~i~~~~~~~~~~t'6:Sa~~ ~~~~~~~ni~itC:~;day

~

^{JIlli t whi c h_emPh a si zed}

pra~ticeOf,

^apar t icula r con~ective-in "c:.tiYities. and ex e rcisesusing the'l an g uage skillsoflis ter1~ n9 "speakilJ9.

:"riting . andread.i~9" •"•.:-',..,-:,,. • 4.

'!o en ?oage

caref u lth1.nkinq in the read i n g

~~_act~ ^> -e •

. . .

~..-:-

. .

^:.'

.

'",

. '

. '

J

L

CHAPT ER II

REVIEWOF:rHE RELATEDLITERATURE

I. DefiningConnectives

In this interns h i p aconnec tive has beendefined asa li ng uis tic ro nethat l in ks a clause to anot herclause or to some wo rd in'the other cl au s e (Robe r tson ,'1968: ' 393).

Robertso~.(1 970 )ree rs,tha~'d if fl. cul ti es in' com-

.

.

prehensionmayrestwit hcon n e e ttv ee;-She-suggests'that

" - ' ,

.Ehe

w~rds~~~'mSelVl!S

aswor d s

are _:n'~t

the

p~oblem but ~hat

the'men t al'oper~ tionsre q uire dby_the wordsmay~. \ •

To exa mine the kinds'of mental,o~erll.tionsinvolved,\

it Is-useful to loo k~the way plea.son (19~ 5:342-343) cla ss if i es connective~ , ^{The fir st'c la s s}ifi c a t i o n he de scribes is onthe ba s isof,th e'un i t s (f o r ex ~p le "wordsor,cl aus e s) that they may connect, The-s eco ndclass ificationis'o.n th e basis ofthe kin ds'ofco nne ct. Ion they s h'ow, Thi~,'ineffect , indi cates,thekindofmentaloperat i on"n ec e saary to'perce dve

, '

. .

,there lat i on _or make the conne c tionbetween the uni t s , ~n other words,the:CUIl\ulative cl as sifica t io n belO'tl,

des~dbeS

/ ' therelation as one of simply'adding on e'i de a to another, theadversat~vE;Would'indic~ tea re l ation ofSOllie kin d of op po s ition'between ideas,.andso.on. This second cla s s ifi-.

J 1

')

cation is..notexhaustiveby any means,an,dsomeof the categorie s over la p. Howe ve r , it con t ains,a llof theco n- nective~used'in testingthestudents invo l ved in this internshi p ,and'i t is a useful framewor kto idontifythe typ e sof me{ltaloperat i onsrequir edin understan dingpre- cis elyhow the connectives func t ion , or connect . 'fhe Specif ic ativ~and Spatial categor i e shavebeen addedby the internto accoltlllodatethoseconne c ti veswhich'Gl e a s on does not;mention'i nhisexemplary,classt'fi'catfon-which~ollows:

Cumulative:, and

Di sj unct-i've:'

Adversat:ive: 'bu t :'

~~weve~1

yet illati';e : s,Q.,:ti~~~

.'

Conditional: if

Co nces s ional : although Te mpo r al: Mwhe n,while S~cificativ:e; that; which

Spatial: where

II. Signifi c anc eofConn e c t i v e s

Wernerand Kaplan (1963·: 179) believe such'mo rp hemic devices as-form wordsor'particles:hav evalu~for thought .

and.communic:ati~nin that they'serveto polllrbe two events

(or thoughts.),while uniting the polarizedmomentsi~an

, .

in teg rated.ut t e r a nc e. In complex uttera nceslackingthe full explicationof rela tionshipsvia fonn eord e ,the utterance,is unitedonly thr o ug h concrete context or intonation,wher~a5the concept.uajLaed eventsbeccee more clear lysegregatedand self-contdned~ndare shownas clea r lylinke dto each othe r.in specific wa yswhen form words are used. The y addthat as the,context'of the utter- anc e bec omes more remotefromthe co n te xt of oc c u r rence,

the'explicit expre'Ssio'nofrelat~onsbecomesnece~.sar~ for

communication .

Pear s on 1197.4:

'l~o i_ ~'found

^{that'gi ade}

fou~ c'hti~ren

p);ef.erredth~·~tructure.._:·Beca~~e·,the'chai~'b~~1c~,,;t;be" .:

'ma~hi~e' stoPPed:

. ,

t~ ."Th~

" .^{cha i n},' . -

~roke-.

.' . . . .

'T~e ~achin~"~t~~~~d>

.

pears?~ .reas~,,!.s

^that

t~e redu~~d-9'r~~atical f=OrPl~XitY~~nd

sent~~e.len9thofthe second struct u re"pla~edan.inferen'tial

, . '. \" , _.'

b~~en^c:'.n~~^{reader thatis}no t pre;s.ent-in'the explici tness

ofthe,first IItructure .

~o":sid~r~le~esearch iHunt~ ^{1965 : Loban,} ~963)^into

\.. :~e acquisitio~and use of subordl nat e clausesshO\is,.tha t ., the use:o f lIubordi nlltion isan ~mpo~tll.ntpre di ctor,of re a di ng'

abili t y. The s e~t~dies'^{indica tethat,,,'childwith}-~ supe~ior

. .. ^/

t.. ...

\

.

. .

abili t y

i~ ,SU~rdi~a~iOn i~ la·ngua~~ .

^{ten d s to be}

. rr: . , " .

readeras well. Avlt41·'factorin'sub o rd i n a t i o n

>'

^{the link}

p~oVi~edbY' th~ connec,~ive. ' ~t"

^i.s

't~~"

'con n ect h J that define s precis~lY^t,hetype of rel a tion s hipb~tw~~'^{theclausesbef ng.}

"l inked. Thus,,- it seerns logicalth"at a brief lixaIDi na tibnof.

.

... .

th~'res e a rch'i~'thea~quisitionand us eofcracs e eby children.\lfOu l d indicateall;ind ofpara llel dev e l opraent in

the

'acqUf5itio~and.use.,ofconn~:tives.whichtypically -,in t r odu c e the'5eclause s

.

:.

.

Hunt (965).in eXaIlining"thewri ting s of 1.8stud ents in'each of 9cade s.four. eight.andhrelve. foundthe.fre- que ncy of subordi n ate clausestodl claus e s , bothsubordinllt~

a~d m aln,

to

incre~8e

^{fcOlll grade'}

f~ur

^.to

9rade.'ei9~.t,

^lind

""I,

.

^{"' .}

.' f rom'gradeei9ht-ta, "gr ad et\ole~ye.-

.'Loban'(U63 l,whOe,tamin~dtheachi eve me"nt.i n're-ading;

. ~~~t~n~';': :~is.~~n_~~~.;: ~~f: s~e~~~. ~f~.,~~~·~~~ ,~~;~'~,.::a '~_P,*:

o~.;,~.~ve~,~~~~.S{.fo~n~'~~~~~~~~~.~~~_~~'s.~.rdinati~n·.t()_^..

\>

~

lncrease:,con~is tently:fr omKind~l13~rtenth.ro ughgra~six;. . :,).n hlg.h ;-i~",:and.ran·d om·gro~ups\· ···

. .- .

to nine.im::l~aiv~•.found-d e pe,nd e n t clau~es..

to

incr easein ..proPor ti on totheto tal n~r^ofclau~e8u~ed.^{wi th}t~e

I - X :

~creasingageof the writers:

Watt s'

_-

·(1944)

. ,

,in

a:~ e~am.i~ation ..

^of

,

^th.ewriting

~f

^"

_-..everalhUndr ed- childr.e-nagec,.7'to IS,~o~nd.the perce n eaqe of \ie pendent clause e 'employedto incre aseconsi,stently,frOln

i6 :'~ , ~~ce'~t ~n ·C~~ld~~n ag~~

.;.to

' 8 ':tO" O. 2· l'e·rcen~_, ~L

.childl;ena~.ed·14.toIS,,·

T:III~liri- ·.(i~,57)'.

^{'in.epeechsampic'sof}

~_75 ' .chi.l~ren

^.

•

ages'thre~to ei g ht.fo~d. :thatthe,numberof;sUbordillat~. .\. cI au'ses,used.incr.e~6edsUbs~.ilJ!.t,ial~y^{,with'ag·e•. Foz::}exani~,le·.

: L-

) .

,f .~.

. /

^I

,

th ree-year-'o l d s usedIII such clauses-wh e rea sth eeight-.

year-aidsused 580. ~ .

. . ~ber\ on

^{(168 )}

~OUJ'ld

^-.

si~n'ifican~< relat_~onShip

betweena child'sunder~ tandin9'ofconnectives._i!\,r e a d ing.

. .

and fac t o r s of se»,me~talage (ve~bal.and"nonver ba l)MId abilityin Ihteninq,reading .~nd^{writ te nI}llng ua"qe •

."

. ' . .

.De'sp i t e lheincrellse in subor d i n a ti o n fOWld to

ac co mpa ny an inc

''': .'

, '':'.: '

., .

'. :t.:~;:::p;::u;:~:;:;::ir:::::;;~.:: :::~n (::;i~!Zd ; , ^:::.<

£f

. .

2~~§~~~.~;r~~~~21

In

llddl~i~n ; Te~l'in--'(l~~),'W~tt~ (~944): ~d

^{La;;lln t}

;" i:; G

.11933 ) found tha t advli;rbial clause~of,cond i ti o n,Con c ess i on;.:

.plllC~ ; I14nn~~', ' ~ur~e~

^.lInd

c~m~~.i~on w~re .u:e~<~ry ~:~~l; '

"bY'cbildren ra ng ing

.~n ~ge'>i~lll_

³

·~.O:

^{..ll. .Howeve;;-}

t'~Pli~ '

(1957> and'Wa'tta (19U )foUrid -in'general tha t adverb'Cla"'ilse~." .

'~ere, _~"s_~' ~re. f~eQue~~~y

^t.han__

· el't~~; adj~~'~ive ~r:n~~.~

^{.. _,}

'.rclaus.es ·..

w1t~in' the

^,san.'.I7',.a.ge'

~ange.

^o,fa.teo·)l;.·"

'He i d e.i',and Heide~_ .(19401,_al~of~und:,t~t~'clau:s~~',: COritaf~ ing'Conte~~ :expr~Gsi~q:~ssibilitY"rat~er'than"ac.tu-.,- alityw.e r e

items .,·~f 'di~ficult"y for,.:d~~~··~hildr.e~>~aus~~~

;:.them'to~se''th'~'se, sir~~tu're~^:less.Inthe.i;-'w,rit.~9^{th.i ri'}

hearin~ chi1dr~'~~

^-;

Suc'h~tr~~t~~~~ 'woUlei ~o'~o,;J ^.. :i·~ci.ud~

. . ' . , :: ;. J '

"

adverbi~l^{clauses of} condi~,iort'.Q~'c.on·c.ea~ion^..

Oth~~problems'chese deaf childre.ndemon5trat~d. intheircompos i tion"stemtned-fro m'an inability to'c h o os e.

10

1.

t "

11

pe r c e n t fur

PU~i.l: <lt ~~ne ~n? 'ni,rl~

^and

~n~-,~_~l'f ~ .~~d

^.to

79 percen t;f,?r those<It,elevenyee rs , 1\.breakdown.'ofthe

'·co·~nect.i~es

_{'.' '.}^.th<lt·we"r e

mOs~ diif:i.'~uit

,"

;~as '

^{no t}

in'cluded i~~ .

Wa'tts'st'udy,'bu t he,d i d'sh ow

th at.

itwas:not'un t'iln1;e~

.

y~ars, _~~:

.'

.J,ge

. .

ehae,5 0per~e?t

. '

of.the,p~pilselllPlo~,ed

r

altho uqh

,.'

12

Anad d! ti on a l con ~ider a ti On in thedeve lPp~.o f connectivescompr e hens i o n is~hat'~n ow l edg eofhowconnecti ves ftinct ~orimayccnec t bee eto Inc rea a edmenta l abi lity. RaWSO.i1 (1971) says'tha t.'under.stand ing.connectiyes'c a n'contribute t~ove ra l linte llect~aladva nc ement. She'maintai n s thatthe bridge'".f.o di s co v eringthe gen e r a lit.y

o f

^{therule s of thinking}

appears

..

to

b~'ttie

.. ^p;inted.

. .. sYinb~l.

^{with words like"and.,2,E.}

although,w~etleve r "bu t';.~. g~,a~ d ~•.si9nifying.

,~h'e '-~~~ifP~i~'~.e '~p~r,~t,io~ .

'pe:rh~'p~^{:'t he.'·}Sig'n'ificanc"e"ot:'cqrme~·tive s.^can'_~'b~'~t

.:. ~s:~e~ " ~~; '~;":' e~li;'~l~'{~g>~~'~·i'~.-, ~oi~-':,~~ ,.'i~~{6·~ti~~·, ~~~'-:k,i~~s'

._ "

_.:.O.f ",~o~n e~_tion''-',~~t~~~ri'_-"s~ri~~_~tic

^...

structur~'~,'~','_

^{,a nd}

, i,n: "~l~~l~y~ng'

.:':'~" ,'t~~ .a~comp~~;i~~· m.ent~i"·~peia_~~o~s, 'im;'r~~~t ··t? " Coo;~reh~n~io~.

^'-,-.

'~s ,,~r6~I~s ,(~,!f6"~

^t.-,

'18;1-:~,i~d'i:~a:t~s:,,-

^{wor ds}

, SU'Ch, ~,as

^but·

~~~,' ,aith~"1.i9h

a ~e' w~;ds t~at , ha~~, li·tt~e -.~~~"'1~

^.:

_t!lelll~~~ve~ut

"ser:--e, eo

~~'rtiCU'latiz~ 'it~!'lS

^{"in an}'

utt~:~n'ce

aM

t'o

relate'

t~e~

to· ea c hot he ras well'as

:t~' chang~_, a~i

^guide:t.he

dire~~ion

':' 0 ' ~he '';OU~h'."

^{" .. .}

. '. .»

··in. ',The

'ti~~fic'~~'tY-, W~th

,ccmne ct'l ve"s' "-

• . · ···· . .· · ·l · ^{' . 'j:" .}

. Research.(Piage~ ,_19_66 1.:Sh~~S,tha t ch ildre~,aCq~1r.~

,

l~nguage ~tru'~t~r~'5! ~~'in~' ~nnectiv~s e a~lY in ,

^life

~

^.

Piag~t

^:.

not"e'd., fO;-

ex~:pi.~~ the.\u$e~'

^0'£

,be~ause',

^and'

si~ce ', 'ih' chi1~re,n

r'

,

¹³

the manner inwhich~~rtl'l in 'logiei'llcperae toneappe a r i~

.the thinki'ng of childrenbefor~others. For example.Piaget

{l9~6 : 321 maintjlins that up to the age'o f seven or eight.

the use of lo g i c a l justificat,ion reme Ine.at a very imperfect stage,' wh i c h explains whyth:eword therefore is,no t found in thela ng ua ge of the child. In thesamevein,Menyuk (l96 9 ) sugqests' th:at~cauge":conj\ll'ictions.a ppe a r before "if"

ccinj·ut:lcti~ns.

becaqJl;!chedirectand'con s eqUe nt ial

i~iation-

.ships

ex~r~~se"d, i~ , "ca~·se·

cbnjunctions,

are

probably eaefer

/.' ,":,' : , j ',:,o." .:

to acqufre-end-underutand th<i.n theconditional'r e l a t i o ns h i ps

~'xpr~S&~d;i~ :,M,~.?~: ~'f~>,if.~,·_:~,fj.~_~C·~i~:~~. : : ' , ,' . , : _~ ..":,' : "\,i':: : " _ , .

,~th~:Ro~rt~,~~'1~.~,~,~:1:?~'~a~~'~en~~~,'.'~,~~6,.9,~'c9~1

iridtc~~e,:,th~~",Ch~,l~~~n." ~,se":~i~.~~~~ive,~ ,be,~or~ ,~om~\e~,~1Y

understanding,.them. Robertson (1968:'416).claimsth a t

, " " ~{..'.: ", , '

",

':,

,c h i l dr en'use c IeuaasInvspeech beforethey'qoto schoo.lb\lt·

~; no~

^develop'e

, sufficien,~ unders:~a:ri4'i'n~

^,Of'

~he" me~nfngs

~f'c~'n~ectivesⁱⁿ print~.f-or

s

^{number o'f:tears'}a'fte~^{'t ha t'. .}

Meny~k.

^{h9,69')feels;as we ll.'}

t'hat" 'be'f-or~

ch il<fre nobserve the

se~"~'f

^{'logica l'}

:res~ictio~~,~ved

^{.I n}

U~:~9'

'con j UnCtions"

framebut.no e tbecontent. ·,'

p'iac;e~ (1966,)',co'mme~t~ on~his' ·~~.~den~y t~

^add'

sentellC~~

_. ^{together i}_', ^n:hi's

the6rY ~f''

_{" , .}

jUX;a~~iti~n _{. . '}

^{wh i cl;1}

.claim~

tna t children',who'fail eoobserve logical"resi:rlctions fa il,

~~eff~~t,

^'to

~~e ,~~p;icit.a, re,lat'~~n,shi[J ,b~tween P~(IPOsi't:i~ns,

which~PIY'jus t'such a.re l a tion . PiagetllIaintai,nsth llt the

14-

,chi l d ' s di fficulty'i n certa inuses of because , the r e f o re . • and tl).en.~rin'thete~s o~di s cordan ce .{f or example , althou g h) is t,heresultof logica l diHicult i es. The use of t.heae words,hesays, seems to preauppoee th eca pa c i ty for obs e rvjnq rulesin reae cn m q andconseq~.ently the power to makeuse9£ fo rmal.dedu c t ion. For Piage t (1966 : 57)

'.If chh4t~,r(ne~et~~~~", '~'~e'-of ;~'~~:ii~i~ . " . ..

disc o rd an ce_anddonot:.u,nde rs tand, 'impl icit::

di s cordance,~til"after t~e'age-,of,seven'.' to.eigh t,cthis;is.ob,viousl y.-Ql!!ca u:sethe notion"of,an exce ptiontoa,'rule, w~ich-is':

pre;s'ttpposedin:.the:'notion'Qf' dis,c or da ng e,':,:.

betw een_cause.andeff,ect isnO,t."a primit i Ve not ion,an~is not one',tba t isfa miliarto. , the m.. For ther e to beexcept ions ,'ther e • -mu,st,obvi ouslyhave been rul es;,and,if , the ch ildfails to understa nd~hefact_

that there areexcepti ons, i tmus.t be _ bec auseji e.has'never-formulate d any rules.

.

.' '.

p.iagetconsiders

it

nO',coincidenc ethat'th~·~apaci tyfor l09ical confU:si~ni.

actedze a

~i.nd i~capable ~O'f' 10'iJi~al ' th-i~k'in~ : abse~~~ "~f CO~~~i~~S ~ealba'ti~'~.: ·~bsen~~ of'''~en~r~'l 'pr~~oSiti6n~ ,:

^-

~'~d

'a bsenc e of

" ." ,

'

deduc~iod- ." , ,< :' -

liec"trace s

" . , "-,',.- - ~hese lO~ical diffic~ltie5 " ' " " ," ', , ',: '

tola~~bsence,,of',thede s ir.eto.argu e and,_~llaborate~-the. ',; initia l:fa c t or'i~".~he--delay_of~cqui s ition

oi '

tlIe , verb~ l

. '.' ,_. , , '

'.de du ct fon,for both ar e

the

--r esult,h~^{,cia'i ms ,ofan'advance}

- 1-, _ " "'- ', "".,

in,t hechiid ' s.;capa cityfo r.9criei~.l i%a~i6n .

Il

, , "l '

"

15

foellSnece~ sary.forexp.ressing lqg i:Clllrelai;J.ons.· Yyqotsky (1962:.~06- 107lalso.lllClint.ai n stha t a la ckof

·C:O~S.CiOU~ awa~~n ~ss

^of

relation~hips· aceo~ts

^{fo r}

the '"

e".ight-;;tO·nine-ye.,,:r-oldus i ng becauseco rre ctl y' le ss

",o fte n"ln

~$.tinq ~ent~~c~ ' f"ragnient~ empi~Y~~9 ~~~ryday

conceptsascoe paz-e dwithsentencefraqlDents'i~VOlvin~'

" ,"

.

^{' .} .". . ~

.

^:,"" ,:"

-. ':

^..

scientit~c:co.ncep ts .-F~~ examp l e ,a ch.ild.Ofeight"orni.ne.:

::~ho-

.

us~~,bed;"'use

- -

cortec·t.l y_i^." n:',spontaneous^{" ,. ' " ,'}co nversati on:^{. ,., '}wo~'l~'^.

\.\ . ,'~~1~~~~~;~~i~~;

.,i n.

the.: rel~~ion·.

^".

~~.::.~

^{.. ;.':"}

': .,-~ -';

^>;.:

^'<., ' ,

^.>,

... . :

.

-"...;.

" 'SCien£ii;e~::~~;~t;~ ~:::::':: '~:h:~~::~ ;~:;c:t:: t:e:e "

-.t !lete~cherhas

made

the9tudent··~~ons~·ious.ot'relatiOnships' ..;

-v i~. t~e. s~·ie·~t.ifi~· -~~j~t ta~9~t:: ~. Th~ ~~~ch.er:, _:v~?O~~tY ~:(·!

'.

Sll.y~~

^{ha s}

~XP1'll.inll!-d ~ :suPPl1.ed_ inf?r~tion. ci~stio~:~; " -

^-:~.

.", ^." ,.'

is

. . . . ' .

~- ~

- - r. .

oftenccneIderconllec tive~'toosilllpl e to t":.Ilch except as.

•'s i gh t words",_She found'~h~ cp'nne<;tiv~8appe~r"i~~u·~.

37

~e.rcent

^of

^the s~ntenc:~s r~~~~ ~y

c"hildre n'

'a~ed

^{eig'h t}

^to twel~e. Howe:~e~.· Sh-~ 'Clairni~ ~¥

^...';'unt

o~ ~u'~r'dlnation

^{'; ',}

.

prOd~C~>~ the·~.~ :~~~.e ·~i.r~~. ra~~~ :fr~,a':~~:':?30;·~r~·e~.t :.

. ::.:.t~y:::~~.~n~::~.Tth th, ~~~:.'~~:~~~'n. from ^{... .. l· .}

.~'', "

.

. • . . • . :. .•. ., .".. ··:~.:!.t~::~'1~~::F::.:jn~::~~d:~;i:~:i~rfi;t:1!E::;t~:,ng' ' ;.••. _,~,';:, ... :. ..'

" "::'~ . ~.~~:; ~ _, ;,-. ~-'~l'~~'i~;-~.:.~~;_:.::.: .:;_~c. ':~;:;: ~:;;? ~. ~:~';.'.~~- ': ..'., :: : . ." ..' :,"" '~ . . ^;l' ~.,.;.';.~ ', _~'~' . :.:::'--,:: ' . _{" ';" '.~.:~.}

~,^{;: ",. "In II'study:·Of}.5ix t Y..gt'a d e,fo ul:childre n , BonlOUth :.

r

' :"" ~t a~: '(~'97~; 'f~U;;~ Si9nl~i~a;~" ~~~:~~ ~a~~;;o de~n~tr;ate

^{;':'< ';:}

:.'

~~

^'a:

~~pr~he~s~~~

^{'o f'}

~h~ ~st

^{,!la's l c}'s yn t a c tic

, 8tru~'~ure s

^'by.:"

. ::":.'. •wh i c h

iriformati~~·

^{is s19nalled.: Anexaminationofthlil!}

" '\~ ~~ "E:~1.?~;E~~t~~~~~~, .. ... ..

. ': .. .:"' . ' ,It,appe ara' to.-the.in tern,th a t th e..paor'lIcorellfound,. '

'~' ; ..<. . ,':~:, ~~"~~~'~u~~ "~"t,~ca:~: . ~a'~'·.~: ~~~:~~ ..~~' ,i~;;e·, ;a~t.ci~'. ~:'~.t~_~e~~~:-·:

:.f'~'ilu~e,',,, 'to: 'unders tA~d".' ,ce;t~iri"'c~llne~t i..ve s:. " .a~d~ 't he''.:i:e·l~,.t:iori:';', '

18

METHODOLOGY

.I. Identification of the'S t ud ent s

The s'Ubjectsfor this internshipincludedallof the sttrdentsi na specia'l grad,esix.class atA.P. LowElementary

.

Sc.hoo l. Thesestuden ts wer ede s i g nate d a'-a slow learne rs.

.1\nindi¢ationof·t h e·st:udents''la ngua g e abili ty~s meaauxed by't he CanadianTest ofBa s i c Skil ls(CTBS) appears

TABL E'1

, \ ,,'

STUDENT' AGE .·VoCAB ULARY arede. Le v e1'"li le

COMPREHENSION Grade Le vel t i le

TOTAL'IJ\NGUAGE1 Gr ad e Lev el Hie

" ,

D, E

,

.

,G

14 13 13 11 12 ia 11 12 12 ,14 13 12

' .0

2.8' absen t

'4.4 11

4•.4> 11

2.6 1

5.2 23 absent

'2.6 1

5.2 2'3 5.4 21 4. 2 9

5.6 31

3.7 4

absen t

5.2 20

5.3 23

.4 . 5

s

5.5 28 absent ,3 . 2. I~ 5.1 '18

3.1 4

5.1 18

5. 3 29 5.0 22 5.2 27 5.4 32

3.6 2

4.1 5

3.7 2

4.7 16

3.4 I

4,8 23

ITcita l la n g u a g e'searesinclud e resul~s_inus a g e , punctuation, and spel,lin,gas well as:v oca bularyandcoinprehension.

j

L

is

rr, Procedures

Allofthe students were subjectedto a reading connectives test devisedby the in t e r n and based upon a test appearing in watts (1944). one hundred andtwe n t y sentences we re preparedusing 14 differe ntconnectives,eachconnective appear ingeight t'imes. Usingthe split-ha lfreliability fo r mula , four sentences for each connective ....ere.chose nat random suppl ying56 sentenceseach for the pretestarid post- test: The fourteen connectives.usedwe re those-i d e n ti f i e d by Robertson (196"8).andSt(}odt (l972) as causing difficulty

for·st ud e n t s in"grades four to

six.

'The v.:;cabularyof-the

sentences wa srest~icted-t c the Dolc hBasic Sightvoc ab u l a r y , Dolch's95Mo s t CommonNouns, and'~he>first300, of _Fry's Instant Words. The test was composedof.sentencef,ragments endingin'a'connec tiv~\oi~,thachoice of fourcompletions.

onl y one ofwhi c hwaslog i c a ll y and ,grammatically correct.

Onlythose s.t udents who fa ile d to score at least threeout of tiur correct (a s indi cated.i n'Table2, p , 25)'rna par t icular connective re ce ivedins t r uc t i o n in'th a tconn e c ti v e .

. \. "\

.

~II.

^{ce,as is}

o~/\struc~ion.

In pla nn i n gthe instruction, threevita'lconcerns wereke p t in:mind: the ch ild reninvolvedin the interns hip, th ena t u r e of con nectives,andthena t ur e.o fla ng ua gein general.

.v-»..... ". -._.

J

I. ^L

20

Asthe childreninvol ve d inthis intern ship were special intha t they had be ende s i g nated asslow Icarna r s, theinter n. in his"teat;:hi ng. went beyon d,verb a lexplan a t i on s andpen an dpaperexe rc ise sonl y. All cceee esIvee were tau g h tin as concre te aconte xtas Possib leandocca'siona ll1' were reinforce dina concretemanne ras well. That is, stud e ntsus ua l l y had to

-

dosomething such

.

as ha ndle items, carryout actions, ob s e rv e an expe r iment,or playag~

that in somewaymanifestedthe natureoftheco nnective . Thi scanbenoted in the firstst e p 0'£eachle s s onplan°.

The nature of connectivesis suchthat they join

". '

.

words, phca aea,.an dclaus es. Pr i\flarily•.th~S.intern sh i p wa sc~ncerned,wi,th,the!"ay.conne ctives 1'inkclauses, A~

conn ec t i ve s deri' v e·thei rmeanin g

-fr6~ ~he ki~d

^{,ofli'nk·the y'}

sig nify , the,in ter n develop ed themeaning'of connec ti vesby instructingthe way s in whi c h ' clau se s~~~tedor connecte d, Forexample.the rewe re cumu la t ive l! nk sexpr e s s edby~, explan atorylin);.5expre ssed byth us,sPat i alli n ks ind icated by where, and soon.

It is nowgenerally acce ptedthatrea d i ng isbut;

,on e importantaspect ofoverallla n guag e abi l i t y. The nature of·ttJe langu olgeartsprogram!n the schooltak~sthi s into consider ation in its,at t empt tointe gr a teasmuc h . aspossib~e all·ofthe langua"ge skills . Pra c t i c e incomprehen.s~on.o f connectives in listening exerci sE!s, an.dusing connec tives in,speechactivities and.wr-i ttenwo~ks~ouldreinfo rce

\

L .

comprehensi o nof connectivesin prin t. The Lnee rn irnple- mented all of these la n gua g e facetsin deveLopdnq st udent under standirrgofcon n e c t i ves.

Th~resp onsibi lity fo"r instruc tionbelong e d primarily to the intern. However" the'cl~s s rool1lteacheras s u r e dhi m

'of his inter estand full cooperation. Instru ct ion took

pl a c ein.the re adingcenter. Only those st udent s who scored .fewe rth anthreeout of fouron thepr e t e stwere.subjeeted

to instr uctionin that connecc Ive. Two one-halfho ur sees.tens {on efo,r InstructIon, tor rovee.the nex.t. 'daywith

. , .

one forpractiQel we r e employedwithoneex c e p t i cin-.,.th e

. .

^{. .}

teachingandpr~ctlce.~riits^"on"th~S^{w:e r e dou1;lied.}

Each of thele s s o npl~nshad'thefoll?",ing incomrnon -' (s e e Appendix.A f,or lesson plans)~

1. The fu n c t i o n of the connectivewa s defined .'in th e Purpose. All ,fun_ctions .werede f ined

in te rms of"fi r s t and secondidea" rather than"f i r s t, and secondcl'ause.~as the scope ofth is internshipdid not:include in s t r u c ti o n in the nature ofclauses. -Th e connectivealways appeared'i n the "middle"

of th e sentence forpurposesof consi stency , and withthe'thinking,th a t this pattern wo u l d assist the students in unde r s tanding the ,linking,aspect·of-connectives;

\

)

thecon n ec tive th r ou ghrec al lof the expetie nc es in number two abo ve. Ifthe student, at thi s stage , ac tu a ll yus e d th e connecti ve be i ng taug ht, i~wa s jotted

•down forrefer r alla t e r inthe.Le s acn• Pat i ent andvaried questioni ng wa s often neces sexy to drawthestud e nt s in t o ve r b al i z iJ'l9 their ex p erien c esinterms of the func t ion being taught . For examp.l e, in the lesso nOn thus , i twa sev i d enttha t thest ude n t s wou lanever havesai d, ":!

deducedthe answeronthe ba s i s ofthe evidence."but,rather th e y,said, "I figured itou tbe cau s e••••" An at tempt was alwa ys rnaCle to taketh e verbal i zat ionas faras poss ib l e. In the abov e situat ion,.for example,th e discus sioncon t in uedunt i l one student said,"1realized... ..and another,"I'd e cided ••. ','" . .4, The a:ctual"co'nn~cti~ewhich,Signifi ed "t.he

funct i onwa s i de n 'ti fi e d;,,The'useof contex t see lne d to,help

'as

it.,providedafrarnewo:+k"

in'wh ichthethou9h,~

w as'

,t r ansmi t ted.· ' Diffi<: ulty ,....as'frequ!!ntlY,eneountered""~ hereas.diffe r entcOllnec: ti vesoft e n,.cou ld

. ~~~~~:t'~~~~b;~st~:l~~ ;:;u~~:~s:~~~

the.,st u d e nts wer ereminde d of eoety p e,of co nn e c t i onthey'ha dtomake.' .Forexamp le , in Les son ,I'in "Motherwashed the clothe s .

put'themin,the,dr yer.".wherethe ,r e la tionshi p sough t iscumulativeand there fO re req u ired and. It'i s clea r i.n. the above example that. there.isa possible temporalrelationshipaswel l • .If.a student siJg ges te dthe n, he was,remindedthat"The n shows whattia'Ppen snext ;how ca n we link thesetwo ideas by justaddingth e m?". It helped:toexplain to the student , fo r' examp le,th a t Mother di dn ' t.havetoput t~e..clot hesin.th e dryer afte rw~ shi ng- • the m, bu t tha t':'-information ,cou l ~have been added'fo r:apa r t i c ula rpurp o se--for , inst a n ce, tO'showthe chr;o nol o gicalorderof M-o t h e r's wor ki ng mo rni n g-·. At the t im'e of ins truct ion

~~ ;~i ~~~~~~~~~~st:~~di~=~~d ~;~~a;f~~~ssion

cc n nec t. Lv eawesad~ua~el 'bov eve e , final 't e st in g sugges tedthll.tsuch was likelynot

the'caee ,,a? d,t~isaspect of coon ec-tIve a 22

.:

,IS, :'

23

shouldprobab lyhave been approachedin a fu llerand deeper fa shi on .

S: The connec t i ve was th enused to create one' sen tence out of two separatesentences which related the ideas eI!P0unt ered in theconcrete applicationof numbertwo above•."This part of the Procedure seemedto he lp thestu d e nt s fo c u s onthe,fun c ti onof,theconne c ti v e becausea link. had to bemade ratherth a n di scovered.

6. The function'of the connecntve....as'applied orally. .

7. Th est ud e n ts un dertookvariouspract ice exercises.

,,", ThZ'Oughoutthe course Ofthe Intie.rnahLp ther ewer e

.'t hr e er~~i~:te9t~'. .'The'fi'r'st'oc(;tir;ed:a.f:~~r·.Le9S0:~^{,V j'::}

~h~' .~'~~~'~'. ;~~~'~r ~:~~.~~~::X/: ~~~.- ui~

^:

th!~d;:- ~:f~~'i:, ~s'~6~'

^,<:,.

xiv~' ';~e~~' r~~{~:w · t'e~t~:,a~~ ,~th~~"':'on~0~'~~':'~~a'i~~t:i6~ ~ :,~ ^. .i~~i~~'t~d,~th~

^t,tlie

.s~'~d~ntS.:::di~, ~ot e~~~r i~~~~: .·a ':de9r~e ',~~

difficult y

wi~hthe',i nstructionthat"~~.rranted J'xt r a teachi~g.

Th~. ~ne e'xcePti'~n ~as ~i~h

^'th e le'sson'cn.

t~~s . ·

^_

F~~

^th\s

-connective.the.in6truc-ti~~^timea~d^{practiceti meweze} doub led.

24

CHAPTERIV

FItDINGS ANO OiSCUSSION

I. Intro ducti o n

The'e val ua ti onof thi~inter ns h ip wa s'baSi~allY'

o~twokinds. The.fi r s twa s en~ngqingprocess ",withthe int e rn.evaiuati ng,the.

tnstruction':i~ ter~s,Of' tinW, i!!li~t:~ed;

"<",,'

10~~~~

^tf,,:'the'

~~~hi:n:~. \~,:'~~:~,' 'i'~:'~~.~~.:~~Hd'i,~:~.''':~:~~·~,~~),::,~~r:~~

^{..:,-" ;}

".'.···.·'.0 £,~i~iC,~ ~y.~,~,th,~::.-,e.X,erChes~" ,th~'?~~':,r~:, ~f·i.t:he,,~ex~~c ~ ~~,~~,~,

..::.

\h~, :.;~~~!l~,',~f:,,~~.a~~:i:c~" ~~~~~~~::.:~~f:' r.~~~"",~f::: ~r.~·~~(~~~i~~~:.~\~~ ^.

.the,;:e a ctfo n? f,pee r?'~hO,.di d,f!.()t,re c ';!:i~e,.the'ip s tt~ct1oz:!." .:,· ~

••'. ."" ,-," , '• -,,,'••' 0,.." ', " ',.',-r • ,.' """"'~"..,'-"'"'..,:" ",;•

:~ s, w.e~l ;.a n ystudell:.,c.~angesin__,a tt itu~etowa.-r d s,r~adin g r.

. or

~a~gira9~ ;.:"i~·.genera,;L.'

were

:~o~e'd,;.bOt~.by' th.e,-i~~erri"'and .'b y

" th~,:~.lafs~()()~ , te.ii~h~~ .' ~", on~ r~,S~l.t .Of,:·,,~is ~on~~z:!~i~,~

ev al ua tio n,'wa s.eodo~biethe{nshu~tl~n~ndpractice.time,'.' . ,

th'~' conne'~qve" thu~~

/

",

.~

·3 ~~ ~~M C= ~ ~ ~ ~ ~N. NN

~8

\ ^/

26

where. ~~~,and but....ere next in difficulty. !2.

gave tile students,t h e:'le a s t.t.roub'te , All of thestudents scored at least three~ut,o f fouron thisconne~tive. ("

A-comparisonof the,r e sul t s of the pretestwi t htht!

re s u lt s of th,s pOsttest.Wh,i~ll appe~.rinTa ble2, Sh~W~tha t overall littlega~n see~s_to have been madeby th e students:

however, th~re ar~sE;ve.ral ohanqesworthyof"n ote-,.', Th ethr e e connective'scausing the greatest diffic u lty on"the

pretest

caused much les s-d i ff i c u l t y on the posttest.

Th~--n~~r ,Of ' e~rors

^forthits

de.creas~~, "'~rom

^{ni ne} ta"fou r ,

'al~~OIi;h':4~~r~a~ed f:rO~_ f~ur'to''';'~n~, -

^and

'~her~ , ~ecr~a~~d,

'.' _'~r~" fo~r",:t'o·" t·wo . :.

^Of:

" t'he ::bl;:~e~:, thr~~:~~on~~~tl~;~~ ~'~~ti~~ed

a~:"c~u9,~ri9 '~~' :~~~.~,.dif.t'iC~l-;~ -~n" t'h'~;' ~r~t'e:~'t, ~': ~eci~a'se~

;~ i~~~ ~'thre~::" to 'on~-i" :~hile -d~~~ea5~~ ,.~~C)~ , ~~e~ 'to-

,two ,

'~~d

^"

, "

.

they hadshownmastery of 't.hern On.tihep,retest;, thereis, h?wev er.

llni,~~i~at,i(j,n tha~ ~~~d~n,t9 F, :" "

a.nd I

.:t.cq~ired

^com':"

prehensio~ofthree; four, and,six connec:tives. re s pec t i v ely;

l

J

r.

- .

- .

-.~ -.

--.

-. ~. ~.- . ~

. .

TABLE3

Instancesot po nne c1:iv••no~m:S·._t.r.d.on'",.th .. poattest

con'nectlve s A· B

C'·

0 E F ^G",H...-t J' K L Connect^{To t.a}.per}ive

ond

- ·

^L

bnt

· ^·

^,

.

· · ·

th ...

. . . · ^·

i f x

c. althoU9h

{

^yot

:1-.·

when x x .x .x

wh l 10

·

which x X

where

· ·

²

that-

...

^x

^,

x. .x·

,.

Total per_{Stud ent 0} 1 0 1 1,. • ., ·10

: . . ..

1 0 31

.

Dropped outofSChoo~~half-waythr_oU9'h

^.

^{. ' .} intern s~1p.^,

^-

^. ., ,\-.

~

.J

r:

e;., .

. . TABLE.4

Insta n c e sof'con!1-8ct i v•• no t Illa steredon thepre te st.bu t mastered on thepo ,. t;t.••t

con~~ct1ves··· ^{A 'c} F, G' ,I Totalat

Conne ctive

~- -- - -- - - - -- - ---- - -, -

.x"

..

bu t_however

..

80

...

:

thus'" x

:' 1 ^if

'al th ough ye t

.when

wh i l e wh i c h

.. ..

^'

^..

_{whe r e}

th at

or

Total'per 1, .Student -.

.~,

x'

,x

x'

'1" ·.1 .2·," 3

"

,:to.

x'

x ' x

"x.:

"x' x'

o '_

.4.. '

, " 6' :

.. ...

'"

o '

1 1 o 0' s 1 3'

1 i- I 1

o

18

::

..J

..

;;

;A BLE : · : S ..··· ·· .

.insta nc ea.ofcQnnoct~.ve^•.""aate re4.:~~.p~etest'^{'b ut noton}post t estl

~onn.';~t1V~8

"'.

A. '.'8'

Students

.E po .I 'J 'L Totalper

Connective

however

.J

.~

5,',) •

" i

0 1 . 12

x...

',1.

.:'0

r::

"

,!

thu.' , 'but

'..i f... . ...

al though' ,yet. when' ,'wh il e whi ch where ..that

, 30

one of the most int'7resting aspecceof Table4 is the performance of seudene.c, The resultsof theposttest suggest that thescore re';"lhed

'by '

Student Gtna~ ~~t^{be an} accura teeseesseenc ofhisunders tandinpofthe connective,~

examined. In thepostte e e , th isstudentscored ccrrece tycn

.

^.

32out ofthefirstH items{comparedto 28 out of th e,fir st

,."1. . ' . '

37onthe pretest}. .onth e posttest ,be scoredonlyl o ut'of' the

~a~t. i~, ~(c9~ red .t~

^·.10-.

01;l~

^of

_.~he . lasi>~9,'.,(:m th~. pr!te~,t)

^.

.No·.re"ason c~uid_{.'.-.,;- " .}beestablished_"-" ', for~thl~,.. highly... '

Un-

• "'. ":--',..-. .....>..,:"",,-.:. -. "... ,':-. ,'''':,-...,.:."'.'..•. : '

Wh}<·~tudent'^G

made

:72':perc~t^of_hi~'e~ror$'on:~th e"la~t"J4

.- ,- ': ,~Pe-~i~,~:~ : ,~l;th~'" :i~e~"~;>~·\~ .' ~':,'~~-~~,J~~:~

^;'19),

o~'.·th,~>'p~~'t~e·~:ti··

'.eseech ccnnecttvewas measuredfourtines (onceevery fo~r'teenth^item) b~th^on:th~pre'te~t/a~d'Po st t e s t .:Ma~li:ery'.

was"corisid~red^a'9

.

.'getti~g

..

i~/least^{'thr ee out.} ~f^{four'. correct' .}

.on'ac~nn~ctive.^{"Sq ,}if"this student,had scored:onl ya'd

W~l~- ~,n"

^{the':la st,'f 9}

~t~~s

^:.0£

th~,"po8'tt~'~'t" a~:h~

^{had on'}

t.~e

·pre~e·lOt , h~ : rn~!1ht :i;~~e sho'.;m" 'n~n~m'as:t~IT·" f6-r· Ortl;-'~ne 'c~n­

,n~c:tive' i~~t~.a4 of "~~n~ · co'nne~~i~~s; .,. ':~is : ~~ld·,.-~av~·:~

^alter.ed

· ,. ,th~ ' overall' re~~lt,s .o£."t,h~ i~t~rnlih£p,dra~atic'a:I:ty;

. ' ; ' " . ~~ ^.. c~n' :be ,·:~e:~' ~~",T:a~\~·.:\.":·_s~x: 'st'?~,~nt,~ '

^(D.

i">'c ::

fJ»:,I ,,an~ K , fai~ed~o ~sterconnec,tives th~Yhadma st~:r'ed

l

·· ·· ·· ··

.

··

.

··1 · . '

.

"

TABL E 6

Number of.w;on g comp le tions for each sent enceonthepretest

Sent en ce

.Number, conne cef va Wr o ng Sente n ce

32 TABLE 7

NUffi)er ofwrong completionsfo reach sentenceon the posttest

Number Number

Sentence Connective Wrong Sen t ence Connective Wrong

1 and 1 29 and 2

2 but 0 30 but 5

3 howe v er 1 31 howe v e r 2

,

0 32 1

5 thus 10 33 thus 2

6 1£ 1 34 1£ '0

7

al~?:J0

^{35 although 2}

8 yet " 2 36 ye t 1

,

whe n .. 4 37 ",he;n 2

10 while " I' 3; while 1

l

^{•1112 ", whichwhe r e ., 3940 .'~h i c pwhere 33}

G

13 .t~at'. 41-'. th<!-t 1

14 or, 42 or,

15 and ''''3 and

"

^,but

^{- ,}

^{44 bu t 5}

'17 howeV"er 45 h,owe v er 2

'.

^If19 thus ^{46 so" 2}

"

^{thus "}

/"

.

^202J" /1- 1£^{al.tho~9'h .}48^{~9-; "}i f^altho~g~ 2⁵

22' yet; 50 yet 3

..

_'^aa_~4 ^:_;whi^{whe n}_{i e .} ^•_~2^{5~ when}_whi.Le ¹₂

25 which ^5,3 whi ~h 7

26 where 54.; where 2

2j

^{:.t hat. ~5. " that 2}

28 56 2

Sub to ta l 48' Subt~ta l 70.

.To t al-',,118

I

J

3J' _

~ ~ ",-,;-.:~ -

tncrea se 1nthe numbe~ofwro ng cOII\pletionsfrOlll'pre:t e s t to pce t.teae.

In an efforttound e r sti!lndwhat lIl4y havecaused , thegener~llypoor sc oresof thesestud~ntsonthe postte st,.

the in t ern examinedth e sen t e nce s on thepo5ttest wh ic h' might have contribu tedtothe resul tspresente dinT~ble ⁴ andtheincr eas e sment i o n ed inTab l e6. ,Inad dit ionr'the in c or r ectcompleti o n s .f o r it e ms -47'and 49wer e,alSOexamin~

~

^asthey seemedto,.

htv~

^{ahighernumbe.rff}

inc~rrec~

^{00 111-} .J .plet ionstha not her items on t'¥postt~st. 0 ,

all ,,'(a)around'five o'cloc k." The i;;m'tenc es foilowin

.

;;~rical

^{ord er. .:. '}

^'f

1. ];'wen t 'tothe farm'and. d(1),

(a)IIY dO<j'isblack;~ (b~' "ca ke;' (c)saw thepig; (d )tod~atsadday.

. I •

3: He"h next; howev~r bUL '

(a )\1 will90bef ore~1.ID; (bl.I'amnotnext,

(c)"in lIlY"ur n; (d)a.long"jump. '

5. TheWOlIIan ha d aman

wi:t~

^{he r,;:t hus d( 6j',a(2), b,'1}

bla nk , '. ' ,

l i f Showas a'goodwofQan,; (b) she·....as a~tber;

(e)there weretwoof thM.; .(d) I.knOW'th~man.

9.' Hecameback when a (4) . ,

(a)aroundfi veo'clock; (l;l),hewi l l 90'( , ~ (c).he saw all,~he people;' ,(d)bef~rehe cou¥se ethem.

'15 .

1~} ~~hs~:d,9'~,~il~ h~~.dr(~) al~ ·W~8 (~~ ~·.box ;

(c) I eat.il'!th.emorni' ng;i(d) oneof themsaid . 17.

Han~ "c:hi~dr~n w~~, ^tk s~h~l'

^{howeve l;'b'(11.}

(a )to the;hO.UlSel'. {bl 1.willwal ktod~.

(c )the yJday..rid ei tthey wish: (d) ona day,•

:";'

L

,

. .

^{~. -;l.}

'~ f.,

L.'

34

23. Hecame into thehous e wh en b (2 ) la) hegotthe call; (h )itWTIrrain;

Ie) the snowwas white; (d)itwa s a small ye llowone.

25. There is thehous ewh i ch d (1)

(a )do s ethe door plcaselTSfaround here until then; (c )is wh i t e and blue; (d)had a.littlebaby.

29. The girlwillnot. askhj.1lI to come and c (1) (a) he gave a boxaway ; (bl saidhehid""i'"do g ; (c) in themorn i ng; (d )gi v e her some he l p.

30. He saw th e lit tleboy but b (1)

(a) not the l ittlegi r l; 1iiTtii"e boywas big;

(e)nowtheot her girl : (d)give toher.

32. Can youhej.p'me so ,a'(1)

(a)Idon ' twa nthe~blIwi ll no t bethe la st (c) I found rnyri n g ; one to go;

(d lhope for thebest.

39. Whe r e is the bed which'a (1) ,d,tIl". (al e anno\:90 tosl e e P1 tElisfo r me ?

(cl go to bedatten; (d) I.~ iketheb~dtobeel~an.

40. Sh e ....ent to town. where~ " . (s) shegota newhat; (b) ourca tis black;

(c) shegaveeachOf"t.heJ1\; (dlto buya book.

44. Shedoes notth in k sheis ve rypretty but b III (alI like a pretty.girl;. (hI ha v egOOdclo thes: (c) she is; {dl 's a i d the,boy.

46 .

~ ~~I t;o~l~':~ ~:; ~; e~~;~ '

^(b)the nex t mor ning;

eel

the

bed

?an

bemade ; (d l I liketosleep. 47.

~~f ~~yt~~ha~:d

^h:n

h:~p~~~ht'(brh~~e ~woU~f ~h~;1

(c ) the yliv e on-iJfarm; togethe r had ten, (d) theywer e red .

49. He;"U l notgo to bed al t ho ug h a 13), b (2 ) Ca )he is'in bed hOlp t(b ) he 10'111not sleep : (e ) d,oyo u.knoW' hinl ;

(d )I tisaf~rtwoo'cloc k inth e morni n g'.

51. Hisfa c e woul d turnre d when a(2).c(1;,'bl a nkU ) ta )'itwa s not·blueorgre e n: (b) he 'go t too muchsun , (c) hehad abig'he ad; Cd),his.e.y es werebrOj '.

' v

. ! 1 )

)

l

35

53. He ga ve her somemoneywhi ch dIl l, b( l) ,ci S) (a) wa s nothi s ; (b)everytimehe sawher; (e) tobuy a newdress; (d) wen t down the street.

54 . He we n t over tothewat e rwhe r e c (1)

(al by al l the chil<1ren ; (b) he -coura see some flsh;

(el going to be all day, (d) hewilllo o kforwat er.

55 . I ownthe shoe that a (1)

(a ) was a bi gshoe ;-u;ri'no t hershoe just the 811me, Icl youfo un d yesterday ; (d) youdon' town it ,doyo u?

Anexaminationof the abo ve it e mssugg ests tothe i,nte r nthat thr e eeXp l an at i ~n smig ht ac c oun t for allbutone or two of the inco r rectanswers. 1\s theseexp lanati~nsare broad, wh a t-the in tern con s ider s as an examp l eof one ki nd may'jo's t '.a~^{wel l be}',i nte r pre t e d as an .e~mple'.~f-an o t her,•

.For i_.n stan c e,

-

in numb e r17 above,. " ' , -i t issuggested. that.. per haps'th~^{st u den t}'subs t i t utedandfo~h;;'we:';e rtoo~tain

~Manychild renwalk'to~ChOOl'!!!!!}.will walk tOday'o" But

. .

. .

th estud ent ma yno t have made su c ha subst i tu t i o n. Per-hepa he no t i<:ed theword~inthe fragme ntand inthe:com- pletionand chos eonthatba s i s.

Thefir s t ex planat ion;0 be off ere d isthatoften stud e nt s seeme,dsimp ly to ~every careless in their:eading of-thesen tence s . For examp l e, some ¢hoi ceswouldmake sanseon ly if theconnec tive wera omittedaltoge therasin .numbe r'9."Hecam~ b~Ck.(when) aro und fiveo'cloCk o~ Numbers

29, "The gi rl will:n ot.eek him to come (a nd )in the mo r ni ng,n

. .

,, '

and 53,'"He gave hersome mone y (wh ich ) to•buya rtewdre~8 . ~

"" be"interpret~dinthe sa me lighto (,

"

Sometimesthe choices wouldJnak ese ns e if inse r tions were made. For l'!xo!lPlple .innUlllber 39thestudentmigh t hav e inser ted!and!.!!intpthe completion toread -Where is the bed-wh i c h .!ca n notgO to sleep

!.!2."

Or,

in

m~r.46th~

studen tmayhav eaddeda thought frOlllpast "e x Pe r i ence such asyoucan90toschoolto foro "Go to sleepnO!! so you can 90toschpo l th~':text;"IlIOr ning." In number 47, ifth e stude nt added an anw l tothe words~and~. hecouldeasily . ch oo se (C} liS,in "She,hadtwo (go ats) an d.ne hade,ight(goa t s) th us'

~hey

^l1ve'-e:niiifarm.-" IJ;\

~umber

54,·if.e

~tu.dent ins~rted

···he ·,:,as·'i~tb ll. ~mp:etion ! ~e'

^res,ult

c~uld

^{be, "He}

~nt

^ovet,

".to-th~

w ater

^{whe r ebe WlIS}

g oing

^to'b'eK41:1da~~"" ^•~

ciOSel~ rel~~ed " ~o ~hatmay be~oiUlidered a~. _tenden':'·

desqf

_~se~ti-Ol1

or

~~s&i.on; ,was the:'tren~ .,~f

^-

st~de,:,~s

,:to' .cncesecompl e ti o n s seeminglyo'ntheba~~isof no H e in()"'8'.

part icu l ar.word1n thecompletionthathad 80fllesi milari t y to a ....ordin the sentencefragment•.For examp l e ,in nUll'lber 32,theword~app ea rsin.~ththe senten cefra~ntand the wronql ycho~encompletion: ·C...nyouhelpmeSO·.Idon't ....anthelp .· In number,51.aco~our (red)appear s in the sen.te nee fraq me n t an d.colo urs·(blue,qreen) appear-i ntWo

·o f thethreeiri~orreetchoices·mad e: ·Hi~fa ce.wouldtur n

',r ed-

wh~1') i~

^v,as

nb'~lblU: ' 0 1 qre~n.

^{,,' InnUlDber}

, l.' ~ lai1~_

^.

.',!!!!!!

- appear'

in

the

fragItl~n^,and

.

^{.·a l l of}t~e^{.Lncc r rect;}

.

^com-

pletion'sthat werechc aen'c ont ain,e ither·woman ; man,.o r', -.

~ther . i'~

I ^is

inter~stin~

" ^{tonot. e}.-

that' o~

.

nine-'w~onq

' -.

,~

,

· L

^.1

J

37

complet ionschosenfor number S,sixst ud e n ts chose -r know .th eman." Thesentence fr a gmen t zead sftThe woman hada man

wi th her. thu s • Perhaps (d)was chos en so fr e- quentlybec a use~isth e word thatis ctc s e e e xc the completion . In numbe r'17. walk.oc cu r s in the fragmentand .inthecompletio n chos e n by thestuden t- - "Ma n y children'oldl;'

to school; however,

.

I willwalk today.----.- ~ In number 39. one, of thein c o r r e c t choice secet.atne thewo r d bed- -R Whe reis

the.be d which I Lf.kethebed to becl e a n ? " Theother wrongly

:

c~~~en :compiet~.cm

^{c::ontains·'the}

w.c·rd~: "w~ere"

^is-the

~d

wh i c h can not gotosleep? - :Numb~r'49·'is'simi lar. 'Of:the flye

wr~'~g C::h~ic~s; ~hree" ~6nt~iri';

^{be d}

~~iCh ai~o ' ap~ears

^-,

fn t h e'

~r~gment:

^{·" H·e."Will not ,go,to.bed}

ai~~C)\i~h''-'he

^is'in',.

bed nov...·The other two_.

. . c~I'!.ta~

.

·the 'W~~? '~'~ ~He, ~i1l

no t goto 'b e d althoughhe'willnot sleep."

The Ineeendid not l istentothestudent~^{read the} test items,but poorer 'r e a d e rsof t e'n i ns e r t freely'(thi s ten dency'was,obse~edin manyof.thepr~cticeexerciseswh~re t':testudents,we r e, often called,Upon tor~ad,aloud) . Consider- ingth is'tendency,one mightconcludethat the'rea d i ng- done in the above

exam~les·

^wl'!-s'

supe~ficial;

',I t seems that the

: '

. "

.. , .

studentsdid not consider.t .he ent i re'senten ceinth~ir-s e e e c n

,I ,,' _ " " '

for meanin~. Rather , it.seems likelyth a t.fo r some students individualwords'carr iedmore significancetha ncornp Let.e"

eencencee.'. Ignod-nga

pa~'~of

^the,ccneexc , or pro;idinqan alternate context iinotherwo rd s, making'oniissions'o~^{Bu b-}

J

l ' ·'

3B

stitut ionslmaywel i have beentheonly way for thes e stude ntsto brinqso mepar t of theirlife tobe~rOnwhat seemin glyilllpressed themthe1lI05tin the materh.l that'th ey wer~.^{tryi nq toread .}

' \ P~rhapBthb not i o ncan bes~pportedbyexamining twote!s t it e ms , Oneo~whi chisanSW8!edver ysuccess f ull y, an d the oth e r ver ypoorly. Bot hite mswere'te st ingthe connect ive~. Innwnb,:r_26onthepreeeae,se ven~ut oftwelvecompletedthisse n tence fragment'incor re ctly:·She will

want

to:li veWhere_ _ ~. But,i nn~'erS4on,the. same.

~e8t. Only.·o~e '~ tud~nt' C,O_~P:let~

^{,'t he}

,~~fl~~i~9 s~~e'nc~··"' ff~gm~nt.; incoi~~ct1Y': :.,M ae. 'w il l.

take

h~~-

^{bOo k}

-to-'6Ch~Ol' ~here:

. . .' . '.- ._... .... . '',"_ .,.', ' .. i.,' :

'

. . fl . .'.. :. . . . '

Perh aps,.the b.tter:1smuchclose rtotheeve ry da y'... '

eX~ri'enc~'~~.:

^a,

q~~~

^.

~i~ . . _{5,tu~e·~t .t~~:n.} i~' '~~e, ~o~~'~~

^{.;. .'}

.The se co nd

e:x~ia.nll.tion

1sthat itappeus that'

s~e·.

stu dent s~ve^not

ha d

sUf f i~ ientoppo r t un itie s.torela t e i~e a s

i?

themostpreciseJllC'nner. Severa l, .~f,theinc or rect choice sonth e Posttest (despite ins ti uc tion lmig h tba vebeen

, :. . . . , .

'.due tostU<!ents ' ign o ring:'preci sere~atiorishipaa~'simply ,~ being:cdn t en t'tc.bave

i~ea~,

^{side.,b).h de.,}

o~ li~ed b y

^'a

~re

easi ly,unders t ood cconeeer ve..For e~ample.in

n Umber 17

i t

.

'. "

.

^{,. " ', ;.:'. "}

. ' "',.

wouldha vebee nan-'eas y'mat ter for!t's t uden t tosubs t it ute

a~d

^for

how~~er a~d .~~nteri~1 hi~'~e1f" w~t~' ~.~a~y, 'c~i1~~~n.

^{wlIl k}

toscho ol~I"."ill'wal~t~ay.,· Muchthesa~ki nd o~

SubsHt: t io n can

b e

done'innumbe rs

i. 5,

'and30.'

' In n umber

. , . " ' ' ' ' .

4 '9 '

allof the'.fivewr o ngchoices'can

be

exp laine d'in~,t.hi8^way. J .' .,.

,. '

.:

..

^'

\

\

\

\

f

\

I

I

I

I I

I

I

39

For example,if theconnec t i veal t ho u gh is replacedwith the"e aader"connectivebecau~e,the student coufd mak e some senseout ofMHewi l l notgo to bed~he .is""1"n bed now:" Si mi l ar l y, he,cou l d say: "He willnot go tobe~

~hewill not sle e p."wheredShecoul~not meari.i n gfully say,MHe will not go tobed i1:thou9hhe·wi.llnot ef eep."

Theth ird~~pl anationappea r stobethatsome of the mis take s may have occurred~saresult of.ignorance of qrammati ca1clues . 'Fo r ins tanc e , the.Jseofthesubjec t;'!.

. '" - ."

a.•in-.~hefirs~cl~use

is

understood'as tbe,9ubject..,in th:e sec o nd clau s e.i n number'll' ' ' !went to_'th~farm,and (I);saw the

pl~.

^M'.'·

so~e" ~t.~d~~t~

^{ma{ not'}

h,av~.,_~e'e~-

:a war e o f

'~h~S

^.

~tru~'t~re ~::.::I~ ~UJribe~': ~'s~ ' ~t~d~~';~6 , pay~{~'~ ~'tte'~ti~tl ·,'~o"~he

';

~~~.~~

^,.of;

~',',~e,~b co;~~~ ~~~~ h'av~-"~h~:!i'~n ' ~He' came~nto' the'~

house :"hel'!'

it

vtn.rai'n..'~ Number 15sh ows tw; student~who were obvio uslynotawarethatthe completion th eychosew~s still in''n eed ofad'irec,:objec t. .~Theboy saw sevenchild~en .andone of.

t~ero s~id."

^The'Salll,e

disc~~pancy

'oc c urs in sentence

40: ·Shewent.to town Where shegave eachof ~em.,",

H I .'Ev al u ationof,I n s t r u c tio n.

. I ^{;"' ''' 9}

^the

_cou,~e

^{o( this.}, . t er " h' p , as

has

he

en

mentioned~^'an.o ng oi rigevai~ti;fi^{wa:s'mad e ofs'ever.a1'fac'e'ts} ,of

the"prp9r~.. Th~ ~i~~ all~t~edfor"

^the

instru~t.i~nand

,pr a c t i ce aeea.i.ons.seeme d qu i t esu i tabl e . (If any thil'!g,the

j

..;'i:"·:'

f'.

L

/

40

occasi onal ins tr uc t i o n a l Leesonmight hav eended a few minutesearly )..The students ge n e r al l y enjoyedl~ a ving thei r'clas sand comingtoth';! re ad i ngc.~nterfor the ir le s s on s . The exe r c i ses did 'notseemtoodi fficul tafter the di r e ction swe r e givenorallX. The stude nts wh o ca me for lessonswer e not subjected to teasin g from t~e i rpe e ~sbu t more oft enthannot were trea t edwith envy., The students se e me d toen j oy the instruction a l pe ri odswherethe i rphy sical involvemen t. game-playing, or obse r vat i onofpr e sentati on s

J

\"

41

taught on Thursday to a group of four. If a student from thisgroup was absent on'Fr i d a y , the reinforcing lessonwas not given until Monday-"-athre~-daydelay. UsuallyIl.quick reminder ofwh a t was taugh'ton the,la s t day was enough to pr epat-e the students adequately for the reinforcingperiod at times wh e n delays like thesehappened. However,lags like thesedo seem to support the notion that selectingout studentsfor inst,ructionisan artificial and limi t i n g proceas , In addition,i tappe ar s tha t a sound principle of goodt~liching 'i s',violatedin"suchade i a y·.: ·The student shou'ldha v e:a chance to pr'iictice{with' "f e e d ba c k f'rom,~e't:ea~her) what,he i~t'iying eo-le'a r n.a s800nasposs~ble"a~~erthe~nstr.uctionhasbeen giy.en. The'us~altw~nty-:-four'^hour

'j;J.iY

_{did~ot'.seeinto}

.!?o~t

any eeetcue dHficultJes,-inthis

~eg,aiQ',-but 'an ,

tw-o'o r three di'fteren.toccasions longer delays added five or te n minutes,onto the reinforcil'l9 period to allowre-e x pre n e t.I o n

of.t !le lastle s s on .

IV. Summa r y

I tis dHficult'to judgethe,e f fec ti v ene s s of" an internship of thlskind ,.as the bulkofthe:'instructionwas gea redpri.mari.ly to five of thetwelvestudents. (Th~ swa s eecec sefour studen tsshowe d"mas ter y:of allconneccLvea except thus,.two showed.ro.itsteryo~allconnectives"and on e st~dentdroppedout of schoo l). T~ e s~.five,s t udent s failed

J

i .

toshow maste r y onatot~ lof 33tes t·it ellls on the pretest.

On th e·postte s t, the yfai led toshow_stery onatot a lof

2B. HowStudentGmayhave aff ected theout come of the

,post test has alreadybeen eentIoned,butitsee ms point less

tospecutet e onwhat_i 9 hthave,been'a ndwis er to sta te ....ha t seemedto,be positive.resu lts.

First,iaf-th efiv estudentswhoaccounte d forthe grea tmajorityo~wro ngcomple,tions, fourindica ted onthe basisofthe pos t te s.tresul t s tha t th e ycomprehe nde dmore con ne cti ves (of.t h.e 14te sted )atthee~d

of

the.inter nsh'ip.

se cond,,c onsi der i ng'ai lthe stude nts,-t h e r ewes:a.

-

" . . ., .

22'pe rc e nt'red"Uctio~inthe,nu~erof wrong~ornpletion s .-" :

.

-,

..

'

.

fro mprete ac to'POs t t~s.t,~14 9-:11 81•., . .; .

~i~~' ~th ;~'e~ in~~~'

anC!'t he homeroomte acher

. ,. ,^~~

noted lIlaI)yo'f..thestude-ptsexperilllen tingwi~hthe'us eof eeeeeeea ve s. _Fo r exa lllpl~. itwasnot too unCOrrtllOrltobe

. '

.

met at the door..withillcOlllllle ntsuchas •I wat ch ed thelat e

·~how·lASt,night d r,thus I oUItiredtoday.~ In addi tion:

if student smet 1n their classwork IIconnee tive th at they

. .

had rec e n tl Y,encou n ter'tm.in theint e rnship,they wou ld indi ca t eS;Otothe irtee cn e r. Th i s-s ee me d.todelllOnstra t e ..an

inG're~_sed . a;"arer1~_i , o~;

.co nn e l:t iv e:,'.

V, Co nqlu"sions

1'. The st ud en ts,o f ' the in ternship' ·se ;medto lac k

.

^{. ... .}

^{\ .}

^{. . .'}

suffi ci en tpr,ac: i ce inmaki ngthe connectionbetwee nevents l.<p

" ,.

. .. .. .

^;