THE AFRICAN POOD CRISIS AND THE ROLE OF THE AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT BANK IN TACKLING THE PROBLEM
A paper jointly prepared by the staff of
ADB ECA OAU
ABIDJAN , ADDIS ABABA ADDIS ABABA
IVORY COAST ETHIOPIA ETHIOPIA
Presented to
The Symposium on the Future of ADB and the Pood Crisis in Africa
Tunis, Tunisia : 10 May
JEEAD/EPP- yk/84-298 13 Deoenfcer 1984
0. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY X. INTRODUCTION
2. THE NATURE AND EXTENT OP THE AFRICAN
POOD PROBLEM ,.
The Percedved Problem Causes of the Problem
■ Domestic Causes
- Biased official development policies ...Organization of production
Low level of technology Environmental constraints _ Changing consumer preferences
Social and institutional constraints Inadequate investment
Inadequacies in distribution system
• Demographic trends and effects
External Causes
Distorted terms of trade : : . Pood aid trends and implications
Official development assistance Consequences of the Problem
3. EFFORTS TO REVERSE THE AMEMING TREKD Policies and Measures Designed to
Deal with the Problem
Implementation Efforts by African Governments and Institutions
International Support for implementing
African Food EffortsPerformance and Achievements
Achievements and prospects at the regional level Action at the international level
o.i - o.n 1.1 - 1.4
2.1 - 2.28 2.2 *-?»5 2.6 - 2.25
2.7 -'2.20
2.8 - 2.9 2.;O-2.11 2.12 2.13 2.142.15-2.17
2.18 2.19 2.202.21-2.25 2.21 ' 2.22-2.23 2.24-2.25 2.26-2.28
iv 1
2 2 3 3 3
4 5
55
6 67 7
7 7 8 8 93.1-3.26 10
3,2-3.7 3.8-3.12
3.13-3.17 3.18-3.22
3.19-3.22 3.23-3.26
10
11
13 14
*4
16
4. ■ POLICY IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE ACTION 4,1 - 4,17 17 Predominance and Vulnerability of the
Subsistence Sector =■. 4.2 - 4«4 17
Production Instability and Security of
Ac^ffss to Supplies of Pood . 4.5 - 4,7 \Q
Overcoming Domestic Constraints to Food
Food Production and Distribution ; 4.8 - 4.13 19
External Supportive Initiatives . .. 4.I4-4.I5 21 Overcoming Demand Constraints . r_ 4.16-4,17 215. THE ROLES OP THE OAU, EGA AND THE INTERNATIONAL
DONOR COMMUNITY 5.1-5.10 22
The Organization of African Unity The Economic Commission for Africa The International Donor Community
6. ROLE OF THE AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT BANK
Mobilization and Transfer of Development Resources
Technical Assistance and Institutional Support ADB in-Policy Dialogue
Focusing Attention on the Subsistence Sector Production:, Distribution, and Security of
Supplies
Improvements in technology and its delivery systems
Coping with hostile production environment Infrastructural support '
Improving policy environmwnt
Mobilization of international support Overcoming Demand Constraints and Increasing
Security of Access to Food
ADB and the Current Famine Situation
5
5 5 6,6, 6, 6, 6,
6,
.1 - 5.4
•5 - 5.6
.7 - 5.10•1 - 6.45
.2 - 6.3
.4 - 6.Q .9 - 6.13
.14-6.18►19-6.38
6.20-6,22 6,
6.
6.
6.
6.
6.
.23-6.29
.30-6.31
32-6.3637-6.38
39-6.40 41-6.45
22 23 24
25
25 25 27
2930
31 31 33
34 35
36 36
CONCLUSION
FOOTNOTES ANNEXES
i. Trends in per capita Food Production
(The World, LDCs and Africa) Base:
1974-76
ii. Growth Rates of Percaput Production in Africa: 1980-81, 1981-83 and 1982-83
in.
IV.
Food and Agricultural Production Indices
for Africa 1973-83 (Base 1974-76)
Growth of Food Demand and Production
Gap in Africa: 1970-80
v. Pood Self-sufficiency Ratios (SSRs) for Africa: 1966-1931
vi. Growth Rates of Dietery Energy Supply per capita per Day vii. Bank Group Lending lay Sector
Paragraph Page
7.1 - 7.4 38 41
43-
44
45
46
47
48
49— IV —
EXECUTBTE SUMMARY
THE AFRICAN FOOD CRISIS AND THE ROLE OF ADB IN TACKLING THE PROBLEM
0,1 The gravity of the food crisis in Africa has been widely acknowledged and documented. In this joint paper by the ADB, ECA and OAU an attempt is made to draw from available knowledge and experience the essence of the crisis, with a view to discerning more clearly ADB's role in and various practical strategies for alleviating the crisis,
0.2 A brief introduction underscores Africa's concern over the current problem and the internal potential to overcome the crisis. The objective of the present symposium is to generate ideas for improving the effectiveness of ADB programmes towards resolving the food crisis.
0,3 The second section of the paper focuses on the crisis - its characteristics, origins and consequences. A widening gap between growth of food production and population has led to falling per capita food consumption and unafforda'hle food import bills. Together with increasing production instability and weaknesses in food distribution systems, they have precipitated chronic malnutrition and hunger especially among marginal groups. This alarming situation is seen to have arisen from a complex interaction of adverse natural environmental factors an* inappropriate human actions at both national and international levels.
0.4 Domestically, official policies have failed to give priority to food objectives in terms of both investments and incentives. To these are added the predominance of subsistence production, characterised by rudimentary food
production, conservation and processing -technologies, which render Africa's food seourity severely susceptible to adverse weather conditions, diseases and pests. The situation has been further aggravated by consumer preferences which have tended to shift away from traditional African staples in favour of
imported food products. Internationally, the continuing global recession whir*h has resulted in unfavourable prices of exports and reduced access to developed countries1 markets, has combined with falling export production in some countries to seriously undermine the capacity to import both production requirements and consumer goods, including food. This in turn has led to increasing dependence on dwindling and controversial external development assistance and food aid.
0«5 The crisis poses severe consequences in socio-economic terms. The widespread impairment of human potential, both physical and mental, arising
from malnutrition, as well as starvation and death are well known in Africa.
nuing food crisis, as is the loss of political independence that results from increased dependence on food donations and even commercial imports.
0.6 The third section of the paper reviews, the efforts made "by African governments and institutions in dealing with the crisis, as well as measures undertaken "by the international community in supporting these initiatives. The
section outlines the principal programmes conceived to deal with the crisis,
i.e., the Regional Pood Plan for Africa.(AFPLAN) of 1978 and the Lagos Plan of Action (LPA) of I98O. AFPLAN analyses the continent's food situation and
prospeGts up to 1990, proposing promotional long-term policies and programmes for selfwsufficiency and the eradication of hunger. The. agricultural chapter of the LFA aims at the immediate improvement in the continent's food situation as .a basis for action as envisaged by APPLAN. It provides both policy direc tions and the framework for transforming Africa's, agricultural sector towards its B©t objectives.
0.7 The section goes on to review the efforts made by governments and institutions in implementing both the AFPLAN and the LPA proposals. The general observation is that only limited progress has actually been made* It is pointed out, for instance, that in recent years only five countries in
Africa have managed to keep their growth of food production ahead of population growth. Several countries have experienced severe declines in both total and per capita production. The paper, while emphasizing the need for the interna tional community to increase its support for Africa's food objectives, places the primary responsibility on national governments. Experience has shown that both national and international efforts have succeeded mainly in countries where governments have maintained policies that give adequate incentives to producers,
0.8 In section four, policy and programme recommendations are made for
improving performance towards African food objectives* In order for government and institutional food efforts to focus an the subsistence sector - both the most predominant and vulnerable section of the continent's food economy,
governments and development institutions are urged to give due consideration to social and welfare variables. For instance, it is suggested that the objective
of removing human suffering (starvation) be incorporated in agricultural project
analysis and selection. These institution... These institutions are also urged to increase concessionary financing to food oriented projects...; Support for small^
holder centred research into methods of preserving ©co—systems, moisture management, weather forecasting and early warning systems as well as the production and
conservation of adapted staples is also urged. Similarly, support for research
— VI -
programmes geared to the development of appropriate tools and equipment, inputs recommendation packages, and produce handling technologies is also called for.
At the same time more remunerative pricing policies for both farm inputs and ..outputs together with improvements in their marketing systems, combined with well trained and equipped extension and farm credit advisory and supervision
services remain key incentives for increased production*
0.9 The paper goes on to emphasize the need for both development agencies and governments to institute balanced production policies aimed at both increa sed food security and export earnings. Policy balance is also urged between guaranteeing incentive producer prices and affordable consumer prices. This could be complemented by targeted special food programmes for low income consumers where necessary. Institution building programmes such as training schemes are recommended to strengthen both the management of food institutions and policy analysis capacities in various related departments. The international community is urged to actively support Africa's food and development objectives through the granting of"better trade terms as well as increasing capital
inflows in both quantity and quality. Support is also urged for the promotion of national population policies that are consistent with food objectives.
0.10 In the fifth section of the paper the oo-ordinative roles of the OAU and ECA are outlined as is that of the international donor community in support ing African food efforts. The OAU secretariat is charged by the organization's charter and the LPA with the co-ordination and monitoring of economic activities and policies towards the achievement of improved living standards for the
African people. It is noted that, in view of its direct access to Africa's Heads of State and Government, the secretariat is well situated to perform this function as well as that of reducing conflicts within and between African countries. In line with its leadership role in the development of the continent's economic and social development policies, the ECA is charged jointly with the OAU by the LPA to provide leadership towards Africa's economic integration as a means of
achieving greater advancement in economic development and therefore increased food security. To facilitate this, the Commission is called upon to strengthen its monitoring of both national and institutional policies and operations to ascertain adherence to LPA objectives. The international donor community is urged to augment, focus and coordinate its support for African food strategies especially in the areas of institution building, policy adjustment and infra- structural development.
0.11 In the final section, ABB Group's activities are outlined and suggestions made for enhancing its contribution towards increasing the continent's food
security. Since beginning its lending operations in 1967 to December 1983, the Group has approved loans for a total of 692 projects costing about $4,803 million
of which 191 projects, equivalent to 28»7 per cent in value, went to the
the Bank Group to channel its support for agriculture in a way that will better guarantee increased food security. These recommendations include the strengthen ing of the role of social and welfare variables in the Bank Groupfs project analysis and selection criteria in order to increase the Group*s support for small-holder agriculture; increased and more focused support for small-holder centred food research programmes coupled with the strengthening of agricultural extension and credit-services; and the strengthening of Groupfs food and
development policy analysis capacity.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Among the most critical problems facing Africa today is the continuing scourge of widespread hunger and famine in the continent which, as some have observed, is "a problem of economic underdevelopment, and not a problem of
an irremovable food supply constraint."1/, This conviction was shared by Africa's
leaders in adopting both the Regional Food Plan for Africa (AFPLAN) and the
Lagos Plan of Action (LPA) which underscored the fact that "Africa's under development is not inevitable. Indeed, it is a paradox when one bears in mind the immense human and natural resources of the continent,"2/ With this in mind therefore, Africa's Heads of State and Government set for the continent, for
the first half of the 1980s, the objective of bringing about improvement inthe continent's food situation and laying the foundation for achieving food self-sufficiency for the whole of Africa.$/
1*2 The African Development Bank (ADB) Group, in support of this objective has increased its comulative share of resources allocated to the agricultural and food sector from 28.71 per cent, about US$ 1,379 million up to 1983
(already the largest sectoral share) to a planned 33.5 Per cent during the
1982-86 period. In providing this support the Bank Group emphasizes conces*
sional financing of projects and programmes, an essential ingredient for
improving food production,^/ conservation, handling and distribution in the
poorest countries of the region.
1»3 In spite of the efforts of member states, international and regional organizations, the food problem in Africa has persisted and even worsened,
reaching crisis proportions and threatening the very survival of nationhood formany African countries. It is against this background that the ADB has singled
out the African food crisis as a major concern and subject for consideration atits 20th Anniversary celebrations. The present symposium has been organized
for the Bank Group Governors and prominent personalities concerned with the food problem, and development in Africa and elsewhere as part of the Bank Group's efforts to solicit ideas needed in mapping out its strategies for increasing the effectiveness of its contribution to the eradication of hungerand malnutrition in Africa, both in the short- and long-term. Ultimately,
these ideas will be further developed into policy guidelines, programmes and projects that the Directors of the Group may consider for implementation.1.4 This paper - a joint effort of ADB, the Economic Commission for Africa
(ECA), and the Organization of African Unity (OAU) - attempts to examine and
analyse some aspects of the crisis with a view to arriving at some concensus on the essence of the problem and possible strategies for resolving it.
2. THE NATURE AND EXTENT OF THE AFRICAN POOD PROBLEM
2.1 Africa is the only continent in the world in which per capita food production declined over the past two decades (see Annex l). Consequently, food consumption per person has fallen below nutritional requirements. The gravity of the African food crisis has been described by a number of fora as
the single most critical area of concern in the region.The Perceived Problem
2.2 A predominant feature of the African food situation has been a widening gap between the growth of food production and population. The production of food which grew at 2.3 per cent per year during the 1960s only registered a 1.5 per cent annual growth during the 197Os.^/ At the same time population growth accelerated from 2.5 per cent during the 1960s to 2.8 per cent the following decade.. The consequence of these comparative growth rates is that the continent's per capita food production which feel by 7 per cent during the 1960s declined by 15 per cent during the 1970s.6/ While in Africa generally growth in the demand for food is positively correlated with growth in income, the low average rate of growth of income (see Annex IV) implies that on the whole income trends have had relatively little influence on the overall growing
food gap.
2.3 In an attempt to coyer the resulting food gap, Africa had to double
its volume of food imports between 1975 and I98O by which year the average food self-sufficiency ratio jj for the continent had dropped to 86 per cent from its level of 98 per cent during the 1960s implying that, on average, each African had around 12 per cent less home grown food in I98O than 20 years previously.8/
2.4 An equally worrying aspect of the problem relates to the frequent and
wide fluctuations in food production in many areas of the continent* FAOindices of per capita food production, for instance, indicate that between 1971
and 1982 production of food in Africa deviated from the average by 4 per cent
as compared to 3.3 per cent and 2.2 per cent for all the developing countries and the world, respectively,2.5 Yet a third characteristic of the African food problem is the virtually chronic malnutrition and hunger amongst marginal groups including the urban
poor, nomads, peasants in marginal production areas, and land-less tenants who for various reasons fail to secure sufficient quantities of their accustomed diets. This calorie deficit problem is estimated to affect 77 per cent of thepopulation in Africa.^/ According to FAO, the daily energy supply as a percentage
of requirement in Africa during I979-I98I differed from one sub-region to another
- 3: -
ranging from 116 in North Africa to 97 in West Africa, 94 in the Great Lakes
countries, 96 in Central Africa, and 90 in East and Southern Africa.- These figures, however, hide extreme variations which exist among individual countries within the said sub-regions. For example, among the Eastern and Southern African countries this ranges from 16 in Uganda to 119 in Mauritius, in West Africa from ?8 in Chad to 120 in Gabon, and in North Africa from 99 in Sudan to 152 in Libya, PAO data on food supply indicate that per capita calories supply per day in Africa grew by 4.6 per cent over 1966-1980 as compared to 10.6 per cent and 7.2 per cent for all developing countries and the world, respectively. 10/
Causes of the Problem
2.6 The African food problem is both short-term in nature resulting from changes in weather and other factors, and long-term in character due mostly to the degradation of the eco-system. Some of its causes are domestic while others originate from outside individual economies. It is, therefore, a problem that calls for long-term solutions in addition to short-term measures both at the national and international levels to contain it.
Domestic causes
2.7 Patterns of agricultural production and its organization, together with weaknesses in the distribution of food and food production inputs and services constrain both production and adequate access to food by a large proportionof the population. At the same time population growth, dispersion
and movements place a heavy burden on both the existing capacities to produce
food and distribute it adequately.
(i) Biased offioial_ development policies,
2,8 In many African countries agricultural policies as practiced have not changed significantly from the colonial days when they emphasized exports production frequently at the expense of the production of food for domestic consumption. This colonial legacy is still embedded in the structure of many African agricultural institutions and policies, a point well stressed in the LPA. Consequently the best lands and the bulk of agricultural investment are devoted to cash export crops as are official policies and efforts relating to research, extension, credit, input supplies, marketing and other services. The curricular and programmes of many African agricultural training and other
institutions and, in many cases, even African policy makers' view of the role
of agriculture in overall national development are centred on cash/export crops
to the neglect of the staple food crops. Many African governments have also continued to practice pc?icies aimed primarily at guaranteeing cheap food and raw materials to urban consumers and industries without, giving adequate atten tion to the effect of such policies on producer prices and other incentives.
This has translated itself into severely eroded terms of trade between rural communities and urban dwellers resulting in many instances in inadequate production of both food and other products and worsening rural-urban exodus.
2.9 This may be explained, in part, by inherent weaknesses in policy analysis and managerial capacities in the responsible arms of governments.
Inadequate coordination between the most relevant departments of governments and other institutions especially between the ministry of agriculture which generates agricultural programmes, the ministry of economic planning which provides leadership in setting sectoral priorities and ministry of finance which controls finances to various programmes may result in major discrepancies between stated policies and actual practice. These co—ordinational problems are frequently worsened by inadequacies or even lack of mechanisms for monitoring short-^erm and day to day operations to ascertain their agreement with long-term development plans and policies. Consequently it is not uncommon to find cases where a government's five-^rear plan emphasizes food self-
sufficiency as an objective but in practice its relevant organs pursue
practices that give unequalled support to cash/export production.
(ii) Organization of Production
2.10 The present African food sector is predcirdnated by rural subsistence
production and consumption, Whr.le firm statistical evidence is not easy to find, it is probably safe to say that over three quarters of food consumed in rural households is self produced*
2.11 With a few exceptions, on the African scale, these households are
most vulnerable to food insecurity due primarily to their being both marginal producers and consumers. In this regard -ii; should-be noted -that half of the nations of Africa are partly or completely in arid and semi-arid zones.ll/ As producers therefore, many rural households operate under very precarious conditions. They are frequently located in marginal production areas, their holdings are small, their techniques antiquated with a minimum use of modern
farm tools and inputs. Their yields are therefore low 12/ and levels of
production highly susceptible to the vagaries of nature including in particular droughts, and pests and diseases. As consumers, these households, being
usually remotely located and given Africa's weak infrastructure system, are usually out of reach of centralized food security reserves and food imports.
This situation is aggravated by their frequent lack of political organization and influence in comparison to their urban compatriots. This subsistence
mm C •»
orientation of production and its inherently precarious nature sets a low ceiling on the extent to which domestic production can meet the food require ments not only of the rural people, "but also of Africa's rapidly expanding. .. . ■.
urban populations. The situation is worsened by changes in life styles and . .- shifts of food preferences particularly of urban dwellers away from predominant traditional staples.
(iii) Low Level of Technology .
2.12 The production of food in Africa is heavily constrained by the rudimentary nature of technology, including the inadequate use of improved farming tools, improved seed and agro-chemicals, and the poor husbandry practices in use especially in the subsistence sector. Due in .part to the cash export crop bias of African agricultural policies, inadequate research efforts have been
made in developing recommendation packages of production inputs and husbandry
practices appropriate for. the subsistence sector. The limited technological
advances made in the food sector have tended.to be concentrated on large-scalecommercial production and therefore miss the mainstay of the continent's food
economy — the smallholder sector.
(iv) Environmental constraints
2.13 A large proportion of Africa!s food production takes place under bostile
and difficult physical and climatic conditions with increasing frequency and
severity of droughts and floods, hurricanes and.eyclones causing severe risk
and uncertainty in farming. The already difficult food production environment
on the continent is further aggravated "by human destruction of the eco- system through such practices as deforestation and overgrazing all of which hastenthe process of desertification. In addition, in many parts of Africa productivity- is impaired by the heavy, infestation of pests and diseases for humans, livestock
and orops. Most countries have not yet clearly devised policies aimed atmitigating the effects of these adversities. Meanwhile, according to FAO, the number of countries most affected by the current food and agricultural crisis in Africa and therefore requiring international assistance to enable them to
cope with.the effect of crop failures, food shortages and animal health problemshas recently grown from 22 to 24 - Guinea Bissau and Upper Volta being the latest additions.13/
(v) Changing Consumer Preferences
2.14 The susceptability of Africa's food production to these environmental -..
hostilities and therefore its instability has been further aggravated by recent
changes in consumer preferences from Africa's main traditional staples - sorghums,
millets, plantains, roots and tubers, which are adapted to the predominantecological conditions, to fine grains and other products which, if produced locally, entail considerably higher risk of failure due to their lack of adaptability to the prevailing conditions. In addition, Africa's increasing
preferences for the consumption of such products as wheat is leading to increasing attempts to grow these crops in areas more suited to the harder traditional staples such as sorghum, millet, etc. or where the technological and managerial skills for growing these less-adapted products at a comparative advantage have not been fully
acquired. This tends to increase the risk of crop failure.(vi) Social and Institutional Constraints
2.15 Most of Africa does not have the basic institutions required to promote and sustain agricultural development. Investment in basic institutions to develop human resources, to research and disseminate new and appropriate technologies for agriculture, and to strengthen internal market linkages has been highly inadequate. At the same time while traditional forms of security against food emergencies such as the communal ownership of food reserves and the means of production especially land and water have been weakened by rural- urban migration and other social factors, modern security systems have not been
set up to replace them..
2.16 In some countries, the structure of land ownership and distribution is such that many farmers, especially smallholders, are compelled to operate on uneconomically small and fragmented units of unproductive land while large chunks of fertile potential agricultural land remains idle in the hands of
absentee owners or otherwise reserved for recreational and other purposes. In other areas, such structures render many small farmers as tenants under very harsh terms that deny them both the incentive to increase production and theright to retain enough of what they produce to sustain a decent livelihood.
Yet, in other cases, the lack of security of tenure on land by individual operators, denies them the incentive to invest in durable land improvements thus perpetuating low productivity,
2.17 Africa's numerous social and political disturbances which result in influxes of refugees and other human displacements generate additional pres
sures on food resources.
(vii) Inadequate Investment
2.18 Available FAO statistical data on regional and sub-regional-bases for
1978~1982 indicate that per capita total public expenditure on agriculture has
been declining as have per capita total capital public expenditure, and per capita total recurrent public expenditure on the sector. The statistical data•— T «•
further show that the ratio of total public expenditure on food and agriculture to total public expenditure on all sectors has. ranged from only 5.9 per cent - for Central and West Africa to 13.4 per cent for East and Southern Africa.'
(viii) Inadequacies in Distribution System _ .m __,._
2.19 Fragile physical infrastructure presents a formidable hindrance to the collection of food from the rural to the urban areas and its distribution from central reserves and markets to rural areas. Institutional factors including ill-advised official pricing policies, which tend to favour urban consumers at the expense of rural producers, limit both production and the free flow of marketable surpluses to formal matkets. At the same time the predominance of marketing bodies, mostly parastatal, which experience difficulties in
reconciling their social responsibilities, with the need for economic efficien
cy, as well as other managerial weaknesses including the lack of operational
autonomyj awi conflicts of interest impair effectiveness of the continent's food system.(ix) Demographic trends and effects.
2.20 Demographic trends affect the food situation in a number of ways*
Firstly, rapid population growth and changing age distribution, calling for an expansion of government services, make large claims on resources that could
otherwise be devoted to food and agricultural development. Secondly, the wide
dispersal of the rural population further constraints the capability of the already weak infrastructural system to adequately serve the social and produc tion needs. Thirdly, mobility especially the"'hi$i rates of urbanization and population displacements caused by famines, social and political instability result in the concentration of demands on market supplies which are already constrained by the subsistence mode of production as well as infrastructural and other distributional constraints.External Pauses . ,
■ (i) Distorted terms of trade . .
2.21 The export trade of the oil-importing African countries has been especially hard hit by the current worldwide economic recession. As a consequence, practically all the low-income African countries faced worse terms of trade at the beginning of the eighties than ten years previously. The consequencies of this deterioration have been compounded by. slow_growth in the volume of the region's exports, explained in part by low domestic production a.nd inaccessibility to markets of developed
countries particularly for processed commodities. In addition, the current very high
proportion of export earnings which is absorbed by debt service repayments, has seriously constrained Afrloa's capacity to import food, production requirements and capital goods,
(ii) Pood J^Ld Trends and Implications..
2.22 Africa's dependency on food aid has grown dramatically since the 196O»s.
In 1982, the continent received 50 per cent - about 4.3 million tons - of total world food aid in cereals as compared to 5 to 6 per cent in the 1960s and early
1970s. ..-._:
2.23 African countries should look at external food aid only as a short-
term or emergency measure to tide them over during their time of need such as during famine and other disasters. Food aid for .development however is morecontroversial. There is some evidence that food aid may reduce the pressure on recipient countries to carry out necessary food arri. agricultural policy reforms;
depresses farm prices in some countries; is unreliable; and tends to promote an undesirable welfare mentality, shift in consumption patterns, and at times
is used as a political weapon. There is therefore need for further search and dialogue on modalities for using food aid for development purposes in
Africa. As far as possible, local food staples or other items that closelyresemble these staples should be used to meet food aid needs. This may be made possible for instance by food aid agencies securing their supplies through triangular arrangements with third countries from which the staples are
available.
(iii) Official Development Assistance (PDA)
2.24 Official development assistance to Africa has been increasing only
marginally in recent years and has therefore been inadequate to fill the gap between local resources and the level of investment required in agriculture to attain the continent's food objectives. Net ODA flows to Africa increased fromabout US$ 7.47 billion in 1977 to US$9.95 billion in 198O 14/ an average
annual increase of 10 per cent in current values but a decline of 2.26- per cent-
per annum at constant 1975 unit values of manufactured goods. It must benoted, however, that ODA receipts of individual countries vary widely between countries and sub-regions in the continent. For example, in I98O total offi
cial commitments of external assistance to African agriculture (broad defini
tion)!^ (1975 prices) expressed in per capita of agricultural population
ranged from 10,3 in North Africa to 4.4 in West Africa and 5.5 for East and
Southern Africa to 3.3 for the Great Lake Countries. Country variations were
from 0.4 in Chad to over 63.0 in Tunisia. In a few countries, external aid now
accounts for up to 80 per cent of the capital ftxptsnditurj budget, while imports
of- non-project food aid also provide budgetary support for some countries. 16/- J
- 9 -
2.25 It Bust; be noted, however, that unless accompanied by policy adjustments aimed' at assigning appropriate priority to.agriculture and especially food, what ever size of ODA receipts cannot in itself guarantee adequate advance towards solution to the food problem. Experience has shown that both QDA recepient countries and donors have policies that fail to assign adequate priority to agriculture and especially food. Partly due to this reason,
concessional commitments to agriculture (broad definition) during I975-I98I
constituted on average only 13.5 per cent of total annual ODA commitments.
Of this only about 8.2 per c6iit went into crop husbandry, livestock and fisheries
programmes (agriculture narrow definition) each year, 17/ In the case of the
ADB Group, not only do member countries submit a disproportionately, smaller number of agricultural projects for Group consideration, but also given Bank Group's own project appraisal criteria as dictated by its lending terms,weaknesses in project preparation capabilities of member countries and some of the already noted characteristics of AfricaiScagriculture, most .agricultural
(narrow definition) projects can only qualify for the limited concessional resources of the African Development Pund (ADP) and the Nigerian Trust Fund
Consequences of the Problem
2.26 Declining per capita food production and mounting consumption require ments, in the absence of a growing import capability, exert a high price in human, economic and socio-political terms. The price in human terras manifests itself in widespread starvation, destitution and death and the deleterious
effects on long-term realization of human potentials in terms of mental develop ment, morale and productivity which are the most vivid and appalling consequences
of the Af*ic»a food crisis. As is often said, "man is what he eats".19/
2.27 The first serious economic cost of the food problem in Africa is the loss of labour productivity. The labour of a hungry man is less productive so he is likely to produce less and this will in turn keep him potfr and hungry and the vicious circle continues. Governments in most of Africa have generally responded to lagging food production by increasing food imports. Consequently, the second serious economic cost has been the rising import bills and large- scale diversion of scarce foreign exchange resources away from development to food imports.
2.28 Socio—politically, the worsening food orisis in Africa also results in the accentuation of sooial inequalities, political and social instability;
and the inevitable jeopardy to the national political independence of those countries that beoarae heavily dependant 0*1 food donations, and even purchases, from outside the continent. Social and poK/tioal- dd-stuirlsances — have-not-only
disrupted food production and distribution, they have also led to a refugee problem of unprecedented proportions. It is currently estimated that there are over 5 million refugees in the whole region, generating additional pressures on
the food resources of host countries.20/
3. EFFORTS TO REVERSE THE ALARMING TREND
3.1 The gravity and complexity of the food crisis in Africa seems-to. have been recognized by African governments, and the international community only.in
recent years* Hitherto, planners and politicians seriously underestimated both the role and the complexity of agriculture and especially the continent's food
problem*
Policies and Measures Designed to Deal with the Problems
3.2 Africa has responded to the poor overall performance of the economy, including the worsening food situation, and the persistence and accentuation of rural poverty by taking action, individually and collectively, at the national, sub-regional and regional levels. As a result, Africa already has_a.number of pronouncements, resolutions, plans, programmes and projects at all levels geared to the solution of the region's long-term problems in line with the.
Strategy for Africa for the Third UN Development Decade where the target for the annual expansion of agricultural output is put at 4 per cent.
3.3 Efforts by major regional institutions such as ECA and OAU have mainly attempted to re-orientate Africa's development strategies and defind more rigorously Africa's priorities, laying major emphasis on the reconstruc tion of Africa's economic base and structure. Catalytic as they are, these efforts culminated among others, in the Revised Framework of Principles for the
Implementation of the New International Economic Order for Africa (1976—1961™
1986) of 1978, the Regional Food Plan for Africa (AFPLAN) of. 1978, the Monrovia Strategy for the Economic Development of Africa (1979) and the Lagos Plan of
Action (LPA) in I98O. ; v
3.4 The strategy in the Revised Principles focusses on the development «f a structure of Africa's basic industries which in addition to their capability for mutual reinforcement exert strong growth-promoting effects on other indus tries and sectors, in particular on agriculture and on rural transformation.
The recommended priorities for agriculture during 1976-1981-1986 underscore the
decisions of the World Food Conference of 1974 in which all governments wererequired to accept the goal that within a decade no child would ftp to bed
hungry., no family would fear for, ifs next day's bread and; no human being's future axd capacities would be stunted by malnutrition. It was further reoog--li
nized that the main cause of under-nutrition and malnutrition was poverty and that the main remedy for poverty was economic and social development. Accor dingly, if self-reliance and self-sustaining farming in Africa are to be
achieved, farm policy, among others, should be aimed at improving farmorganization, management ani incentives to enable the farm family to adjust to
dynamic changes in demand.
3.5 In both AFPLAN and LPA priority is given to the development of the
food ani agricultural sector so as to achieve higher levels of self-sufficiency in food, by the close of the century; and, since the sector is the basis of overall social and economic development for most African countries, to provide
the impetus for development.
3.6 APPLAN analyses the food situation and food prospects in Africa up to
1990 and proposes long-term policies and programmes (1978-1990) for food
development at the national ani inter-governmental levels. The major object ives of the plan, particularly in regard to food self-sufficiency, aim at reducing the region's, growing food import dependency, combating hunger, and alleviating malnutrition. Individual national governments are encouraged to
prepare and implement priority policies and projects for food self-sufficiency.At the intergovernmental levels, African countries are urged to undertake joint ventures for increased food production and intra-subregional and regional
trade.
3.7 The Lagos Plan of Action is the strongest appeal to political will ever formulated on the contiwurt* The Plan addresses itself to medium and short-term development strategies (198O-I985) focussing on priority measures
which could be taken to bring about an immediate improvement in the food situation while contributing to the long-term objective of food self- sufficiency as envisaged in AFTLANO It provides policy direction and the specific framework of restructuring and transforming the African food and agricultural-sector, laying particular emphasis on measures to reduce foodlosses, increase food security, encourage diversification of agricultural production (tropical cereals, livestock and fisheries) and other measures
that improve agriculture and rural life.
Implementation Efforts by African Governments and Institutions
3.8 The increasing awareness of this crisis by African governments is
leading to more efforts by these governments at implementing APPLAN, LPA and other significant policy pronouncements - with assistance of both African and
international development agencies. Some countries are already re-orienting their policies with a view to achieving economic growth and relief of masspoverty through increased incentives to agricultural and other rural development
raise the efficiency of the overall agricultural production system with special emphasis on food.
3.9 At the sub-regional and regional levels, there are some 50 or so
intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) partially or wholly devoted to the
development of the food and agriculture sector. Some of their activities
involved lake/river basins development e.g. Lake Chad Basin Commission; collec
tive food security and self-sufficiency programmes such as exist in the Sahel(CILSS), North Africa (Egypt-Sudan Integration Fund) and East/Southern Africa
(PTA and SADCC); plant and animal diseases and pests control programmes such as the various locusts and notifiable livestock disease control programmes in Africa; agricultural price policy harmonization and other initiatives made with a view to improving intra-African trade, e.g. in the Central African Economic Community -CAEC and FTA.
3.10 Pursuant to its responsibility for coordinating and overseeing
implementation of the LPA, the OAU General Secretariat has collaborated with the FAO in preparing and publishing a booklet entitled "Famine in Africa"
outlining the principal characteristics, causes, effects of famine in the
continent and recommending possible containment strategies as an aid for member countries and international agencies in devising strategies for combating the problem. The secretariat has also held a seminar for member countries' agricul tural experts to discuss ways of increasing production in the peasant sector.
In an effort to assess implementation of the LPA, the General Secretariat has employed a consultant to tour a number of sub-regions in Africa and report on efforts being made to implement the LPA proposals relating to food and agricul
ture.
3.11 EGA has given major emphasis on assistance to member states and IG9s with a view to enhancing their planning and programming capacity for agricul
tural development (including forestry and fisheries), and improving food
self-sufficiency and food security situation of African countries.
3.12 Since it began "its lending operations in 1967* "the Afrioan Development -
Bank Group has approved loans to agriculture totaling US$ 1,379 million, the
equivalent of 28.71 per cent of its cumulative lending. The emphasis placed by the Bank Group on agriculture and especially the food subsector has increasedsubstantially since after the mid-1970s but particularly after 1982 when the
I982-I986 Operational Programme came into effect. Since then the Group's cumulative commitments to the sector has increased from 27.8 per cent up tb *1981 to 30.4 per cent during 1982-1983. It should be noted that these figures '
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refer to agriculture in general not the food sub-sector. The Group also pro vides policy and institutional support to its regional member countries and
sub-regional instititons. This, the Bank Group does by providing scholarships aril other training opportunities for operational and managerial personnel in the relevant institutions. Many of the projects financed by the Group have training and technological development and transfer provisions. Also through its partioipation in national and sub-regional efforts for the design, planning and promotion of strategies for food and economic integration, the Group is able to contribute towards LPA!s goal of increased national and collective self—reliance in the' continent.
£nternational Support for Implementing African Food Efforts
3.13 The World Pood Council (WFC), created following the 1974 World Food
Conference to co-ordinate and mobilise international support for efforts to eradicate hunger and malnutrition, has stressed the importance of national actions through policy adjustments and determined political commitment to food objectives as the key to progress in eradicating hunger and malutritioru
These efforts have contributed to the clear shift over the last two to three
years in both national and international emphasis from purely technical approaches to dealing with problems of food to overall policy orientation.
3»14 FAO, the leading UN technical agency responsible for food and agri culture, has most of its field and regular programme budgets devoted to acti vities that are intended to directly increase output of crops, livestock and fish. These activities include support for applied research, planning assis tance to countries, follow-up on the proposals of the world Conference on
Agrarian Reform and Rural Development (WCARRD) as well as encouraging technical
and economic co-operation among African and other developing countries. FAO for example has had, since 1967, a standing technical co-operation agreement with ADB under which FAO co-operates with the Bank Group in identifying and preparing agricultural projects in member countries for Bank Group financing.
Under the latest revision of the agreement, the FAO Investment Centre has undertaken to intensify project ..identification and preparation activities in this sector while the Group has agreed to increased its financial contribution to this co—operative programme.
3.15 In Africa, FAO's work on increased crop production gives emphasis to maize, sorghum, millet and rice with a view to helping countries meet most of their domestic requirements of the principal staples from domesil» produotion.
Assistance'given to the West African Rice Development Association (WARDA) and
national rice programmes in Gat>on, Upper Volta, Comoros, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Mozambique, Sierra Leone, Senegal, Mauritania and Zambia are good examples of such support.3.16 Many relevant studies have been undertaken by both bilateral and multi
lateral development assistance agencies. The .JforId Bank and UNDP are probably the most important financing bodies for investment projects emanating from these studies and aimed at the elimination of hunger and poverty. Other international institutions such as IFAD, /J)B cjod. World 2ooi Programme (WFP) are all
making significant contributions to the solution of the food problem in Africa through increased agricultural investments and food programmes. Othoss suchas United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), United Nations Education and Scientific Organization (UNESCO) and World Health Organization (WHO),
through their drought and desertification control programmes, health and nutrition support efforts are also playing leading roles in the alleviation of the crisis. Overall, the eradication of hunger and .iialnutrition appears
to have emerged as the central' area' ?or attention and action of the inter
national community in recent years.
3«17 The cumulative contribution to these efforts by bilateral assistance agencies is also substantial. These agencies1 concentration-on support for policies and programmes that improve rural living and promote the building of local institutions for developing appropriate technology packages and their delivery services as well as promoting greater farmer participation deserve
particular mention. The adoption by the European Economic Community (EEC) of
food strategies as a basis of cooperation between Europe and the developing countries has resulted in the community's concentration of its support in helping Africa meet its food and nutrition objectives.Eerformance and Achievements
3.18 There is at present no shortage of studies on the African food and agricultural problem, analysis of the problem, and even prescriptions to cure this crisis^. In spite of this accumulation of knowledge and some commendable efforts, being made, however, the region remains the world!s major food problem, area. ■
Achievements and prospects at the regional level
3«19 Past neglect of the food producing sector and the present slowness or inability on the part of some countries to implement the adopted plans and resolutions are some of the causes of the current poor performance of African., agriculture and the continuing food dilenaa* In recent years, only five court-,
tries (Cameroon, ■ Central African Republic, Ivory Coast, Rwanda and Sudan), have
managed to keep the pace of food production ahead of population growth. Some of the remaining countries had particularly severe declines in food production, e.g., per capita food production dropped by more than 20 per cent in countries
such as Angola, Gambia, Ghana, Mauritania, Mozambique, Senegal and Somalia, during the 1970s and up to 1982. These food deficit countries have attempted to make up their shortfalls by increased imports, especially of cereals, which have been growing fast.
3.20 Reasons for these difficulties have been amply documented elsewhere and surveyed earlier in this paper* The general slowness in the implementation of LPA and AFFLAN objectives is aggravated by inadequate monitoring of these efforts. Member States are not as yet complying fully with the notion of reporting regularly to OAU, EGA and PAO on progress, problems and prospects at the country level. At the same time, the strategy review missions proposed under LPA as a means of monitoring implementation progress by countries have not taken place as expected due to organizational and financial constraints, and lack of requests from member states for such missicfns. - -- .. .
3#21 . While at the national level there is lack of up-to-date information on the activities of the African countries with- respect to food and agricul tural production, there is ample evidence at the sub-regional level on the efforts being made by groups of countries suoh as the inter-country food
security arrangements among the countries of the Preferential Trade Area (PTA), the southern African Development Coordination Conference (SADCC), the Great Lakes, and the Permanent Inter-State Committee for Drought (Control- in the Sahel
(CILSS). Other programmes and projects include the feasibility of establishing
a sub—regional maize research centre for the Eastern and Southern African it Bubregion, programmes by the Central African Economic Community and the project on the harmonization of price policies among the Niamey—based MDLFOC countries.
We have yet to see adequately positive actions at the national level. However, new measures including the mobilization of farmers and resources, increased investment and inputs, institutional improvement and other incentives have been undertaken here and there. Investments so far undertaken include improved rural infrastructure, as in Benin, Burundi and the United Republic of Cameroon;
development of irrigation as in Egypt, Morocco, Sudan, Mauritania, Nigeria and Madagascar; rehabilitation of food industries in Sierra Leone, Upper Volta and the United Republic of Tanzania; improved research and extension facilities as in Zaire and Zambia; and the provision of a food security infrastructure, including storage, transportation and related services, as in the Sahel and in Mozambique.
3»22 In generalj where increases in production have occurred, they have been closely associated with the realization on the part of governments that the improvement of agriculture is vital for the economic advancement of their countries and it is crucial in enabling them to feed their people and thereby contributing to social and economic stabilitya A few countries like Malawi, Kenya and Egypt managed to improve their food and agricultural production as a
result of sustained efforts at favourable policies and decisive actions taken
"by governments and implemented at the farm level. In spite of drought in late 1981, production in Malawi increased sharply in I982 over that of I98I due
largely to producer incentives including higher prices. Improved seed varieties was responsible for a 4 per cent increase in wheat production in Egypt in 1982, despite a 2 per cent reduction in sown area. Although Kenya experienced dry weather in some districts, the maize crop exceeded the large production of the previous year parily in response to a 37 per cent increase in producer price for the 1982 crop. These and other similar successful cases are a clear demonstration that agriculture can prosper only in a favourable polioy environ ment*
Action at the International Level
3*23 At the global level, a few trends of importance to African agriculture and economies in general should be noted. Some of these developments
which will continue to have a significant impact on African economies in the foreseeable future include the long-^erra decline in the share of primary commodities in total worl trade; the rise in the share of advanced countries in world exports of primary commodities; and the increasing share of developing countries in world imports of primary commodities, particularly food.
3»84 While the African agricultural sector continues to rely on external
assistance, this assistance has tended to be on a piecemeal/project by project
basis, unco—ordinated and insufficient to allow many African countries to make the desired structural change in agriculture. Such a ohange will need to involve improvements in techniques of production, imports of farm tools and implements and large amounts of fertilizers and other agro—chemioals, as well as the establishment of irrigation schemes. The international community should therefore find new ways of helping the countries of the region to help them selves by stepping up its investment and technical assistance to African agriculture.
3«25 FAO has given assistance to countries in formulating investment projects that will attract external financing to increase food production, raise farmers1 incomes and strengthen rural economies. By the end of 1982, the PAO Investment Centre had helped to channel US$22 billion of foreign and
domestic capital to developing countries including Africa* PAO'joint - : activities with regional Development Banks of Africa (ADB), Asia and Latin
America have increased considerably in recent years.
3,26 While the international ooramuni'fcy has in general made significant
strides in helping Africa in the areas of food production and food aid, it has made only limited progress in the fields of nutrition, food security and food trade. Hence, current efforts are still not sufficient to meet fully the food
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needs and priorities of African countries. Unless there is renewed interna tional commitment to supporting African food efforts, constraints with respect to investment funds are likely to continue at the same level, or even worsen, given the expected limited availability of funds from domestic sources, bila
teral trading partners and international official instititions.4. POLICY IMFLECATIONS FOR FUTURE ACTION
4.1 Up to this point the attempt has been made to review the key features of the continent's food problem and the various attempts made by Africans and the international community to seek solution to the problem. The purpose in this section is to propose policy arid programme guidelines aimed at enhancing the effectiveness of present and future efforts at combating the problem.
Predominance and Vulnerability of the Subsistence Sector
4.2 The predominance of subsistence production and consurrjrbion in Africa and its implications on the continent's overall food security has already been outlined. To the extent that subsistence consumption accounts probably for over three quarters of the continent's food requirements, the need for African food strategies being tailored to the needs and circumstances of the subsis
tence sector need not be over-emphasized.4.3 This notwithstanding, the financing of strategies and programmes
geared to the resolution of Africa's food problem, given its inherent features, is hampered by the fact that for the most part the benefits, including the avoidance of chronic malnutrition, mass starvation and death, the quelling of social and political strife and instability, the preservation of political independence, and the enhanced realization of human potentials and producti vity are' all not directly financial. As such they do not feature in conven tional economic/financial appraisal criteria for investments thus rendering most of these programmes economically nonviable. In order for financing
institutions and governments to be able to contribut significantly towards the resolutio n of the crisis, they willlhave to review their methodologies for
project analyses and appraisal to take full account of these non-financial,
welfare and social benefits and costs.
4.4 These efforts may also be fostered through the establishment, expan
sion and strengthening of special subsistence food sector oriented lending programmes such as lines of credit to national agricultural and rural credit
institutions for on-lending to producers under concessionary terms. To facili tate operation, of such lending schemes, it will be necessary to provide supportfor the establishment and/or strengthening of relevant national and sub-national
institutions through which the lines of credit may "be channelled to producers.
Such institutions, in particular, national agricultural and rural credit institu
tions, aproducers* credit, farm inputs and produce marketing co-operatives, andcredit and agricultural extension delivery and supervision services will help
ascertain "both efficiency in the distribution of farm credit as well as guaranteeits effective usage*
Production Instabillty^and Security of | Acces^ to Supplies of Food
4.5 In order to enhance Africa*s food security through increased production
stability and both physical and economic access, governments and institutions will need to support programmes for technological advances in environmental
management, including research into the conservation of eco-system, dry-land farming methods, and water development management as wall as weather forecasting and early warning systems, in order to reduce vulnerability of production to
unexpected environmental changes,. Support for programmes to increase theproduction and consumption of Africans traditional and adapted staples... will have a similar effect. Such support may be provided through the financing of farmer (especially small-holders) centred research into the production and conservation of food, both before and after harvest, as well as processing of these staples with a view to increasing their acceptability by consumers. For increased overall food security, these measures to increase and stabilize produc tion will need to be accompanied by specific steps for ensuring greater stability
and accessibility to food supplies.
4.6 It has been noted that the subsistence orientation of Africa's food production restricts the capacity of domestic production to meet the require ments of the internal market. Governments and development financing institu tions may mitigate this imbalance by providing support and incentives for efforts to increase productivity in the subsistence sector so that over time the sector may increasingly produce marketable surpluses Loyond its own require
ments. Support for appropriate pricing policies for both production inputsand farm outputs as well as the institution of the necessary inputs distribution and produce marketing arrangements, including the improvement of physical and institutional infrastructures especially in rucal areas are instrumental in this effort. These measures will help ascertain1 that farmers not only have an
incentive to increase production and sales through formal markets, but also have the physical and economic access to the means (inputs).of achieving such
increases.
4.7 The granting of remunerative prices to producers may have the effect
of increasing consumer prices of food beyond the reach of low income market
dependent groups and therefore threaten their food security. Some:governments
and development agencies, including food aid bodies, already undertake, measures,
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such as food subsidization schemes, specifically targeted to such vulnerable groups in order to guarantee their adequate physical and economic access to food.
Overcoming Domestic Constraints to Food Production and. Distribution
4»8 The low level of technologies used in food production in Africa has been
presented as one of the key causes of the food problem in Africa. In order to relieve this bottleneck to production and supply of food, governments and development assistance institutions will need to focus their efforts onsupporting research into the development and adoption of low-cost appropriate
technologies for production and conservation of farm produce. With respect to
production, these efforts should aim at the development and adoption of suita ble farm, tools and equipment, recommendation packages for agronomic inputs and husbandry practices. As regards produce conservation, there is need for the development and adoption of produce processing and storage structures and
•-.methods appropriate for various farm products, as well as levels and scales of conservation. While special attention" needs to be placed on on-farm facilities because that is where most food is produced and preserved, attention should also be given, to structures and their management at hi^ier levels because it has been pointed out that in fact most food losses in Africa occur in central processing and storage facilities.
4.9 Agricultural extension and credit services form the link pin between research and production. For this link to operate and enable produoers to benefit from the outlined technological advances, farmers must have the means of acquiring the equipment and inputs. Therefore equally important-is a well organized and managed farm credit delivery and supervision service. To be effective, these two services should be closely knitted. In many countries in Africa, however, these services operate independently and are largely ineffective due to poor personnel training, equipment and organization. In additior.$
farmers1 capacity to comprehend the advice rendered by these services is hampered by their laok of education and literacy. Therefore, both government and othw? instituional support need to be channelled to the strengthening of the delivery and financing systems as well as provide support for farmer training for these technological advances to succeed.
4.10 The hostility of the environment: While hostile environment and vagaries of nature may not be completely prevented, their frequency and the severity of their effect* may be mitigated by proper technological advancements in the fields of water management and conservation as well as measures to control and prevent human, livestock and plant diseases and pests. The capaoity to cope with environmental adversities may also be improved through the
art efelishment and strengthening of crop and climatic monitoring and early
warning, systems, coupled with the adoption of appropriate mechanisms for
responding to these early wanings and emergencies once they have occurred. Most of these measures are best organized collectively between several countries for both economic and practical reasons since many of the factors they are aimed at dealing with tend torbe. widespread frequently across national boi«idries»
4.11 If Africa• s.endemic ,food problems have to be overcome, official policies, where they do not already give adequate consideration to food objectives, will have to be reviewed and re—oriented to give due priority to the drive towards domestic food self—sufficiency. This is not to say that export augmentation strategies should be abandoned, because Africa needs the foreign exchange
earnings. Rather the need is to strive at balanced strategies between food and export programmes since self-sufficiency in food will help ascertain the foreign exchange is used for development and not for food imports. The tendency for existing official policies, to be preoccupied with the guaranteeing of cheap food to urban consumers with little regard to the effect this has on producer price and. incentives has been mentioned. In the interest of increased1food self-suffi ciency, these policies will need to be rationalized with a view to providing
remunerative (incentive),price and adequate production and marketing services
to producers while at the same time seeking to protect consumer interests, especially of low income groups, through special food programmes.
4.12 The continued lack of effeotive institutions to manage the food sector in many African countries as well as the riated weaknesses in policy and programme development, analysis, co-ordination and monitoring are main bottlenecks to the sector^ performance. Managerial weaknesses and constraints plague most existing institutions. There is therefore a great need for increased efforts to support manpower development programmes for senior executives, professional and technical cadres responsible for policy development, analysis and execution in various key minj-S-briesj financing and service institutions through, for instance, short courses, workshops and study tours to countries and institutions where relevant experiences may be acquired. There is also the need for support for programmes to strengthen farm service delivery systems and institutions both in terms of manpower and policy framework. To bring about these institutional and policy improvements, African governments, institutions and donor agencies should work out politically and economically feasible modalities-through which these adjust ments and improvements may be brought about through policy adjustments and support for .appropriate programmes by both recepient countries and the donor community.
4.13 The already dismal state of Africa's food situation is further aggravated by frequent social and political commotions at both national and inteaxjountry levels. Governments and development institutions may contribute to the
amelioration of these impediments to progress towards food objectives by
pursuing development policies and supporting programmes that ©nhanbe growth and '"
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equitablity of distribution of income and economic opportunities within states thus reducing social unrest. Inter country harmony may be promoted through the encouragement and support of joint development programmes and other measures aimed at promoting economic integration. The llano and Senegal river basin development programmes which bring together several' countries in West Africa, are good examples of such joint undertakings.
External. Supportive Initiatives
4«14 The international community may help Africa overcome its food problem both through more favourable trade arrangements and specific assistance programmes. The granting of favourable trade terms for African experts generally, will enable African countries to import production requirements and food when necessary. These countries could also, be helped by special arrangements under which they would be able to buy developed countries* food surpluses under concessionary terms. In addition, assistance may be provided through increased direct and indireot resource flows by way of such arrangements as the International Monitary Fund's food financing facility from which . few African eountries have so far benefited. The slowness in international nego
tiations on tsade liberalization and particularly in the inability of the international community to conclude the negotiations for the New International Economic Order, is an area tha* calls for renewed "effort on the part of all countries to expedite the endorsement of proposed ideals.
4»15 Similarly, through continued .long^-terra commitment to international . food assistance arrangements , including the International Fcfdd Convention under the World Pood Programme, the international.community would assist African countries to focus their attention more solidly on measures aimed at finding long-term solutions rather than concentrating on short-term survival strate gies. These international efforts will be further facilitated by continued constructive participation by all concerned parties in interactional dialogues aimed at devising ways of using international food aid to promote rather than hamper food deficit countries1 efforts towards greater long-term food security and self-sufficiency. . ...
Overcoming Demand Constraints ■
4.16 .The,,principal factor influencing the demand for food in Africa is population - its overall growth, composition, dispersion and movements. The manner in which population trends have affected the food situation in Africa has already been outlined. Effective measures, to deal with demographic factors are socially sensitive and as such require an understanding dialogue between African development agencies and individual governments. To facilitate such dialogue these agencies need to establish, their own sets of policy guidelines on the basis of which they can dialogue with governments on countries1 population
