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Peak metamorphic temperature and thermal history of the Southern Alps (New Zealand)
O. Beyssac, S.C. Cox, J. Vry, F. Herman
To cite this version:
O. Beyssac, S.C. Cox, J. Vry, F. Herman. Peak metamorphic temperature and thermal his- tory of the Southern Alps (New Zealand). Tectonophysics, Elsevier, 2016, 676, pp.229-249.
�10.1016/j.tecto.2015.12.024�. �hal-02133783�
Peak metamorphic temperature and thermal history of the
1
Southern Alps (New Zealand)
2 3
Beyssac O.
(1),*, Cox S.C.
(2), Vry J.
(3), Herman F.
(4)4
5
(1) Institut de Minéralogie, de Physique des Matériaux, et de Cosmochimie, UMR 6
CNRS 7590, Sorbonne Universités – UPMC, Muséum National d’Histoire 7
Naturelle, IRD, 4 place Jussieu, 75005 Paris, France 8
(2) GNS Science, Private Bag 1930, Dunedin, New Zealand 9
(3) Victoria University of Wellington, P O Box 600, Wellington, New Zealand 10
(4) Institute of Earth Surface Dynamics, University of Lausanne, Switzerland 11
12
* Corresponding author: Olivier.Beyssac@upmc.fr 13
14
Submitted to Tectonophysics. Word count ca 14400 all included, 12 Figures, 2 tables.
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Abstract
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The Southern Alps of New Zealand result from late Cenozoic convergence between 19
the IndoAustralian and Pacific plates, and are one of the most active mountain belts in 20
the world. Metamorphic rocks carrying a polymetamorphic legacy, ranging from low- 21
greenschist to high-grade amphibolites, are exhumed in the hanging wall of the 22
Alpine Fault. On a regional scale, the metamorphic grade has previously been 23
described in terms of metamorphic zones and mineral isograds; application of 24
quantitative petrology being severely limited owing to unfavourable quartzo- 25
feldspathic lithologies. This study quantifies peak metamorphic temperatures (T) in a 26
300 x 20 km area, based on samples forming 13 transects along-strike from Haast in 27
the south to Hokitika in the north, using thermometry based on Raman spectroscopy 28
of carbonaceous material (RSCM). Peak metamorphic T decreases across each 29
transect from ≥ 640°C locally in the direct vicinity of the Alpine Fault to less than 30
330°C at the drainage divide 15-20 km southeast of the fault. Thermal field gradients 31
exhibit a degree of similarity from southernmost to northernmost transects, are greater 32
in low-grade semischist than high-grade schist, are affected by folding or 33
discontinuous juxtaposition of metamorphic zones, and contain limited information on 34
crustal-scale geothermal gradients. Temperatures derived by RSCM thermometry are 35
slightly (≤ 50°C) higher than those derived by traditional quantitative petrology using 36
garnet-biotite thermometry and THERMOCALC modeling. The age of RSCM T 37
appears to be mostly pre-Cenozoic over most of the area except in central Southern 38
Alps (Franz Josef-Fox area), where the amphibolite facies schists have T of likely 39
Cenozoic age. The RSCM T data place some constraints on the mode of exhumation 40
along the Alpine Fault and have implications for models of Southern Alps tectonics.
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Keywords 43
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Southern Alps; Alpine Fault; RSCM thermometry; Alpine Schist; exhumation
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1. Introduction 47
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The kinematics and thermal structure of orogenic wedges result from the coupling 49
between crustal and surface processes at convergent plate boundaries. Being one of 50
the most active mountain belts in terms of both tectonic and surface processes, the 51
Southern Alps of New Zealand offers a unique tectonophysical laboratory to 52
investigate these interactions. The rocks of this mountain belt were formed by 53
Paleozoic and Mesozoic subduction-accretion processes at the paleo-Pacific margin of 54
Gondwana, split from Gondwana and were thinned during the Late Cretaceous, then 55
rent by dextral strike-slip displacement as the Alpine Fault plate-boundary developed 56
during the Neogene.
57
The Southern Alps, which comprise much of the South Island (Figure 1), 58
began forming during the late Cenozoic as the IndoAustralian-Pacific plate motion 59
became increasingly convergent in the Pliocene-Pleistocene. These mountains form 60
against the Alpine Fault - a transpressive section of the Pacific and IndoAustralian 61
plate boundary (see Cox and Sutherland, 2007 for review). The Pacific Plate presently 62
appears to delaminate (e.g. Molnar et al., 1999) or subduct (e.g. Beaumont et al. 1994) 63
within the orogen, actively exhuming a belt of mid-upper crustal material obliquely 64
on the Alpine Fault, and accreting lower crustal material into a thickened crustal root 65
(e.g. Gerbault et al., 2002). The plate boundary is widely cited as a type-example of 66
deep geological processes and continent-continent collision (e.g. Okaya et al., 2007).
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Over the past twenty years, there has been considerable scientific effort trying 68
to understand the architecture of the IndoAustralian-Pacific plate convergence in the 69
South Island (e.g. Okaya et al., 2007). Evidence has been gathered on the depth of the 70
crustal root, nature of lithosphere, and geometry of faults (see Okaya et al., 2007).
71
This effort has been complemented by thermochronologic work to decipher the timing 72
and thermal structure associated with mountain building and exhumation (e.g.; Tippett 73
and Kamp, 1993a,b; Batt et al., 2000; Herman et al., 2009). Other studies have noted 74
perturbations of the geotherm, producing high thermal gradients and hot spring 75
activity (e.g. Allis et al., 1979; Koons 1987; Allis and Shi 1995; Sutherland et al., 76
2012; Cox et al., 2015). However, while the general metamorphic structure of the 77
Southern Alps is qualitatively well established, there are very few quantitative 78
constraints on the thermal state and thermal history of the crust. An understanding of
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the thermal history of the orogen is needed to constrain the information low- 80
temperature thermochronometers provide about erosion rates and the stability of 81
landforms, as well as the rheology of rocks, behavior of faults at seismogenic depth 82
(Toy et al., 2010), and ultimately seismic hazard (Sutherland et al., 2007). The lack of 83
thermal state information is largely attributable to the bulk rock compositions (mainly 84
metamorphosed quartzofeldspathic greywacke) that are chemically unfavourable for 85
precise metamorphic petrology, and complicated further by the polymetamorphic and 86
polydeformational history of the rocks and potential overprinting effects of fluid flow 87
(Koons et al., 1998; Vry et al., 2004; Menzies et al., 2014).
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In this study we introduce thermometry based on Raman spectroscopy of 89
carbonaceous material (RSCM) (Beyssac et al. 2002) that allows the quantitative 90
estimate of peak metamorphic temperature (T) independently from the extent of 91
retrogression and presence of diagnostic mineral assemblages. Owing to widespread 92
presence of carbonaceous material in the local Alpine Schist and greywacke, this 93
technique has enabled the generation of a large dataset covering most of the Alpine 94
Fault hanging wall, both along strike and perpendicular to the fault. We present a 95
dataset of 142 new temperature estimates covering a 300 x 20 km area (Table 1). We 96
have also revisited traditional garnet-biotite thermometry results for some of the same 97
samples used for RSCM thermometry, or collected from nearby locations. We 98
provide those results for comparison, along with a few insights gained through 99
comparison of the observed mineral assemblages with their stability fields in P-T 100
pseudosections calculated using THERMOCALC. We then discuss the age of these 101
temperatures by reviewing existing geochronologic constraints to separate the 102
Mesozoic legacy from the late Cenozoic thermal overprint and the extent to which 103
this varies along the plate boundary. Finally, we highlight some constraints these 104
RSCM temperature distributions place on the style and nature of Southern Alps 105
tectonics.
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2. Geological setting 108
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2.1. General tectonics of the Southern Alps 110
Figure 1 depicts simplified geological and topographic maps of the South Island.
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Pacific Plate motion relative to the IndoAustralian Plate is 39.7 ± 0.7 mm/a at 245 ±
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1° in the central South Island (MORVEL model of DeMets et al., 2010). The vector is 113
12° anticlockwise of the Alpine Fault, which strikes 053° and is inferred to dip ~40- 114
60° SE (Norris and Cooper, 2007; Stern et al., 2007), extending downward to depths 115
of 25–30 km based on the presence of amphibolite facies schist exhumed in its 116
hanging wall (Grapes, 1995). The generally accepted crustal model depicts the Alpine 117
Fault shallowing eastward into a lower crustal décollement that delaminates the 118
Pacific Plate (Figure 2, e.g., Wellman, 1979; Norris et al., 1990; Okaya et al., 2007), 119
although there is no conclusive evidence for such a detachment. Thermochronological 120
modeling indicates uplift/cooling must be a two stage process first initiating on a 121
gently rising trajectory beneath the dry pro-side of the mountains then occurring 122
more-rapidly up the Alpine Fault ramp (Herman et al., 2009). While the maximum 123
metamorphic grade of exhumed rocks has been used to infer the approximate depth of 124
the Alpine Fault and Pacific Plate delamination, it is predicated on an assumed 125
geothermal gradient and the assumption that previously-stable metamorphic 126
assemblages were exhumed in the late Cenozoic. Although low-temperature 127
thermochronologic ages are clearly the result of Neogene-Quaternary cooling and 128
exhumation, many of the rocks reached peak metamorphic temperatures during the 129
Mesozoic, so much care is needed when using metamorphic assemblages to constrain 130
the present crustal structure.
131 132
2.2. Tectonostratigraphy and structural framework 133
Rocks of the Pacific Plate, southeast of the Alpine Fault, belong to the Eastern 134
Province and mostly to the Torlesse Composite Terrane/Supergroup (Mortimer et al., 135
2014). They are dominated by compositionally monotonous greywacke sandstone 136
and argillite sequences of the Rakaia Terrane that were deposited in an accretionary 137
prism on the margin of Gondwana during the Permian-Triassic (Mortimer, 2004).
138
Sediments were tectonically stacked and imbricated by accretion, and now locally 139
include some metavolcanic-rich and Cretaceous sequences (Cooper and Ireland, 140
2013). Metavolcanic, chert and micaceous-rich schist sequences have been 141
differentiated locally as the Aspiring lithologic association (Craw, 1984; Nathan et al., 142
2002; Cox and Barrell, 2007; Rattenbury et al., 2010) and may warrant separate 143
terrane status (Cooper and Ireland, 2013). Regional low-grade metamorphism affected 144
much of the Rakaia Terrane during the Jurassic (Mortimer 1993, 2000), possibly
145
involving several discrete metamorphic events (Adams 2003; Adams and Maas 2004).
146
Schist fabrics and most metamorphic mineral growth have occurred during Jurassic- 147
Cretaceous metamorphism (Cooper and Ireland, 2013; Mortimer, 2000; Vry et al., 148
2004).
149
The 300 km-long belt of schist adjacent to the Alpine Fault contains multiple 150
generations of metamorphic fabrics, folds, and syn- to post-metamorphic quartz veins 151
(Little et al. 2005; Cox and Barrell 2007). A near-continuous mid-upper crustal 152
section is exposed southeastwards across the Southern Alps (Grapes, 1995; Grapes 153
and Watanabe 1992; Little et al., 2005). Mid-crustal mylonites and amphibolite facies 154
schist adjacent to the fault contain evidence of a late Cenozoic ductile deformation 155
overprint that constructively reinforced and reoriented the pre-existing Mesozoic 156
metamorphic fabrics (Little et al. 2002a, 2007; Norris and Cooper 2003, 2007; Toy et 157
al., 2008). A steeply dipping array of late-stage shears that is present for 20 km in the 158
Franz Josef – Fox area (central Southern Alps) represents an exhumed, fossil, brittle- 159
ductile transition zone (BDTZ; Little et al., 2002b; Wightman and Little, 2007). The 160
zone separates schist from relatively undeformed greywacke and semischist 161
sequences that were metamorphosed during the Mesozoic but suffered only brittle 162
effects during the late Cenozoic IndoAustralian-Pacific plate transpression (Cox et al., 163
1997, 2012).
164
Two regionally extensive foliations are developed in schist beside the Alpine 165
Fault: An early foliation (S1 or S2) that is sub-parallel to remnant bedding and 166
metamorphic isograds, and a steeply dipping crenulation foliation (S3) that is axial 167
planar to folds of the S1/S2 fabric and bedding (Grindley, 1963; Little et al. 2002a).
168
At regional scale, metamorphic mineral zones are slightly oblique to boundaries in the 169
textural development of schistosity and cleavage (Little et al., 2005; Cox and Barrell, 170
2007; Rattenbury et al., 2010). The belt of schist varies in width along the orogen, 171
being narrowest (8 km) in the Franz Josef – Fox area of the central Southern Alps, 172
where tight to isoclinal folding has aligned the early schistosity with 035-045º strike 173
weakly oblique to the 055º Alpine Fault (Little et al., 2005). Elsewhere, the folding is 174
more open, early schistosity strikes at a high-angle (nearly perpendicular) to the 175
Alpine Fault, and the schist belt broadens. Mineral metamorphic grade changes are 176
indicated by the presence or absence of key minerals or mineral assemblages but 177
textural metamorphic zones, a semi-quantitative measure of the degree of cleavage, 178
foliation and metamorphic segregation development, are considerably easier to apply
179
and map in the field (Bishop, 1974; Turnbull et al., 2001). This classification is 180
widely used throughout New Zealand, and offers a first-order representation of the 181
increasing deformation gradient on a regional scale towards the Alpine Fault. From 182
SE to NE, following increasing metamorphic grade, there are four main textural 183
zones: uncleaved greywacke (TZ1), cleaved greywacke (TZ2a) to well cleaved semi- 184
schists (TZ2b), foliated schists (TZ3) and well segregated schists (TZ4).
185 186
2.3. Metamorphism and geochronology in the Alpine Schist 187
The general metamorphic pattern is well mapped and qualitatively constrained in the 188
Southern Alps by the presence or absence of key index minerals or mineral 189
assemblages (Nathan et al., 2002; Cox and Barrell, 2007; Rattenbury et al., 2010).
190
There is a general SE-NW increasing metamorphic gradient, ranging from sub- 191
greenschist (prehnite-pumpellyite or pumpellyite-actinolite facies); to chlorite then 192
biotite zones (greenschist facies); and garnet-oligoclase then K-feldspar zones 193
(amphibolite facies). Metamorphic mineral zones have been mapped on the basis of 194
the first appearance of minerals, but many of the ‘isograd’ boundaries between zones 195
represent juxtaposition by brittle faults or ductile shear zones, such that the ‘first 196
appearance’ of an index mineral cannot necessarily be assumed to represent a 197
preserved mineral reaction surface (Craw, 1998). Blocks with distinct metamorphic 198
and structural histories are commonly bound by faults or shear zones. Locally, distinct 199
phases of biotite and garnet crystal growth can be distinguished. Fine-grained biotite 200
and very fine-grained grossular-spessartine garnet are associated with rocks attaining 201
garnet-biotite-albite zone of the greenschist facies during the Jurassic, and are 202
distinguished by the biotite-1 and garnet-1 ‘isograds’ (White, 1996; Mortimer, 2000;
203
Cox and Barrell, 2007; Rattenbury et al., 2010). Whilst common in Otago, in most 204
places in the Southern Alps these minerals were either (i) completely overgrown or 205
consumed by growth of porphyroblastic ‘biotite-2’ and ‘garnet-2’ almandine as 206
metamorphism reached amphibolite facies during the Cretaceous-Cenozoic, or (ii) 207
have been retrogressively replaced by chlorite. As with textural zonation, the Alpine 208
Schist metamorphic mineral zones are slightly oblique to the Alpine Fault and to the 209
main SW-NE structural trend of the mountains.
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There are few detailed and quantitative petrology studies on Alpine Schist. P–
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T estimates have been made using garnet–biotite thermometers and barometers that 212
involve partitioning of Ca between garnet and plagioclase (Cooper, 1980; Grapes and
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Watanabe, 1992; Grapes, 1995). Peak metamorphic conditions have been constrained 214
to 600–700 °C and 9.2–10 kbar in the Franz Josef – Fox area (Grapes and Watanabe, 215
1992; Grapes, 1995). Such high temperatures were recently confirmed by Toy et al.
216
(2010) applying Ti-in-Biotite thermometry in the mylonitic rocks from the Alpine 217
Fault shear zone. Within a few kilometers of the Alpine Fault, peak P-T conditions 218
decrease progressively to lower P–T conditions, e.g. 400–540 °C and 4–7 kbar 219
towards the southeast (Cooper, 1980; Green, 1982; Grapes, 1995; Grapes and 220
Watanabe, 1992). To the north, in the Hokitika region, Vry et al. (2008) established 221
one of the rare P-T paths available for Alpine Schist, using pseudosection 222
calculations. They obtained a prograde P-T path from ca. 380°C / 2.5 kbar to ca.
223
490°C / 8.5 kbar followed by a slight increase of temperature during decompression 224
to reach ca. 500°C / 6.5 kbar.
225
Geochronological and thermochronological datasets available for the Southern 226
Alps cover a range from low to high closure temperature systems. Batt et al. (2000) 227
generated a compilation of new and previously available fission track data from 228
zircon and/or apatite (see also Tippett and Kamp, 1993a,b, 1995), and K-Ar and
40Ar- 229
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