Africa social situation (1960-1970)

Distr.

LIMITED

E/CN.14/SWCD/62 /4//

11 October 1971

Original: ENGLISH

ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR AFRICA ■ African Population Conference

Accra, Ghana, 9-18 December 1971

AFRICA SOCIAL SITUATION

(I960 - 1970)

TABLE OF CONTENTS " . ' " .'■"■'.'

I. INTRODUCTION - - > - •- -

II. POPULATION - -■ - - - - -, ■'"-;

III. THE SOCIAL OBJECTIVES IN AFRICAN DEVEbOPMMT PLANS . -

IV. MSASURBS TAKM TO ACHIEVE SOCIAL. AND j ECONOMIC OBJECTIVES

V," SOCIO-ECOKfOBCEC^TRBrDS , " ■ . ;

(i) Social Reforms and Institutional Change -

(ii) Measures Taken to Reduce Social1 Inequalities - -

(iii) Personal Income -.- -j - _- —

(iv) Urbanization - -- - -.-

(v) Rural Development - - -.1 - - ~ ~

VI. SECTORAL ANALYSIS OF SGCIAL POLICIES, PBOGHAMES

iND PROBLEMS [

(i) Health — -- - _:- -, - -

(ii) I'ood and Nutrition ---

(iii) Housing - - - - - -

(iv) Social Welfare 1- ■ - - -; - - -

-.1-2

3-5

10-14

19-20 20-22 22-25

26-32

32-36

36-39

39-43

M71-2536

I. IHTEOBUCTIOH

In this paper an attempt is made to give a brief review of some of the major trends in the Africa social situation and changes in different social fields .such as -health,' education? food and nutrition? housing, . conditions of work and employment, income and consumption, levels, of ...::

urbanization, per capita national income, etc.r noting.- in. particular the' obstacles to social change: and development and measures adopted ;to ini- prove social conditions during the past decade. Some of the most impor-.

tant indicators of social trends and change like life espsq-fcanciesj

literacy rates, composition of- taeVlabour force, etc., are/:assessed ■ through censuses. These were taken in 1970s and as it will be sometime before full'publication of the findings is made, .only passing references have/ been made in' these fields,; utilising .data, obtained from-the United . Hations publications and; government reports.. :.'' -••.-■ . -.■-■- ■' ■• ■

.The study has certain limitations. It is based on the available data, which are neither comprehensive nor complete, nor as detailed as could" be wished. ;:-Many variables; "and ;unknowns exist which-could con~-

siderably modify the situation, assumptions and forecasts. The paper

"may, nevertheless, be regarded as presenting a.reasonable assessment of the .social situation in the past decade in the light of the information

available. ■ ' '■.."'■ •.■..■■

V 'The-material presented in this paper is intended for the .sole.use ■_ ..

of the conference. Sources have included the Africa chapter on world social situation contributed by'SOA in 1970 and some unpublished ,BCA. >-...,

material*

' .%ile the1 main emphasis is-upon social advancement, it. is important., to; remember that in the general development context.it is not ■possible .■

to isolate'social and .economic factors from each other. Eaoh is merely . a different facet of human 'life in society, and change in any ..one part : of.the social system affects the interrelationships of all the other parts. Consequently, the study covers the major trends in the economic'

and social fields within the context of national development*

The past decade saw no l^ss than 32 former colonial territories in Africa emerge into full nationhood. This political change had

significant effects on the process of national development, particularly,, in the formulation of plans and prbgrammes for socio-economic develop ment. On attaining independence a number of countries embarked on formulating national development plans of various kinds. A number of these- emphasised certain main social objectives - the need for increas ing ger_c_ap_ita income and raising the levels of education, health, nutrition and other instruments o.f social development. Of particular

concern was to reduce social inequalities, to achieve a more equitable distribution of the national income and to facilitate a more rapid social

transformation of the society* .

E/CN.14/P0P/38 E/GHfl14/S¥C3)/62

Page 2

As in other developing region's, there have been disappointments in Africa and at times frustration resulting from unfulfilled hopes of rising levels' of living.'. In a number of cases the targets set in some govern ment plans have riot been achieved. Worse still, there has in some cases been a tendency for a decline. Judged by the growth in national income:,

the performance of many countries appear to have declined in the early

1960s. National income is admittedly not the only,indicator of social •■

progress,, but. the general picture it gives is supported by other avail

able, data, including the data l/ on the world labour situation which shows

a continued lack of progress in developing countries*

Although some significant improvements are noted in a number, of ■ ■ . countries towards the end of the decade, social advancement has been un-. , even as between the different components of development, different coun tries and different social groups within1 countries.

:The slow pace of economic development cannot, be explained in ;simple

terrnsj neither is': it easy to pass judgement naming the factors responsible

for this. A combination of factors are responsible and as these do not

affect all the countries equally, this makes generalization very difficult.

.'. Social situations, programmes and strategies are different from coun-.

try to country, and have been changing over the years. Some countries ■ have succeeded in certain fields where others have failed and the reasons' forvfchis may>e explained by a set of political, or socio-economic factors

which also differ from country to country. ■ . .

It is not an easy task to draw up a balance sheet covering 41 different countries in different stages of development over a period of ten years.

Honetkeless, there are common features, trends,, and situations which can be regarded as the most important indicators of social change and a&vance- mentj andit is these on which emphasis has been laid. ; . ■'

l/ ILO Yearbook of Labour Statistics, 1965,

"

E/0M.14/p^/38 E/C35.14/SWCD/62

Page .3

II. POPULATION

Tiie. populationof;' developing- Afric^ is estimated 'to have increased from 263 million persons ih: I960 to 299? million persons in 1965'and" to; ^ 336 minion^persons- in 197€>. This refloats a ;r&te; of grdwthrof 2e4,per: ■■.

cent'per1 annum in i960-l(§65-and 2.6 pet Centvper annum,' in -1965^1:970 • ■ ; -'

The rate of;:%r6'wt& of iihe:: tp'tal- African^ population' In^the -1965^1970 ■-period- at 2,6 per bent per" annum1'was- exceeded" only-by that of:LktinvAmerica^ ^^■';- estimated at 2.8 per cent per annum. 2/ ■ ' : ■ . .■:-i- ■

topuration growth was not, iioweveri uniform throughout; the region, it ranged fr«b:m about' 1 i>er cent per' annum in Gabon, to 3.4 P'er cent -for '■■ .:

Liby^,"u ' ?" _"' "■;"■. ....■■'.; ''. '-' '"■ ; :" ■. '; ''" ': '■'.'" .' ■■■■"- -ii;"_

,rA£Hca with a'tptal ^opula^tion or about 355' million people in 1970* ^

^p pt/brtlie pp ^

agsdenait^ is about 11 people1 $'er ■squar&^il<Snietre>.; compared with 7T in ■ East Asiaj' 0±a 'South Asia, 10 in Bo'rth America and1 13 in SoutH America*

Total population: Annual rate of growth. 1960-1970;

Ghana'' ; "

Uppex!'Voita. '

... ;

Coast' ■.'"";. "."

Senegal' , '. V' ' \'r ' " ■

Guinea." ' ' "", ... " '"'

Niger " /; ,"'; ' . . '; .". "

Sierra" lieone "" ' ' '"

Dahomey .

Togo '.: .-■'■■ '" ' "■ ;

Liberia . " ■'"' Mauritania '■ --■■■

Ethiopia

United, Hep, of Tanzania Kenya. ....'. ... .. .' ."" ' ■

fjganda,." 1 '/',.. " , " '

Madagascar'! '. "' Southern Rhbd&sia

i^"' '

Zambia'

?..9'

2.0-

';2.«3'

2.3

"2*1 2.'8.-

2*'"2'

.2.4 '2i4

' ^•"•^

2.1

1.9 2.5.

''^•^'

";"2'.6 1.9' ''3»3'

'2'6 3*0'

::Somaliaf ■■ ■■;■ "■■'•■■• ■'

•:B^uri fiiis ' " - . ( Dem-.' Hep. of;-the Congo Cameroon-- •'■:

■=tfh8dv ■■■• ■■'■'■'■■: ■-

■Central African

Congo (B)

" Gabon ' ■ ■■■■■■■ ■"

■ Sudaii ■ ■■' ■''■■■

Morocco Algeria

Tunisia^--:;:"'■

Eibya -■-- ■' ■

■ South Africa ie'eotho-"- "■ '

■■Namibia-- '"-; .■

Botswana "■'

■Swaziland ■'" ■

2>7

2-1 Io9

■1*9

2,2 -2.0- 2.1

0,7 2-7

3.0 3.0 2,6 3-0 1,6-4 1.8 -20l^

2,8

Source : islCA Population Programme Centre,

2/'World Population Prospects1,' 1965-1980-5 Working paper Ho-. 30-, December 1969-

S/CN.14/P0P/38 B/CN.14/SWCD/62

Page 4

The estimated average birth rate in Africa is about 47 per 1,000

in I965-I97O against world average of 34 per 1,000 people. The figures

available suggest a somewhat higher level of fertility for West Africa and a lower level for Southern Africa. The trends in the fertility of African countries has, no doubt, had an effect on the social and economic development of the countries concerned in the terms of requirements for investment in education, in health programmes and in agricultural and industrial growth.

High fertility means a rapid increase in the child population. It is estimated that in 1970 about 63 per cent of the African population was under 25 years of age. In 196% 43 per cent of the total population was under 15 years of age, only 54 per cent in the working ages and 3 per cent in the 65 years and over. The high birth rate has.resulted in an age structure marked by heavy child dependency. Economically, this means that quite a high proportion of the population has to be supported as they do not contribute to the country1^ production? and no doubt such high birth rates are a contributory factor to the high rate of unemployment among young people.

In many countries the rate of growth of the population seems to be increasing every year, thus the population which increased by 23 per cent between 1950-1960 rose by 27 per cent in the last decade. At an average growth rate of 2.5 per cent the total population is expected to be doubled by the end of the century. The high rates of population increase derive from the maintenance of very high levels of fertility combined with levels of mortality that have declined sharply since the Second World War through the application of new technology, education, control of disease by mass immunization, and prevention and cure of certain communicable diseased

The social and economic implications of this high rate of population growth are of far-reaching significance for African development. It is therefore necessary to examine briefly here what these implications are and their effects.

The high rate of population growth is seriously affecting attempts to raise levels of living. It is becoming increasingly difficult for economic growth to keep up with the increase in population. As a result an increas ing number of African countries have become deeply concerned with the

question of how they can improve their living standards when a substantial increase is required in the national product each year merely in order to maintain existing standards. Most countries feel the pressure from the

rapidly increasing number of the young generation seeking entrance into schools and the labour market, often without .success... , .

It should be noted however, that no universal generalization can be

laid down regarding the benefits or disadvantageous effects of population

growth upon economic growth. The effect depends upon the rate of growth,/

the level of technology and availability of.resources as well as other

factors. In cases where resources are scarce and technological levels law5

a 5:-

rapid population growth dtrkg the- clee&a.s 1ms appeared to inhibit income

growth* In a few cases whQire there have been more plentiful resour-oes

to develop* as in Libya and Gstai3 popiilatiou growth or growth of the

.labour force appattsotly has been favourably assooi&ted' with" growth of .

Mtil i ■' ':

... Until- reocn.-frly population growth was not- seen bj'most African Govera-

m-euts as a threat to .levals-.'of living1; indeed some governments felt "the

....natural inoreaao was reaeo-nabl© and" nec-essary for agricultural- dsvelop-

merit..potential!ties. Inphasis :was' placed on more production "io raise'

"iliL§£j££Ei£& income not on cutting down the population growth rats,.1" As a

■^eetult,.. v&cj few. countries devised'afry population polioy as part 'of their

national, development planning^1 ■ ■ ' ■ ■ " \"

Of late?.a number .of-, countries1 notably Qhana3 ICenys, Mauritius""'.

Tunisia^pAH-and.-a--few' 6taers? have taken measures to control' th'eir pppula-

tian growth and. have fo-xmulated appropriate population policies which '

. include..frse advioe on birth control'and establishing'family planning

clinics on a--coun-trywide basis»■ ■ ■ ' ■ • ■■ '' ■ ' ' . ' ' '"

E/CI.14/P0P/38 E/CH.l//

Page 6

III. THE SOCIAL OBJECTIVES IN AFRICAN DiEVKLOPMSFT PLANS

_ Of planning development on a national scale spread rapidly in Africa soon after independence. Of the forty-one independent African btates, about thirty succeeded in formulating national development plans of various kinds. Development planning on a large scale is a oomplex exercise, requiring precise statistical data as well as highly skilled technical personnel. - Generally, both are in short supply in most African countries, though some countries are much better off in these areas than others, a difference reflected in the plans themselves. At one extreme is the Somali Republic which, although deficient in reliable statistical information, nevertheless prepared a simple plan. Similarly,' the plans of Swaziland and Lesotho are simple documents, which list proposed development projects and their estimated cost. Other countries have employed more sophisticated techniques. Thus, in Uganda, a mathematical model was used for deriving targets for the various sectors of the economy.

Gambia utilized input-output tables, and Horth African countries such as UAE? Morocco and Tunisia used National Accounts, input-output tables and

commodity flow tables. 3/

The plans varied in terms of the ideological orientation of the group in power. On one end is a group of countries notably Guinea, Mali, UAH and Tanzania which might be described as having a socialist orienta tion, in which the public sector is intended ultimately to over-shadow the private sector. On the other end are countries like Liberia, Ivory Coast and Nigeria which allowed greater scope to the private sector.

Most plans, however, seemed to envisage mixed economies of one kind or

another.

In spite of differences in scope, techniques and sophistication in the plans,, there are common high priority objectives that are easily

noticeable, such as:

(a) Raising the low _p.er capita income;

(b) Seducing of inequalities, both between social groups and

between different regions of the country;

(c) Improvement of social services} e.gM education, health,

housing, social welfare and community development and manpower

training.

A number of plans also stressed the pan-African ideal, i.e., pooling resources and harmonizing economic policies. These countries hoped that it would be possible to widen national markets, ensure rational indus trial location and alleviate shortages of capital and skilled manpower.

3/ Development Planning in Africa^E/CB^/CAP/o^ T Chapter I, page 16.

E/CIT.14/POP/38 /c¥a4/SWCD/62

■ Page 7

Planning for national development in Africa as in other developing regions of the world has been in experimental stage. Governments and planners Had to cope with tremendous problems of lack of basic data, appropriate techniques and approaches in plan formulation as well asy

scarcity of financial and human resources,.

'".Perhaps one way to assess the degree of success of the planning...

process as a whole in Africa is to compare the planned with the achieved growth rate of GDP -of twenty-four countries selected at random.,. :

Planned and realized growth rates in total GDP of selected-

African countries, recent years

(Annual average compound rate percentage)

Realized rates

Planned

Below 4 . 4*0 - 4

5-Q -:5 6-.0-

Total

Sources

rates

,0- .

• 9

■9

EGA

Below 4-0

. ■ ■ 2 - ..

3

' ■ " " 2 . '■-■■ 8 '

. -, ■. . 15 ■

secretariat.

4.0 - 4.9

...

-

1 . 1 2

5-0 ~ 5-9

-

l

—*

1 2

6.0

-

1 I"

3

3

Total

2

5

4

"■13-

24

' - Out of -the twenty-four countries listed above, eight achieved their overall targets and three exceeded them. Of the thirteen countries which -planned'high growth rates of 6=0 peri cent ormore, only- three achieved,

their .targets,, 'and eight of this group managed growth rates of. only 4*0 per.- cent or less. Clearly most countries failed to achieve their global targets,- a third of them by a large margin of 50 per cent or. more. It .should, be-noted, however, that failure -to achieve a plan target does not

necessarily mean that progress is nojt being made. This is especially

true if plan targets are excessively GD? per capita,, equally shows a very

ambitious. The rate of growth of slow rate'of growth-

*d^^

Page 8

Hates of growth of GDP perioapita in developing. Afri.c.aji_,qoimtrxes>

1960-1966

Rates of growth '^ "' Summer of Percentage of .population (Average annual percentage)' " countries of developing Africa .

Negative 13 22 00

Oc - 0-,9 ■" ' " 6 ', ' . ■-..-,- 17.4 ■ ,-.■..

1.0 - 1*9 - 9- ■ ■ ■' 33.1

, ' 2.0 - 2.9 ■ -5 . 12n6

3,0 - 3,9 5 12»3

4,0 ~ 4«9 . -_■•■ 0 " " 0B0 ; : -

■ -5iO - plus ■ ■ ■ ■ - 4 ... 2°6

Total '42 ■ • 10°-0 J " :

It has been pointed out that "the present developing countries should

be growing (economically) by at least 3 per cent per annum if they are to

come close to satisfying the aspirations of their peoplesj and on this

basis rates of 2 per cent or less can be described as slow," _4/ Thus, ■

twenty-eight countries containing some 12 per cent of the population of th.e continent, were expanding at a rate which is much too slow to be

considered satisfactory.

It is appropriate at this stage to consider some of the reasons why

plan targets were not achieved in ao many cases- Effective planning depends upon highly developed administrative ..capacity, ou.a comprehensive understanding of tie economy and on the ability to evaluate and execute

individual projects in a coherent way. .These requirements need large

numbers of highly skilled manpower and a.wealth,of accurate information both of which are lacking in most countries. Governments do not always

seem to understand that.the provision of the plan.may require the crea

tion of special administrative units to manage them. For example, a plan may give agricultural.development high priority and earmark a-large,part

of available investment funds for this purpose, but without, at the same

time creating the agencies needed to implement the new schemesc ■ Another problem concerns the relationship between the planning agency and the rest of the administration. Planning units often do not effectively

relate to the real centre of decision-making and policy-formation.

Africa in Recant Tears (E/CHe14/435)> page 17*

Page 9

Sometime the task of th« plami^g oowiisflion «aa *±th th^^^

the plan and does"not continue- into its implementation stage. Thus,

are often' severe problems of co-ordination between the targets, as laid down in the plan and the projects of the individual ministries as also

between central and local budgets. . •■ . . .

There has also been the problem of planning affecting the public sector only. In general,' attempts were usually made- to realize .^..^

public sector the prodectsMicted:-.in the plan's directives; however, the

private and traditional.Bectors, which arc larger, often ^*«»f.^^

th.e plan's orbit, Efcoessive reliance on foreign, capital for the impi- .

mentation of the plans has also often resulted in:,disappointmentsc ,

E/CEM4/SWCD/62 /4//

Page 10

IY. HSA.S0B3S TMCM TO ACHIEVE SOCIAL MJ> ECuffOHIC OBJECTIVES The most important single objective contained in -virtually all African development plans has been the need to improve the living stand ards of the people in the countries concerned and the. way to achieve

this goal is by increasing the wealth of the community through promoting

growth.

In examining briefly attempts made to promote economic mansion in terms of the growth of GDP and income ger capita, it is observed that

many development plans especially the earlier, ones,.envisagea J^g*1 and services sectors to contribute a higher percentage of^the GDP wifch^

a declining contribution from agriculture, because planned growth rates in this sector were somewhat slower. Industry, especially manufacturing, was expected to develop rapidly while a more modest rate of growth was expected of agriculture. However, agriculture is the *arfe^ °f th, sectors in most African countries and consequently contributes more to . the total growth rates than the other two. As indicated earner, a large

number of Countries expressed shortfalls of various V^ff

planned »er capita growth rates, much of this disappointment attributed to the slow-growth in the agricultural sector.

The table below illustrates the achievement ratios and GDP in the three sectors in selected African countries in recent years*

Global achievement

ratio (per centage)

100 plus

80-99«9

70-70-9 40-59.9 Less than .

40

■■1. ■■■ ■■

Total

Source s Set

Sector ratios

100 fo plus

A I S

■ "—

2

—

1 2

■■ i '■'

5

l

—

*-*

l

l ■

3

c Cond:

3

1

_

1

5

ition

80-99

A I

— 1

_ -

- 1

- 2

s in i I

.9

s

-

.-

1

1

60-70

A

-

2

-

2

tfrica

7°

i

-

3

i

3

7

in

.9

S

-

_

2

—

2

50-59-

A I - 1

_ _

— —

- 2

_ —

- 3

.9

S

■at"*-™™

—

1 T 1

-

3

Recent Tears

Industry;

Less

A 1 1

5 ■

5

11 ■J1IPMH

12

3 ( ili/ ^ S :

t

I

—

—

_

4 4

=

han

>

S

-I* ■

—.

_ ■

3

5

8

-14/:

A

3 3 1

7

5 19

L35)

o i-a-L

I S 3 3 1

/

5

19

Services*

1 2 1 6

7 19

>. 173

Page. 11- ■'

importance of agriculture in most African;.economies is well illustrated!, in the above sectoral'analysis. " Out of nineteen countries It

for.which''agricultural data is-availab'lej' twelve achieved less'"than" 50

per cent'.of their .planned targets"" and1 of these' twelve," gg 'many as 'ten'."

realized, less than 60 .per cent" .of their Hot'al'GUP targets*" ;The ind.tfs-~ "';, - .trial,' se.ctor does not show any'such' close association between sectoral

.andtotal."achievement because .industry is still too small to' affect'/'' •■■

'"the; total picture very ,much« , There are of oours£?; notable exceptions-to ,t#is. - ;£ne Zambian copper .industry, the Nigerian1-"oil industry,; "''the1 ""■-' :'- ,

.Congo '(K)1.' mining, industry, '"'and the Peopled "Republic-of fh©1 Congo whose''1 ■ rate "of industrialization .is 3O.6 percent of '.the"GNIi while th!£ r:urai "■■

sector represents only 12,3 per cent of the GUP,"-1 : ■"■* ■" '■'"."

. . , . "The importance, qf agriculture in most ■'African -countr.ies ;is illus-_

.,trated b'y' "the'fac.t .tfeaf during the "flist half of the last/decide' it ■";- ^;:;

occupied'about 77 per cent of1 the "economically^active pdpulafi6ni";3/ "■"■".';

In the mid-1960s world agricultural production 'wa's increasing at 'the■" -; -

rate of about 2«5 per cent per annum;> The growth rate for Latin

America was approximately J2«,$•■ per.. Q.entj ■■:£or ■the:-Far.Bast. ;about 1.8 per cent and for Africa about 2.4 per cent. ""Ofius, while'progress in the

..developing. ar.eas, .of, the. .world. as . a ^qle ■'has been^ described as die-

appointing, Africa compared rather favourably with the otfter 'regions.'"", . ..African ,fo.Qd...prp4uQtion., however.; .grew at the rate of about 2 per cent" ■■

per.annum, but this vexy slight improvement was somewhat compensa-bed" for1 by an increase of 3.5 per cent in non-food products. 6/ There are vari4-

tioris in the performance of individual products and great differences. .

betwe.en;;.oountriess but when production is considered on a continental...

-p-er....capita, basis,, there .was.an,. ^yerage...annual decline of 0.2- ■perjjeni---':

between 1960-1966. The decline more than offsets "the per'' capita'lnor'ease in ^on^fariH .■production; ■]/ The pic-ture therefore, is" one^of^-very jmp.dLeratte

growth in overall agricultural expansion, and stagnation in the crucial area of fop.d .production». . , , ,,.,..■..

■It/is^ not,possible., to ".give'a simple explanation; for what' is'■ obviously a very,.complex, problem.',." The'slow growth in food production,' rice'1 and- -

■ maize ,aparjt, .may. be attributed -to", t£e" ;traditional 'pattern- of agr'iculitrure.

Unless: there'.is.'a structural "transformation" of African a'grXGul-buTe^■■•iihere

will beno rapid growth. £brperie'nce'"indicates that tH& effective monetary demand1 for .the kinds, .of traditional foods produced by the ..bulk of African

.farmers', do.es not rise 'fast enough . to .stimulate a !large p^,rt of African

agriculture* ... ' . ' ".'... .. ".':

5/gfeonomic. Conditions'in. Africa in Recent Years1 (S/CNO14/435) j P<;:67. ;

;i, (Ho . precise figures are. available for" 197°) • ' / ""'.',/

§/ Soonomic Conditions in Africa in Recent .Years (E/CSU3-4/43.5)? Chapter 5-

/u//3 S/CN.I4/SW0D/62

Page 12

- Much of the, "new" and rising demand^ is for exotic foods and processed foods,; for which the structure of agricultural production in Africa is not yet adapted. This major-Tissue of agro-allied industry development and research policy is one to which .serious consideration must be given.

Structural transformation of agriculture is a function of heavy capital ; investment and large-scale development programmes, with associated village plantation, systems. Production expansion in the low-income nations, which involves economic, technological and institutional investments,, does not

develop spontaneously by private initiative, unless there is a government

policy which promotes and assists agricultural production in general, and

certain sectors 6$ production in particular. 8/ ..,.= .."'■

There are exceptions,: such as the UAR, where some spectacular results in food production have been- achieved. Squally, some notable improvements were registered in Ivory Coast and Kenya.. The following production figures

from K-enya illustrate this points ...

■ Marketed food production, Kenya.- 1964-1969 ■■ ■ . . . -: . ■■■■-.. (tons) . . . "... ...-,'. -■-, i Food" ;' " ■ .:" ," . .' \ 1964

:-.-."-,"V": , .. .. 134,680' . . 216,3O-9 : "

; ■■'■-■" : " - ''■ 136,110 .'■■•■ " " . . ■ 352,557 «.;-,

Rice.(Paddy); -? ■ ' ". J-. • 13,210 ,. / 1S,74T:-,

Source' ': Republic of Kenya, Development Plan, 1970-1974? page 31-.

Although agricultural expansion and rural development are not'

necessarily the same phenomenon they do interact with each other. Failure in agricultural production inevitably has an adverse effect on rural

development efforts, equally an improvement in agricultural production ■ cannot take plaoe without some social change and development in the areas .■concerned* The picture presented here ist .that of rural stagnation.

.Industrialization, though still very small, has come to occupy a

central place in plans for economic development in most African countries.

Although this sector has not grown as the planners expected, it has nevertheless been the fastest growing economic sector in most countries, albeit, the smallest.; At constant prices, the industrial sector has shown an average annual incfease 6f 5-5 per cen* as compared with.one of the 3.7 per cent for total GDP between 196O-I966. 5/ A few countries such as

8/ St. George Cooper, Agricultural Research in Tropical Africa, 1970

2/ Siconomic Conditions in Africa in Recent Years, page 104.

Page- 13

Zambia, Libya and Mauritania have "based a large part of their industrial

growth on mining and oil drilling. Apart from these major' extractive industries, most Afriean: industrial-development■has-been in the nature of light -industry consisting ofi.im§ort--',substitution and processing-of food and other primary produce.for the home-market.

There is no doubt that industrial development has been sufficiently significant in many countries to bring about a modification in the pat tern of African trade. , This is illustrated by the fact that there has.

been an appreciable growth- in the importation of capital .goods* notably' machinery.,and- a slight decline-in .the imports of consumer goods.: Ebcports of products such as petroleum products^ processed foods and fruity and wood products have increased rapidly.

Although many countries made a promising start in their industrializa tion programmes, certain basic difficulties have continued to have an adverse effect on their progress* These include:

(i) The smallness of most internal markets;

(ii) The shortage of skilled and experienced manpower; and (iii) Lack of capital funds.

An attempt on solving the first problem has been made through regional co-operation, the second through extensive education and training pro grammes; but the third involves a number of considerations many of which are beyond the control of African Governments. Hearly all African coun tries are in dire need for foreign capital without which their economic progress is severely hampered* Thissin effect means that nearly all the countries have no control over the sources of a large part of their investment capital and in the final analysis, the realization of produc tion targets could be undermined by forces over which they have very little control*

A major weakness in the development strategy of many African countries has been the excessive reliance on foreign sources of capital. Realising

this, a few countries; for example? the United Republic of Tanzania, took steps to reduce their dependence on foreign capital for their development programmes relying more on local resources.

As indicated earlier, the small size of African markets is, no doubt, one of the major factors inhibiting industrial expansion and general

economic development. The most likely way out of this difficulty seems to be regional co-operation involving free-trade areas or customs unions of various kinds* leading to regional planning of development projects and harmonization of policies*. In an effort to achieve this, a number of countries have in recent years made attempts at economic co—operation based on the idea of a customs union.. Some attempts have failed because the benefits did not accrue to member countries equally and in other cases,

hi ^{CN .14/PlP 138}

B/CN .14/siicD/62 Page 14

because decisions

c011lr¹. ~'1')i

be

Anl~:rG,?(1 tf

'1.et

ca7""!-~.pd Oll-t

by e momber State. However, the East African Community, comprised of Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania, and the Union Douaniere des Etats de l' Afri.Q.ueCen trale (UDE1l.C) in O"ntl'al Africa,

lbV::

Lad """,ry promising start and have been able to achieve a certain measure of suocess in a number of fields.

Although such groupings have

h~d

a lot of initial difficulties to

contend with, they no doubt, offer the best hope of economic develop-

ment in Africa. It is only through co-operation that the majori ty of

countries in Africa can attain high growth rates and avoid the Wasteful

alternative of self-sufficiency development,

/

Page 15

Vo SGCIO-ECCHOHIC- TRBFUS

(i) Social Reforms and Institutional Change ■ ^ ' :

In the traditional context the.social structure' of most African ' : '

communities, though this varies from country to country, is based on"r '

co-operation between individuals, who are regarded as belonging to the

same group or who have, intensive rights and obligations towards each ' other. Very often the individual's, status in the local community is largely determined by his family ties and there'is hot very much room " ■■■

for individual achievement.. His activities are determined by his obli gations to the family, the kin group and the tribe. .Thisobservation is not by all means true of all societies, but in general, many African communities live under this social set-up. Such a social set-up is not very conducive to development, social change and institutional reform are necessary for effective social and economic development.

Some changes have been taking place, though at a painfully slow.pace.

Although traditions, customs, the family," kinship groupings' and other '...•

traditional affiliations are still important .in most African societies, education, the money economy and the .industrialization process resulting . in social and spatial mobility, have .modified these institutions in ' ; varying degrees and new social categories and forms are slowly emerging

especially in ..urban areas. Industrialization and urbanization have had the effect of changing traditional, patterns of co-operation. The kin gro^p is not easily fitted into patterns" of industrial co-operation, which calls for individuality and certain skills rather than a-degree of relationship with each other. Other hew and more relevant organiza tions have emerged as the individual migrates from the countryside to the town ;and physically separated from his kin.

Within the wide range of social change, certain features stand out prominently. There is the changing emphasis from the importance of the group to that of the individual. There is the changing character of the family, the character of leadership and authority and the conflicts in

the area6 of ethnic relation. One outstanding change has been the

disintegration of the extended family especially under urban conditions.

Like the family, the wider social groupings have also shown marked effects of change. One result of political independence has been to put authority in the hands of younger and often more educated men instead of

the traditional authority based on the lineage and age. New social

groupings are also emerging based' on common identity or interest, e.g., associations of farmers, ..etc. These -changes have not, however, gone

far enough especially in rural areas to produce a restructuring of African

society along ,the;lines of western societies. Presently, most African

countries contain a mixture.'of, "traditional" and "modern" features which

sometimes generate conflicts, and stress. :

aa^^

Page 16

One of the major obstacles to dsvelopaent efforts and planning in a number of African countries has been the failure to. involve the popula tion at large in a nation-wide process of change and development. Social change and institutional reforms are necessary for efssctive development.

Manv governments have had problems of inducing changes in social institu

tions^™ to enable the'local population to participate more extensively

in development efforts as there ia often popular resistance to.change by the force of custom and tradition. It has not been easy to influence or change age-old traditions and.customs for the group exerts very strong influence on the individual since he is dependent, on it. . ■ ..

One of the most important policy questions in the introduction of social change and development at the local level has been the problem of how traditional values and institutions, can be harnessed for tne purposes of development. The problem has been how to identify more precisely those practices, to!Wand institutions that can be used for constructive social change* together with the strategi« *PP™*££*

1 to different kinds of institutions and to incorporate ttu84f°^dfe in specific programmes of development. It has been observed ih«*t popular

participation in development is facilitated.where there i* a strong

tradition of local organisation, e.g., women's organizations, youth associations, etc. Women's organizations have showed themselves to be

effective in initiating and maintaining improvements in suoh^areas as literacv nutrition, child care and home management. Toung xarmers

afsoSatlons have e^ualiy been the main instrument of change m farming _

t th ll level

afsoSatlons have e^uay

methods, marketing, etc., at the local level.

nequalities

0 p of the off "

in Africa has been

or-the traditional social "structure

of an elite class of f^

skilled rural dwell ore whose disparity in income i

dimen ionHf social inequality are also reflected ^

ferences between social classes, between sexes and between

regions in a country*

political

ce higher posts in the civil

2 ?

salaries of top civil'servants in a few selected countries as

with the £er_oa£ita income in the same country:

E/CH.WPOP/38 ■ S/C3J.14/SWC33/62

Page 17

Illustrative

in the United ■Kingdom, :Gbia,na..and_Ugand&a_1266

Unit 3d. Kingdom Ghana canda

Ratic_icr"'

■ a/"

_Iiatio

7j*F

Hati

io^

Salari es

High-level civil servants

Doctor Sbgineer

Skilled industrial worker

Unskilled indus trial worker : Agricultural

. worker Messenger

5,250

4,500 "

25OOO

1,100

800-. ■

700 600

.10 9 , 4

2

1 1

:■ 2sooo 3,000

'-. . 920

475

. 137

' 100 100

.24-

35

11

■ 6;

2

1 1

2,800 -

'"2,240 ; ;

1,320.' .

■ ' ■ 350

110 .

no.;

112 90

53

14

' 4

_

4 Per capita national

income

Source s Pa Clairmontej ObBOTvaticn^^^^^.2la£2i^^

" ' ' Jtion, paper for United" Hations-■.Ooranittea-i'or Development Plan-

■'■ ■■ ■• ndnij third-session/ held "at Addles''Ababa? 1968 »■ / ■ "

a/ Ratio of salaries •&& wagee to'pe^capitg. national income.

By taking the per capita national in com© as a rough guideline of a nation's wealth, and therefore of iiis capacity to pay its workers of various kinds? then although in absolute terms- even th« most highly ■ paid African examples listed hore receive ■ considerably, less1 than their counterparts' in tho United Kingdoms they receive-nevertheless a much

higher ratio in relation to the national £gr_^cj^ita;- ;-- [ _

Government being the large a+. '■ employer in many African countries, it is quite obvious that a large proportion of the national budget is spent' on salaries for officials .leaving'very little for the country*©

development .proje'ets. '

i14/PQP/3 S

Page 18

On the national level, it is quite obvious even to the casual observer that in all African countries certain provinces or, regions-have advanced

more rapidly than others, so that considerable inequalities between various

regions within the country exist» Development has tended' to conc^ntr-ate-

around particular cities or areas already developed than the outlying areas.

As' a result much of the rural areas in Africa have seen very little 'change from their traditional way of living. Unless this situation is checked

the-gap between "developed" urban areas'and "undeveloped" rural areas, with

in a country begin to resemble the gap between the developed and develop

ing 'countries of the world- ' ' "'

African Governments 'have been increasingly getting concerned with . :

this situation-and are taking urgent and effective measures to reduce social inequalities and income disparities between different social groups and different regions of the country* One of the most effective measures resorted to has been through .the taxation machinery which bep,rs heavily on the higher income groups* reducing the salaries of the top civil

servants as was the case in Tanzania? or pegging aalary increases for a ■■

considerable period of time as in case of Uganda« 10/ Some countries have

resorted to legislation enforcing minimum wages*

On the country level, there have been measures to effect agrarian

reforms to enable breaking up of. the great estates and its re-distribution among the tenants and the landless rural proletariat. Probably the TJAE is the most advanced in this fields and in a number of countries there has been an effort to channel investment into the depressed area,e through

various incentives» ■ . -

This question ties up with the problem of rural development in Axi-xoa*

Many governments attach great importance to the problem of rural develop ment and have set-up separate ministries to deal with this problem. ■ In -■

Zambia a minister at the head of each provincial administration has besn set —up us well. Some countries have'set—up development corporations- of*'*

various kinds "backed by governments, e.'g., Societe Regionale"da 'dovolop-

pement Agrioole (SGHAD) of Togo, (an autonomous body with government backing which is responsible for all kinds of..rural .development) | ■ and in

others local development committees? as in the ccso of lO-ny^ v-r:; h-^ es tablished to give local areas a share in planning for their own develop- - ment. Although many government's have been stressing "the importance of

rural development., in practice this sector has tended to roc'Siv'a l6ss" " '

than its' due.share of capital' expenditure especially as £t comprises the great "majority; of the population?

all these measures, corrective efforts to eliminate social inequalities .have not been .very successful. There are still gross disparities in the Income of different social groups. Th^re are highly paid and privileged classes - civil /servants," the military, otc,? while the income of the ordinary peasant has not changed much since- 'independence

There has been no salary increases for senior civil servants in Uganda since 1959*

Page 19

Personal,Income

by the growth in gross domestic product and national income.

the e™t £ f Pt and national income,

in the llli S^n0^^6 °f ma^ Af^c^-^^tries appears to.have declined I^ Tf7l9ft n^ The^°^^-a whol ld d pp f to.have decli '

ft' The^°^^-a whole sloped down from an average '

iSi 4i P«t:°ent,in 1955-1960 to 4 per,cent in . 196Q~1963? ll/

Although various degrees of improvement have, been, registered, in some 7T- countries^ xn^the Oattetc- part of 1=h#- decade, .on.-the whole'the" avera^ari

^^+ha8. remained low./ National income., or GDP,is admittfdlPS ndaoator-of social progress par-tly.-beca^e. of ^hort^comings^' caus^by data shortfalls and partly^because of ■ the numbeiv^im-

4f ./he ©arly 1960s saw a very slow social and economic' advanced most African countries-. . Whilst^the period- shows a marked improv^ent, in indus

™^£z?&; countries -.-decline, in unemployment, rises in money-wages

""* ^^u^;P^ic^^ . most African ;comtrieB th^:fi^r.eSi ^ t Afi ;

^{yages ia}

e agreeMa: showing; hardly any-improvement,. - SJhe.-iwei'-K t,:?,Wpy ;and' under-empioyment remained'high^, empLoyment "possiMli ties-.were far from sufficient to absorb .excess manpower, ..and/in ^number of cases there were substantial increases 'in -th&-.cos.t of consumer' goods.

S^f^^^^ l^ 1* ann.um-,.during, ;

.African countries are^on'the wholsy among the pdbrest-.-in, the world th-e gap bet^.en the' rich western nations and Africa. U getting.Mggar every year.._..Personal income .is ;,gsnerally very low and an. "many countries. ■ will probably...grow relatively slowly ±n Jhe foreseeable -future. ""Becen,f ■"

^. estamates indicate an-'average gross'.domestic-product. ,ab--current'" ' "

market ;jriaes^ of about $15Q .per capita for developing Africa/Wa whOie;' The hxgh^: Iwl: is-found in Libya -(around ^l^p^'at the other end .of "

the-, scale; Burundi, Hwanda tand-U^er-761ta!"'all .register, figures around" $50...

This compares., with United'States U, 6.45S United: Kingdom-"- $1,953 ."-"and: Japan ""-■

difference In■in-cdni.e-per .heM.:.no.t Qnly.betwe.en-.coun- *-' ... ... between different'regions of ::the -same,country, ." .-The' urban""-' areass; w^xch contain' most of .the educatea.'.;.pebple arid occupations reguiring advanced education, have a much'.higher p^er:; capita income, than the'rural

While trends in■the■distribution-cfincome are.difficult to detect, it would seem safe to say that with, a few exceptions,, there-has. not" been- any notable improvement in' the'-ootreotion' of. the-mal-distributio-ns that" ■ have persisted since the "early- 1960s, - .Tfce diffusion of income has in " .'

some cas.es b.een hindered, by rigidities in :the socio-economic system - ,

11/ Dooument- li/4059 on Trends- in World. Production and Trade. - -■ - ■ '"

12/ Source; g Various-United Nations publications.

a/CH.i4/POP/38 I/GEU14/

Page 20

prevailing in some countries. In a few countries where there have, been improvements in income distribution..they have occurred through effective

.^land reforms and tax reforms. ■ ..'..-

-^-& It is difficult at the moment to ascertain the exact patterns of income distribution and consumption expenditure in Africa. Figur.es_in 'this area are very scanty, being limited to a very, few countnesB In the

■'- rural areas, where people still live in a largely subsistence ec^omy^f^

the task of collecting these statistios is almost impossible. There 3,0, no doubt, a great need for studies in'this field and African Governments woul£ pe it to their advantage to initiate suoh work. ^,_ :. .

1 Tiv^'" Urbanization . ^^J.J.r.f;:

T Africa as a' whole is one of the least urbanized areas ofH^M^gS

with only: 15.4 per cent of the total population living m. urbto-^,,, Ci,e,, areas of 20,000 inhabitants or more),, as compared, fox .example,■■ , with about 45 per cent in Latin America. / African toms, hbwever,^^

growing at a very rapid rate, . A rate which is much higher tha^-tha^g

any other region. ' . . ■.

Hearly all African countries have, since the beginning of the last decade, been experiencing a high rate of growth in urban population, i

■a. number of principal cities the growth has been averaging 12 per <?**•*

per annum and in a few of these cities the rate has at times been a*h*

as 15 per cent a year. Most of this powth is as 3. result of rural migration mainly of young people seeking a better life m the towns

The largest urban growth rate of 12.5 vex cent per annum occurred in Niger where only 1,5 per cent of the population lived in tows.- In Upper Volte where the total population growth rate was. 1,6 per^ent per annum,

the urban rate was 10,8 per cent per annuq., and^n Malawi 2.8 per cent and 10.4 per cent respectively, A large part ,of this very high rate of.

5"ban ^pLsion is the result of the migration of P-ple from ^ country

*&de into towns, which is taking place in every part of the continent.

Ihere is a tendency for the migration tp be directed maxnly toward. one or two of the largest cities in eBph country so that the growth rates of Sties with populations of 100,000 or mere are often higher than the rate for the urban areas as a whole, It has been estimated t^t about 68 per

cent of the total urban population is concentrated m the cities, a per

centage that is about the world average, 13/ This trend may perhaps be

^plained by the tendency for industrial development to be concentrated

in large, cities, thereby attracting job-seekers.

The implication of this excessive rate of growth in™** p0P^tion has been a complexity of economic and social problems which have been

causing\uch cencern^o many governments in Africa. The serious social- rt growth of the urban population in Africa (U/CI.H/GAS.6/3) ,

page 5

Page i2l

dislocation1' piroduoM"^^:-xMii'--U3?'ban= ■eacpaii'aion -in;, the form of unemployment,

und'er^eWpio-^entj'-shdrtag'© ■of&ouising,'utility services, .etc.-, has resulted

in ;a comparatively largernumbW of people being unproductive, rootless and always in. search for minimum livelihood. The problem is more grave

with; y-puih ■ whose ■rt{imb;erB'-entering the "labour market is getting higher and

higher' '.every year.r;;' ■"The-su:irpliVs'and.uhuged^,labour in countries where .there is so much'-work to do has; "fre-en1 a menacing, problem in the. development

effort/; ''■'-"■ ''■''■'■•-■ < -■'"■"■"•■• '-'••■ ■-■-;■ ■■-■-.■.-■■• ,- ■■;.■;..■.■ - -.-..■-. '-... ■•

A close examination in any city shows that many youngsters are either idle or engaged in petty hawking, shoe-shining/and:such types of jobs

which keep them from absolute starvation but contributes all but nothing to the7 "economy*1 S developments -Thus it could be said-that mauy-..oities in

Africa-have ■outgrown •■■their'1 own-means- of livelihood./, The overcrowded -slums . and sharity.tomisV tire Steady -growth of unemployment,; overloading .of city,

servi'6"es^; ■despairing iriot&ers and ■■half-starved children - are.all symptoms . of a big'pfob'iem many governments have to: deal with. ■ ■ ■. :-. .-■■•■•..

The main problem posed here has been how to control the excessive in-fXow of immigrants to the cities and to alleviate the economic and

social ills ^create'd ■"By'their- great -numbers* ■ ...:■- . ; ■.-. ■ i ■ ■.. ■ -.-.. ■ ■■■..;_.

*il"''■"'' WitbrthV cons-bant ^increase of rural-Urban in-flow, the gi-gantio^taak ■ of dealingwitii tHeiieconomic and social problems generated has bee^ yir- '

tually impossible* The whole-process-has-put-the urban .society.lnto. e,- , . terminal.crisis of social and economic disintegration,

•' The^speed of 'urbanisation '.in'-a relatively short time has left manyf_ ■ governments --'ia-tiiduV consistent' policies for dealing1 with the -resulting... >:

prpbleinsv1' 'l5n^r4 has ■baeii;a growing ■affarea&ss of urb&n problems but a ■, ;v

gr's'at undertainiy" as- to the 'best- methods of dealing with. them. ■ .. _ . . ,. .

Different governments have resorted to different measures in dealing

with, the p'robl'emv-' $h ere 'are1 some whose-.policy accepts; shanty towns., and slums around their'big cities-as part of^their development p-rocess and .

are only "trying to; provide minimum basic.facilities.whenever and wherever

possible; others have resorted to-legislation to: control th© in-fiow^ such legislation providing for the repatriation of the migrants back to their

rural "areas' under'penalty of- imprisonment-if they .returned;, while .still Others ^vs.'ddcfded^^b1 ■reverse"-the- tide by, resettling the unemployed, and.

under-emproyed'-urbkn' population in new .self-contained- .communal, villages.. . providing employment on the lah^ and with, basic facilities.. .Mother;.

move adopted by some governments has been the re-allocation of industries

into, low-density "or siow-%rowth-'rates' as ar measure- tp -counteract concen

tration of many people -in 'a -t&v big cities. -.:v : ■ ;. . ■,,■■.„■ ..;.■'

Measures favouring demograp"hiG/"stabilit:y, ■ i-^e.,-. -stabilizing the.urban labour force; t£-s an essential content in the urban development policies..

The current force which is driving the young rural population towards the cities is not only economic but.also social. They cannot therefore be^

induced to stay in their rural environment unless the economic and social

problems facing them there are solved-

'"'.'"i

Page 22

■ Scientific research in regard to the urban' phenomenon is urgently needed. Such research cannot determine policy, it can however,, help'to

eliminate fatuous and wasteful measures and to suggest new alternatives.

Though much has "been eaid about the effects of rapid urban growth, the effects have not all been bad* The urban population .has contributed disproportionately to the national life of many countries' and has been a force required to initiate change from the past* Urbanisation forms an integral part of modern, industrial? cultural and economic change*

' (v) Rural Development-' " :-■-■■ . ■"' , ■ ■

In designing their .first national development plans many Africen countries placed excessive reliance on development through rapid indus

trialization, neglecting the development of agriculture which pro-/idss

employment for 80xto 90 per cent of the labour force, and the develop ment of rural areas where more than 80 per cent of the population as

a whole lives.

Although some.80 to 90 per cent of the population depends on agri- . culture for its livelihood, a relatively small proportion of planned

public expenditure was devoted to direct investment in agriculture. The proportion varies from'country to country but few,countries spent as muoh

as one-third of their budget on agricultural development, while the

majority devoted as little as one-fifth to. it.

Among the main problems of rural development are the inadequate supply of waters lack of or under-developed transportation facilities,

primitive ".and use and inadequate soil., conservation methods, periodic

shortages of food, low "staridard=? of health, high rate of illiteracy, . .

under-employmentj very low income, high rate of population increase and

rigid traditions and customs;.

■ While the trend for industrialization!was vary prominent in the ■ .

earlier development plans, recently there has been a realization on the

part of msxiy goveradcntrj of the impcr^saoej of giving more'attention to

rural development.- a field which had been;neglected for a long time. ■

The rural' sector is increasingly being recognized as the key sector in African development plans? ^and its rapif development and modernization have5 in recent times, assumed a priority objective for most national . governments and international agencies alike*, .

Except for the few countries where mining is the major industry,

rural activities are the .main source of foreign currency required foy

procuring capital goods* ■'■Moreover, they ate the main, if not the only

source of raw material for existing or projected industries*

Page 23

■■ -Bur-alrd,evelop^en.t.prpgrs,mmes'have taken several" and varied-f^

o£ organization:. Some, hay© been planned to function within-^tfie tradi- .,.;- tiorial socio-economic; framework, while others have nec&ssitated1 a com- . plete^estructTaring.of the: existing, socia^ and. economic;; lifey- ■ #he;- ■. . various forms include: popular action,' communal action, community .. ■ development, rural animation, mass education, agricultural extension and

rural reconstruction, to name a; few,. ... ■ . , ' .

Programmes of sQQip-eoQnoinib tran;s;fprmation have in some instances called fojr; a co,aplete.,Vr partial■ restructuring of. existing economic and social systems.- An ezample. of this.is :,1the system 'Qf .self-rel;iance!em- .■

bodying the concept of ^Ujamaa^ villaies in Tanzania.: ;.Hpw#ver; ^tfce rural development programmes widely adopted have been community: development

and rural animation, agricultural, extension, po-operat^es, and rural ;

credit'■institutions*' „;..>.,:.. .■.;:;■; . ; ■■-.' ' ■ ' .',., ^ .V;,. ;: \.^/:-:S ■'"', j"."'!'V* ;.- * ■ •

- ■ Effective ruraldevelopment programmes, inevitably .include prbgrammfes

of improving: agriculture, -^i^j^^^

hood for'the great;majority-ofr the population. ..Agrxe^ltural^evelopment programmes have taken such formats establishment of.farra settlement _v

schemes, consolidation of fragmentary landholdings, re-distrxbution of _ land on a more, equitable basis,-irrigation, of large areas of land, assxst- ing farmers with loans and bonuses to encourage: and. improve increased pro- ductionrand in some countries there has been prcgrammes establishing

State farms and large-scale co-operative farms. : ^•■«r«Wf ■ TiT^

soheme in'the Sudan, the Ghana' s Tolta scheme and theyUAR ,s "High Dam

project can be cited as examples of a supcessful large-scale co-operative enterprise between government and the people. Some countries are,, exper.x-

n,enti^g:wlth: similar a^icultural>^emes including large-scale xrrxgatxpn

projects.' :. ' ---';" ■■■*■ "■;■.., -■.'=:.. =.■ . ■ :■■ .. ■ -"■■-■.'.: ; ' :' ...■■"■ ■,-■ -.',;.. .'•'■' .■.■■■■• One of.:-:.th^:,ohiH«*g,eB of..agripulfere in Africa is touting new

to adult farmers. This lias been tackled 'through agricultural ^en workers, young farmers organi nations which" act as a nucleu^for. new f ing methods,- and training f,or. agricultural development right from the primary fechoolsv-Mhere:has.. al?o been attempts to improve; cheap+a»d «ftec

tive means of-oommunication as pne pf the;most imROrtant;infrastructure, facilities: required for :rural development. Because ^..^;;*:PW^

farmers iri:mamyrural,areaS,are uriable to get their produce to, ^e There has heen efforts toconstruct more access, roads; through .s^lf- sohemes in order to open up remote areas for dsvelppment,- Efforts also been made to introduce co-operatives as an essential approach rural animation and agricultural development; Processing and^ar agricultural -co-operatives have .proved to be the most, successful.

:Most African Governments are.ndw aware of the.need J

advisory services^ for strengthening th& efficiency of

STonly handicap being the iuability to train jr reor^

personnel fast enough for this .purpose. There to^ » advance in the supply of credit through, Go-operatives

Sent seem to Zl. been the W.st supported by ^"

.that oo-operatives, especially marketing, societies

in .number. .-.. ' .:.-.•■ '■■•" '..■;■

co

Page 24

In a numbet-of North African countries, .governments have directed their rural^ development ^programmes on the settMent; of >f^^s®

nomads. .Several governments have aimed principally at sedentary. communities, and replacing, animal Husbandryby '^

tSoughincreasing the areas of .cultiyated;iand and developing

able water .resources. '. ■ ■ ..,■,■". «■..," .: ; - ... '

Outside agriculture rural development programmes have involved

"both by Governments and, voluntary agencies., • ;. ; .',';-.;;:.'.

Governments' awareness of the' potentials of oomamnlty developaen^^ ■, for social and economic development is being reflected 1« several current

natio^l pUns. The mador. objective, of community, ■i-elcpment Programmes are^o promote economic and social development in rurala!ea^^rt*°arlt

orient ?he 'rural population towards self-nelp ^°™^the rural

Iheve has also been an effort, to secure means of involving the *ural+

p^pfe themselves in the. development effort with the reali,atxon :^at

transformation of rural life involves a change in social value.s, their ...

socio-economic institutions, their motivation and their «ay of life.

even

There have been many errors in! the field <rf rural d^el°P^

m£re Neglect, but it is evident that some counties have beenJ f mistakes and have,shown signs of willingness to tackle

distriot development committees

' As a result of all these changes, including land resettlement schemes,

h

large farm sector.

self-reiiance and self-help at all levels.; ,

■nmmlopment PImi';--1910^19741 Chapter 6.:,. ,. ...'...

15/ Ibid, -page'32.

Page 25"

Beoent experience has,shownf- a;^d a-number-of governments have accepted the ■view, that by the" very nature and Eiiae of the problem of promoting economic-and social progress in rural areas?.action requires to be taken 'on several fronts simultaneously, and not independently of each otnex* Henoe, programmes -of agriculture, education and training, health and nun* bjLorij .community development, are being" planned and: im»*

pltoTienc^d pe ojp© whole* ,. The- conc-ept of integrated Crural1 development ■'-;' hac gen rall^ bc^i .adopted :to signify an inter-disciplinary approach' ;' in the mobilisation of. human .and material resources in rural "areas?- add mvolvp" tae ^c relation of ■ active .participation of ■ the" population in-;- voiced xn dcve'opm^ positive industrial and social attitudes towards ; ■

the t id : ' '

t .should be viewed in an1 integrated-.mili.su^ calling

for a 2,/t "x ooliaies and objectives; so design..ed- and co™ordinaied "■ that"-.'■

it wil.. raxe* ani sustain-the standard of livd:ng of the rural population

as a vhcle. it *mplies modernisation which would: bring, about increase-in.

d+ pot r and changes in human attitudes, replacing a sense of

on iae natural-environment with a desirs and1 ability "to in- co the ir-rargsroemts of that ..environment, It seelzs to estahXieh '.-an '■

c ^&,u* for the eooiety.-which would, gsne.ro.ta progressively higher""

of }i> ^ut £,?id-livingj and promote ,.the-emergence of 'a fcn-oiirledg©-'-■'-"■■■

ard aLt ^udinal oase'. which :makeo. possible an automatic •uid-Goniinuxng ■ of man's capacity'to deal rationally with1 .the e

m^s tuIj ii-voXvement of the rural population in the .national "dsvelop-

■ meni ei'fon^ a ivr isure a number of countries have-yet:'to aaidavo,. is .;'::

&i. c f he gap between the virban- sector of the economy and th^ tr-adi- ruigj ^sas i.u act "to" become jo- great 'as-..to foi^m a major impediment

fuxthsj c oic»~uo. growth .and .social development,. ;■■...

ru -j fcjnozny is z±6h in land and- labour, but eoaroa iiTcapital, it « of ura3 development mu^t therefore rely on the most effective

devclopoier end us<- of ■-human and. land resources, jftorthox-more, thff atti tude o^ kh j,iopLtlc*tion will detarmine the degree to which development1. -.; ■

P'oe^-mm-s Q<m PL-ceed'*-. It" is. vital thai: the population tak$ t-& aotiye..;

part m je formulation and exeoution of development pr-ogrammos in; Order:

thet tno programrcs may--conform"as.closely as■possible to looal conditions

and ncpcg; an^ in order that .the people, may have some sense-of control .:■

ovsr thsxr -das iay ' ■ ' " .. ■ ...;..;.:.

Page 26

VI* SBCTOEAL M&LYSiS OF SOCIAL PEOGIUMM&S MD PROBLEMS (i) Health. '

Although the standards of health are still comparatively very low all.over Africa^ there has "been marked improvement- in health conditions

in nearly all African ■countri.ee during the past decade, the moat en

couraging health improvements being observed; in the areas ox mother and child health. The control of communicable diseasesj education in preven tive measures, use of new drugs and development of health centresP in cluding the maternal and child health oervicssy have brought about marked health improvementa in nearly all African countries« These improvements .are reflected in the .declining ratos in mortality and the comparative

rise in.life expectancy. Compared with' western industrialised national- health conditions in Africa arc 3 till very poor? but the indications are

that the gap is narrowing* . ■ ■

■ . Notwithstanding the improved situation., the general conditions of ■ health are still very poor, especially in rural areas where life expec

tancy is still sccoQedingly low and the mentality rate still high. In a number of countries epidemic diseases such as ~hcleras smelx-pox? typhus and plagues are still -ihreate to the population* Bi-lharsiasisy trachoma and malaria still affect a high proportion of the population although the threat of the latter is diminishing every year* Typhoid and dysentry are also still-found in & number oi' countries especially where- water supplies and .sewage disposal are "not oc good6 Other diseases that constitute major problems are"tuberculosis;, leprosy? trypanojjomiasis? poliomyelitis^ yellow fever an&'mcaalea* Venereal diaeanes-and worm infactions are declining but remain "widecpreade Among the young chil&xenj malnutrition^ gastro intestinal ailments and infectious childhood diseases such as measles

and whooping cough are still common. 16/

Although a determined effort is boing1 iisde in most countries to improve, health conditions, health oervipeo ire still grossly inadequate to copo with the-'situation.; While most U'-sstern i&aaropsan countries -have one doctor to every .^0. to 800 inhabitants? in Africa, the average-is one-

to between 25sG00 to $J9000 inhabltantsr, Ijj In -some countries5 the rate

is one to 100^0.00' or more inhabitants.- " Similarilyj a critical shortage -exists among nursos? midwivon and other medical technical staff. However,

there are widespread' variations between different countries and parts of countries*

16/ WHO Review, of .tho Second figoade^of Public^ Health Jfc^Jlri^Afjrica, 1968,

Part II*

12/ IMi-? p&s® 25.