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STRESS I N CHILZ WELFARE
A Study o f Perceived Causes and L e v e l s of S t r e s s Amng C h i l d Welfare Workers i n Newfoundland
ar:d Labrador
Gordon Dunne B.A.(ed.). B.S.W.
A t h e s i s submitted i n p a r t i a l f u l l f i l m e n t of the requirements f o r t h e degree o f
Master o f S o c i a l Work
School o f Sooial Work Memorial U n i v e r s i t y o f Newfoundland
S t . John's Nswfoundla~d
February 28, 1991
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish t o express my a p p r e c i a t i o n t o D r . Frank Hawkins f o r h i s i n t e r e s t , guidanse and support w h i l e s u p e r v i s i n g me d u r i n g t h i s p r o j e c t . I also wish t o thank Dr. Ross K l e i n f o r h i e h e l p w h i l e D r . Hawkins was on s a b b a t i c a l leave. and Ms.
Nevs Johnson, A d m i n i s t r a t i v e A s s i s t a n t a t t h e school o f Social Work. who c o l l e c t e d t h e Questionnaires Por me.
MY e p p r e c i a t i o n i s a l s o extended t o the C h i l d Welfare Workers who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e study f o r w i t h o u t t h e i r cooperation t h i s p r o j e c t would n o t have been p o s s i b l e .
I would a180 l i k e t o thank t h e Department of Social S B T V ~ C B S f o r i t 8 support and cooperation d u r i n g t h e c a r r y i n g o u t o f t h i s reeearch.
I a l s o want t o thank my w i f e , Yvonne, f o r her support and encouragement end s l a o f o r her t i m e and patience i n t y p i n g t h i s t h e s i s .
TABLE OF CONTENTS
. . .
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
. . . . . .
L I S T OF TABLES
. . .
ABSTRACT CHAPTER
1 INTROOUCTION
. . .
2 PURPOSE
. . .
3 LITERATURE REVIEW
. . .
4 METHODOLOGY AND INSTRUMENTATIOFI 5 FINDINGS AN0 DATA ANALYSIS
FINDINGS
. . .
DATA ANALYSIS
. . .
6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOHMENOATIONS
. . . .
BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDICES
A p ~ e n d i x A Q u e s t i o n n a i r e
. . .
A p p e n d i x B L e t t e r of P e r m i s s i o n t o ure Instrument
. .
A p p e n d i x C L e t t e r of E x p l a n a t i o n o f the S t u d y
. . . .
A p p e n d i x D C o n s e n t S t a t e m e n t
. .
ii iii i v
V
LIST OF TABLES
NLlMEER PAGE
I Sooial Work Experience o f Respondents
. . . .
5 2I T S i z e o f C o r n u n i t y Where Respondents
Work
. . .
53I11 S i z e o f D i s t r i c t o f f i c e Where Respondents
Work
. . .
5 4 I v Number o f C h i l d Welfare Workers i nRespondents O f f i c e
. . .
55. . .
V Caseload Sizs 56
V I Siok Days Taken by C h i l d Welfare Workers
. . .
57V I I Methods o f Coping w i t h S t r e s s
. . .
58V I I I Education o f S u p e r v i s o r
. . .
60I x s t r e s s Level by Source o f S t r e s s (Ranked)
. .
62 X R e l a t i o n s h i p Between B i o g r a p h i c a l and WorkV a r i a b l e s and S t r e s s Scores
. . .
64 X I Mean StPe88 SCOre8 by Gender andM a r i t a l S t a t u s
. . .
65. . .
X I 1 Mean S t r e s s Scores by Age of Respondents 67 X I 1 1 Mean S t r e s s Scores by Region
. . .
89 XIV Mean S t r e s s Scores by O f f i c e S i r e. . .
71XV Mean S t r e s s Scores by Caseload S i r e
. . .
7 3. . . .
XVI Mean S t r e s s Scores by Management S t y l e 76
X v l t O p p o r t u n i t y f o r P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n Management D e c i s i o n Making
. . .
18X V I I I Ranked O v e r a l l Mean S t r e s s Scores f o r
Demographic and Work V a r i a b l e s
. . .
79XlX C o n ~ a r i s o n of C h i l d Welfare Workers and Teachers:
. . . .
Perceotion8 Of S t r e s s R e l a t e d t o Work 90
The phenomenon o f s t r e s s has received considerable a t t e n t i o n i n recent years. However, no s t u d i e s have been done i n Newfoundland t o examine t h e s u b j e c t o f s t r e s s amongst s o c i a l workers and p a r t i c u l a r l y c h i l d welfare workers. This study was designed t o : ( 1 ) i d e n t i f y elements i n t h e Newfoundland C h i l d Welfare Work environment which s o c i a l workers perceive as being s t r e s s f u l : ( 2 ) t o determine t o what e x t e n t s t r e s s i s being experienced by these s o c i a l workers: ( 3 ) t o examine v a r i a t i o n i n s t r e s s l e v e l s perseived by workers i n d i f f e r e n t work s e t t i n g s and w i t h v a r i e d b i o g r a p h i c a l backgrounds and: ( 4 ) t o i d e n t i f y t h e ways i n which the c h i l d welfare worker> cope w i t h stvess.
A review o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e revealed a t h e o r e t i c a l framework f o r s t r e s s and t h e e f f e c t s job s t r e s s can have on human s e r v i c e workers p a r t i c u l a r l y s o c i a l workers employed i n t h e area o f c h i l d welfare.
The instrunrent used i n t h i s study was an adapted v e r s i o n o f t h e Wilson S t r e s s P r o f i l e f o r Teachers publiohed i n 1979 by O r . Christopher Wilson. The adapted s t r e s s p ~ ~ f i l e USBS respondent s e l f - r e p o r t i n g o f perceived s t r e s s i n r e l a t i o n t o s range o f s u b j e c t categories. The instrumant was m o d i f i e d t o r e f l e c t t h e n a t u r e o f t h e c h i l d w e l f a r e work s i t u a t i o n , d i f f e r e n t than t h e teaching
environment f o r which t h e o r i g i n a l instrument was designed.
The sample c o n s i s t e d o f c h i l d w e l f a r e workers employed by t h e Dsp~rtrnent of S o c i a l Services i n t h e provinoe of Newfoundland. a t o t a l o f 62 people.
The study ehovs t h a t t h e primary s t r e s s o r a r e p o r t e d by C h i l d Welfare Workers i n Newfoundland are o r p a n i z a t i o n a l Factors, T i m Mansgemant and R e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h C h i l d ' s Family. S p e c i f i c a l l y , workers o i t e d lack o f on-the-job t r a i n i n g , p o l i c y c o n s t r a i n t s , i n s u f f i c i e n t resources, r o l e c o n f l f o t and work overload as being very s t r e s s f u l . The a t r e s s l e v e l most o f t e n r e p o r t e d was moderate t o h i g h StrB88.
Wo~kers ~ e p o r t e d l e a s t Stre88 i n t h e areas o f r e l a t i o n s h i p 8 w i t h colleagues and supervisors. They a l e 0 r e p o r t e d r e l a t i v e success i n u t i l i z i n g various s t r a t e g i e s t o oope w i t h s t r e s s . The most f r e q u e n t l y c i t e d coping mechanism was physical e x e r c i s e .
Of t h e f i v e geographic regions o f t h e Province, t h e Labrador region reoorted t h e g r e a t e s t s t r e s s , p o s s i b l y as a r e e u l t of i s o l a t i o n and fewer o p p o r t u n i t i e s Par peer group i n t e r a c t i o n end support.
In the area of management s t y l e , workers r e p o r t e d a l a i ~ s e z - f a i r e management s t y l a t o be most s t r e s s f u l . In regard t o o f f i c e s i r e , workers i n l a r g e r o f f i c e s r e p o r t e d l e s s s t r e s s than t h e i r peers i n smaller o f f i c e s . Peer eupport may have accounted f o r t h i s f i n d i n g .
Male c h i l d welfare workers reported s i g n i f i c a n t l y more s t r e s s than females. I n a d d i t i o n , it was found t h a t workers who were single experienced more stress than those who were married.
Based on the findings, recommendations are made suggesting areas f o r f u r t h a r study as well as s p e d f i c actions t o reduce curvent stressors i n the work environment.
1 CHAPTER t
The s u b j e s t of s t r e s s has r e c e i v e d considersble a t t e n - t i o n s i n c e f i r s t introduced by Hans Selye i n a medical c o n t e x t i n t h e 1930's. S t u d i e s o f s t r e s s and i t s ' e f f e c t s are c u r r e n t l y b e i n g conducted i n more t h a n 20 i n s t i t u t e s as
" e l , as i n numerous u n i v e r s i t y departments, h o s p i t a l s . and o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s around t h e world. Stress has becmis a major problem f o r b o t h i n d i v i d u a l s and i n s t i t u t i o n s i n an era o f a c c e l e r a t i n g change, c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e r a p i d growth of knowledge and technology. Over 6.000 separate r e p o r t s on s t r e s s research have been produced i n r e c e n t years. The l a r g e s t and most comprehensive a t r e s e documen- t a t i o n c e n t r e i n the world. t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e of s t r e s s i n Montreal, Canada, houses over 1?0.000 volumes on t h e s u b j e c t . T h i s o u t p u t i s i n i t s e l f c o n s r e t e evidence of t h e amount o f a t t e n t i o n t h e t o p i c o f s t r e s s has received.
p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the l a s t two decades (Ohemman, 19811.
I t i s e g e n e r a l l y accepted view today t h a t people a r e b e i n s s u b j e c t e d t o more streee-evoking h i t u a t i o n a t h a n ever bef0r.e. People are seen t o be c h a l l e n g e d by p o t e n t i a l l y dangerous s t r e s s and t h e personal d i s o r i e n t a t i o n caused by a ~ c e l e r a t e d change w i t h i n t h e span o f a s i n g l e generation.
T h i s a c c e l e r a t e d ohange has p e r s o n a l , p s y c h o l o g i c a l , and s o c i a l consequences. I n combination w i t h t h l s , t h e
2 d e c l i n i n g l e v e l o f p h y s i c a l o o n d i t i o n i n g and good h e a l t h h a b i t s has r e s u l t e d i n an increase i n s t r e s s - r e l a t e d dieorders amonget the general p o p u l a t i o n .
1 t i s g e n e r a l l y understood t h a t no one can l i v e w i t h o u t experiencing eons degree o f s t r e s s (Selye. 1974).
m y e m t i o n , pleasant o r unpleasant, causes s t r e s s . The s t r e s s whish leads t o an increase i n performance such as t h a t experienced by Olympic g o l d medal winnners i s viewed as p o s i t i v e s t r e s s o r BUStr888. Negative s t r e s s , r e f e r r e d t o as d i s t r e s s . leedo t o a decrease i n performance and i s o f concern t o p r o f e s s i o n a l s and o t h e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y where i t 18868 t o d s t e r i o r s t i o n i n p h y s i c a l a n d l o r psychological f u n c t i o n i n g .
one major source o f s t r e s s f o r many people i s t h e i r work place. While many people f i n d t h e i r work pleaeant, i t
i s g e n e r a l l y aocepted t h a t work oan be s source o f g r e a t a n x i e t y end stress. Amng t h e work f a c t o r s t h a t employees experience a8 s t r e s s f u l are t a s k s which are viewed as r e p e t i t i v e and boring, c o n f l i s t s whish a r e seen as p e t t y and f r e q u e n t l y personal, and performance e x p e c t a t i o n s which are e s s e n t i a l l y u n a t t a i n a L l e . The workplace, w i t h i t s stresses.
s t r a i n s and r o u t i n e s can c r e a t e f r e q u e n t tensions.
a n x i e t i e s , f e a r s and resentments m n g employees ( E n g l i s h L Pearson. 19551. Arndt & Chapman (1984) suggest t h a t work i s a c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r i n s t r e s s r e l a t e d h e a l t h problems.
The c o s t a associated w i t h s t r e s s i n t h e workplace i n c l u d e
3 l o s s i n p r o d u c t i v i t y , excessive absenteeism, employee turnover, inoreased h e a l t h insurance premiums, and t h e premature r e t i r e m e n t o r death o f key people. Qhermn (1981) s t a t e s t h a t premature employee death c o s t s American i n d u s t r y
$19.4 b i l l i o n annually. Ha a l s o c l a i n s t h a t $28 b i l l i o n i s spent on d i s a b i l i t y payments and medical b i l l s . As w e l l , he r e p o r t s t h a t t h e c o s t o f r e c r u i t i n g replacements f o r exeoutives who become v i c t i m s oP h e e r t disease i s about $700 b i l l i o n a year.
American i n d u s t r y losee more than $10 b i l l i o n a n n u a l l y through decreased executive performance and p r o d u c t i v i t y i n l o s t workdays. h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n , and e a r l y death caused by s t r e s s . Heart disease i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r an annual l o s s of 132 m i l l i o n workdays. For every employee who d i e s from an i n d u s t r i a l accident. 50 employees d i e from cardiovascular diseases, which a r e o f t e n caused by s t r e s s - r e l a t e d f a c t o r s . A t l e a s t 85 p e r Cent o f a l l Work accidents are caused by t h e i n a b i l i t y t o oope w i t h emotional s t r e s s (Gherman, lS81).
It i s estimated t h a t one o u t o f t e n employeas i n t h e United States has an a l c o h o l problem, end t h i s costs $16 b i l l i o n s year i n absenteeism and medical programs; h a l f s m i l l i o n Americana use t r s n q u i l i r e r a M o b t a i n temporary r e l i e f from s t r e s s (Ghernan, 1981). Such drug and chemical use r e s u l t s i n j o b e r r o r s , accidents, and reduoed performance. There i s a growing body o f evidence from s t u d i e s i n experimental l a b o r a t o r y s e t t i n g s (Kahn 6 Quinn.
4 1970) and i n t h e workplace (Margolis, Kroes L Quinn. 1974) t h a t suggssts t h a t oooupationai s t r e s s i s a causal f a c t o r i n these diseases. These workplace i l l n e s s e s represent a s e r i o u s oost t o i n d u s t r y b o t h i n hunan and f i n a n c i a l terms.
Occupationel s t r e s s among hunan s e r v i c e workers i s d i f f e r e n t than t h e s t r e s s f e l t by b l u e - c o l i a r workers.
While many b l u e c o l l a r jobs are q u i t e s t i n ~ l ~ t i n g , o t h e r s may be viewed as b o r i n g and/or q u i t e p h y s i c a l l y demanding.
With b l u e - c o l l a r workers s t r e s s I s oPten seen t o o r i g i n a t e w i t h understinulat1on and/or p h y s i c a l exhaustion. The o r i g i n of n t r e s s amongst human s e r v i c e workers can be described as emotional o v e r s t i n u l a t i o n and a conseuLent i n a b i l i t y t o r e l a t e t o o l i e n t s . Some w r i t e r s m s i d e r s t r e 8 6 among human s e r v i c e workers t o be en occupational hazard oP t h e j o b (Brsmhall 6 E z e l l , 1981).
Stress amongst humsn s e r v i o e workers. which i n t e r f e r e s w i t h t h e i r a b i l i t y t o perform e f f i c i e n t l y and e f f e c t i v e l y , i s o f t e n d e a l t w i t h by techniques o f detachment and emotional withdrawal. I t i s marked by p h y s i c a l . emotional and mental exhaustion and t h e development of a n e g a t i v e seif-concept and n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e s toward l i f e . Work and o t h e r people. T h i s procees i s f r e q u e n t l y r e f e r r e d t o as burnout (Haslach 1982).
Rssearch has n o t been c l e a r as t o why some hunan s e r v i c e workers 'hurn-out' w h i l e o t h e r s do n o t . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note, however, t h a t r a r e l y does burnout
6 appear i n j u s t one worker i n an o r g a n i z a t i o n , r a t h e r , i t n f f e s t s many. Maslach (1978) notes t h e prevalence of ournout among p r o f e s s i o n a l s i n human s e r v i c e organizations end suggests t h a t t h e search f o r causes should be d i r e c t e d toward the o p e r a t i o n a l and s t r u c t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the w o r k p l a ~ e r a t h e r than l i m i t e d t o an examination of d e f i d e n o i e s i n t h e workers themselves. That i s , burnout should be considered as systemic and n o t viewed simply as an i n d i v i d u a l problem.
Human s e r v i c e o r o f e a s i o n a l r are c o n s t a n t l y under pressure. Rarely do they enjoy tho l u x u r y of f e e l i n g t h a t the problems they deal w i t h have been eolved. For example.
a 80~i.l worke7'8 iratervention w i t h an abusive parent whose behaviours ere deeply i n g r a i n e d may appear t o be successful for t h e short t e r n , b u t such behaviours a r e not simply terminated through immediate i n ~ ~ r v e n t i o n . It i s d i f f i o u l t t o a88888 when change has f i n a l l y taken place. As a r e s u l t , s o c i a l workers may n o t be able t o r e s t , p h y e i o s l l y o r emotionally, a f t e r t h e s t r e s s o f t h e day or even the previous hour. Frequently, they are n o t a b l e t o resolve t h e i r s t r e s s or c o n f l i c t and f i n d themselves operating w i t h less and l e s s energy. The negative f e e l i n g s produoed by t h i s descending s p i r a l o f anergy f i n d t a r g e t s i n the a,ency, t h e c l i e n t s , or even the professionals thenaslvea. The behavieurs adopted t o cope w i t h t h i s process f r e q u e n t l y impair the f u n c t i o n i n g of the professionals and undermine
6 t h e q u a l i t y o f s e r v i c e of t h e agency (Bramhall b E z e l l , i 9 e i 1 .
A m d e l used by Selye t o describe energy i n persons under s t r e s s 6hOWO ~ 1 e l t f . l ~ and d r a m a t i c a l l y how human s e r v i c e workers can burn o u t from the ' d a i l y b a t t l e ' o f t h e j o b . The energy curve ( l e v e l l s t a r t s from a low p o i n t and r i s e s q u i c k l y i n an alarm r e a c t i o n t o a p r o b l e m s i t u a t i o n . During the ' r e s i s t a n c e stage' t h e energy l e v e l remains elevated t o provide t h e mental and physical s t r e n g t h neoeseary t o work t h e problem through. A t t h i s p o i n t , t h e s t r e s s i s reduced and mind and body r e t u r n t o normal.
Stress oan be reduoed by an s o t i o n being taken, an i n s i g h t being gained or a conceptual c l o s u r e being achieved, i.e, t h o experience i s p u t behind t h e Serson. Staying s t the r e ~ i s t a n o e stage f o r t o o l o n g can produce exhaustion and eventual death. However, when repestad s t r e s s e s are separated by r e s o l u t i o n o r r e s t , an even p a t t e r n o f energy h i l l s and v a l l e y s i s produced (Branhall 6 E l e l l . 19811. I t i s t h i e ehperience OP u n r e n l t t e n t s t r e s s t h a t can p l a y havoc i n the l i v e s o f professional8 whose f i r s t p r i o r i t y i s intended t o be s e r v i c e t o others.
The ares of c h i l d welfare poses p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r e s s f u l s i t u a t i o n s f o r s o o i a l workers s i n c e the successful r e s o l u t i o n oP complex human problems, as faced on a d a i l y basis, i s n o t e a s i l y achieved. These p r o f e s s i o n a l s are r e q u i r e d t o work i n t e n s e l y end i n t i m a t e l y w i t h people.
1 frequently with a long tern, and ongoing involvement. They b e c o w familiar with the clients' psychosocial problems and ara expected to help alleviate these prob1.w. Many aspects of this work involv~ tasks which are particularly upsetting or traumatic. Professional intervention involving ohild abuse and neglect, for example, can arouse strong feelings of e m t i o n and personal stress, whioh can often be disruptive and incapacitating to the social worker. I n order to perform efficiently and effectively in such situations, the professional may defend against these strong emotions through teohniques of detachment o r emotional withdrawal. By treating one's clients in a more remote or objective way it becornes easier to get the job done without suffering strong personal and emotional discomfort.
However, when ohild welPare workers become unable to balenoe this almost paradoxical process oP having to distanoe themselves from people in order to help them, they beein to lose the caring and commitment which they initially brought to tho job (Maslach. 19781.
The failure to cope effectively with stress has numerous and varied consequences which include physical and emotional problems. Job burnout has been identified as an extreme response to job-related stress and is characterized by physical and emtional exhaustion including negative attitudes about client and self. Persons experiencing job burnout in the area of child abuse and neglect are
8 frequently seen t o a v o i d work and c l i e n t contact, t o become olockwetchers, t o stereotype c l i e n t s , t o be unable t o concentrate on what t h e c l i e n t i s saying and t o f e e l i m b i l i z e d and h e l p l e s s (Pines, Aronson 8 Ksfry, 1981).
Burnout f o r o h i l d w e l f a r e e o c l a l workers nay a l s o i n v o l v e l n s s o f concern f o r t h e c l i e n t . It i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by emotional exhaustion i n which s t a f f may no longer have any w s i t i v e f e e l i n g s , sympathy o r respect f o r c l i e n t s . A c y n i c a l and dehumanized p e r c e p t i o n o f c l i e n t s nay develop w i t h derogatory l a b e l s being used. As a r e s u l t c l i e n t s are viewed as oomehou deserving o f t h e i r problems and are o f t e n blamed f o r t h e i r own v i c t i m i z a t i o n . Consequently, t h e r e i s e d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n t h e q u a l i t y o f care they r e c e i v e . The c h i l d w e l f a r e worker who "burne o u t " i s unable t o deal w i t h t h e ohronic emotional s t r e s s o f t h e job and t h i s f a i l u r e t o cope 0s" be manifested i n a number o f ways, i n c l u d i n g low morale, impaired performance, absenteeism and h i g h turnover (Berkeley Planning Associates, 1977: Corcoran. 1988;
Maslaoh, 1978: Maelach and Jackson 1981: Perlrnan 1 Hartman 1982).
Stress i n C h i l d Welfare Work i n Newfoundland Concern ha8 been f r e q u e n t l y expressed about the e f f e s t e o f Stre88 and burnout on c h i l d WelPare workers i n the Department of Social Services i n Newfoundland. In s t a f f meetings, workshops, l a b o u r management meetings and o t h e r forums, the s u b j e c t o f s t r e s s end i t s e f f e c t s has been
9 r a i s e d . However, t o date no research has been done I n t h i s ares, t o shed l i g h t on t h e f a c t o r s which cause s t r e s s or p r e c i p i t a t e h i g h l e v e l s o f perceived s t r e e e .
T h i s s t u d y w i l l address t h i s problem and w i l l examine t h e f a c t o r s v h i c h may i n f l u e n c e s t r e s s among o h i l d welfare s M i a l workers. I t w i l l examine the e x t e n t t o which workers p e r c e i v e or experience v a r y i n g l e v e l s of s t r e s s . I t i s intended t o c l a r i f y t h e n a t u r e o f t h e problem 07 strees m o n g c h i l d w e l f a r e workers i n terms o f t h e i r p s r o e p t i o n of t h e s o c i a l . personal and s i t u a t i o n a l f a c t o r s which are seen t o cause strese. By understanding t h e s t r e s s o r s which a f f e c t workera, and t h e e x t e n t t o which these f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t e t o j o b s t r e s s , one can oonsider ways t o prevent or a l l e v i a t e s t r e s s . As a consequence one can then h e l p t o enhance t h s w e l l - b e i n g o f workers and improve t h e l e v e l o f s e r v i o e t o c l i e n t s .
10 CHAPTER 2
The purposes o f t h i s study are: ( 1 ) i d e n t i f y elements i n the Newfoundland C h i l d Welfare Work environment which 80~l.l worker8 P B P C B ~ V B as being s t r e s s f u l ; ( 2 ) t o determine t o what e x t e n t s t r e e s i s being experienced by these e o d a l workers; ( 3 ) t o examine t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n s t r e s s l e v e l s perceived by workers i n d i f f e r e n t work a e t t i n g a and w i t h d i f f e r e n t biographical backgrounds and;
( 4 ) t o i d e n t i f y the ways i n which these c h i l d welfare workers oope w i t h s t r e s s .
Rationale: The r a t i o n a l e f o r t h i s e x p l o r a t o r y study i s described below: Twenty years o f professional work e ~ p e r i e n c e w i t h t h e Department o f Social Services i n t h i s province has l a d t h i s researcher t o conclude t h a t t h e r e i s a d e f i n i t e need f o r research i n t h i s area o f s o c i a l work.
Managers, supervisors end s o c i a l workers through s t a f f meetings, workshops and conferences have r e g u l a r l y emphasized the s t r e s s f u l n e s e o f c h i l d welfare work. Yet t o date, no research has been sonplsted i n t h i s d r p a r t n e n t t o document e i t h e r the osuses o f t h i s s t r e s s o r t h e perceived l e v e l s o f stress.
Although t h e term s t r e s s i s used f r e q u e n t l y i n everyday conversation, i t i s both understood and explained d i f f e r e n t l y by d i f f e r e n t people. In t h e area o f c h i l d
11 w e l f a r e i n t h i s Province l i t t l e i s kmun regarding t h e s p e ~ i f i c elements i n t h e work environment which cause s t r e s s and the degree t o which s t r e s s i s a c t u a l l y experienced. No s t u d i e s i n t h i s area have been c a r r i e d o u t i n Newfoundland and Labrador. The question i s r a i s e d as t o whether t h e f i n d i n g s o f s t u d i e s completed elsewhere r e l a t e d t o t h e s u b j e c t o f s t r e s s amongst c h i l d w e l f a r e workers a r e g e n e r a l i z a b l e t o t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f c h i l d welfare workers i n Newfoundland. I t i s suggested t h a t t h i s Province has unique c h a r a ~ t e r i s t i ~ s hio oh may i n f l u e n c e the f i n d i n g s o f a study o f s t r e s s among c h i l d w e l f a r e workers here. The l a r g e l y rural n a t u r e o f communities, a d i s t i n c t c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y , a w i d e l y dispersed p o p u l a t i o n ( u n t i l r e c e n t l y a l a c k o f oommuniostion among oommunitise), and e seaeonel economy a r e f a c t o r s which make Newfoundland unique. One can reasonably speculate t h a t t h e r e s u l t s o f a study on s t r e s s i n t h i s Provinoe w i l l be affected by these v a r i a b l e s . Also, i t i s a general perception t h a t t h e s t a b i l i t y o f t h e f a m i l y u n i t supported by t h e extended f a m i l y i n t h i s province nay, a t l e a s t u n t i l r e c e n t l y , have c o n t r i b u t e d t o fever instanoes of f a m i l y d y s f u n s t i o n ( S u l l i v a n , 1998). One could question, t h e r e f o r e , whether or n o t t h e oomplexity and s e v e r i t y of f a m i l y problems, normally d e a l t w i t h by c h i l d welfare workers i n t h i s province. e x i s t t o the sam degree as i n o t h e r p a r t s o f Canada o r t h e U.S.A. (where most s t u d i e s have been done]. On t h e o t h e r hand, one oould speculate t h a t t h e
12 impact o f f a m i l y problems such as c h i l d abuse, which occur i n r u r a l Newfoundland, may have s more traumatic impact than i n urban areas where such occurrences are more common. For example. recent events r e l a t e d t o the church and c h i l d abuse i n t h i s Province have shocked t h e p u b l i c consciousness (Evening Talesram, October 17, 1988). Aleo. Departnent o f S o c i a l Services s t a t i s t i c s show a dramatic annual increase i n r e p o r t e d c h i l d abuse cases Prom 438 i n 1987 t o 710 oases i n 196s.
I t 1s t h i s w r i t e r ' e view t h a t t h e scale o f some s o d s 1 problems i n t h i s Provinoe r a y be d i f f e r e n t then i n o t h e r economically depressed sreas. T h i s speoulation i s supported by others. For example, the Newfoundland H e a l t h Review (1987) by t h e P r o v i n c i a l Department o f H e a l t h r e p o r t s t h a t t h e s u i c i d e r a t e f o r t h i s Province i u l e a s than h a l f t h e n a t i o n a l average. T h i s phenomenon e x i s t s c o n t r a r y t o t h e normal p o s i t i v e o o r r e l a t i o n between h i g h unemployment and h i g h s u i c i d e r a t e s reported elsewhere.
Hi11 (19831 r e p o r t s t h a t d e s p i t e an unemployment r a t e i n t h e 1970's which was almost double t h e n a t i o n a l average, t h i s p r o v i n c e reported a l o v e r i n c i d e n c e o f s u i c i d e , homicide, divorce, n e n t a l illness,and m o r t a l i t y due t o c i r r h o s e s of the l i v e r than the wore economically prosperous provinces suoh as A l b e r t a , B r i t i s h Columbia and Ontario. S i m i l a r differences f o r t h i s provinoe may be seen f o r o t h e r s o c i a l problem areas. For example, f a m i l y problems r e q u i r i n g o h i l d
13 welfare i n t e r v e n t i o n may n o t be p o s i t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h the h i g h unenPloyment i n t h i s province. I f these d i f f e r e n c e s do e x i s t , they w i l l have i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r s study on s t r s s s - r e l a t e d f a c t o r s f o r o h i l d welfare workera.
Another unique feature i n t h i s province i s the h i g h c h i l d welfare caseloads i n comparison t o o t h e r provinces.
Since heavy workload i s sometimes seen as s source o f s t r e s s (Cherniss 1980, and Maslaoh 1976). one can reasonably assume t h a t t h e high caseloads i n t h i s province may c o n t r i b u t e t o high s t r e s s among s o c i a l workers.
In general, s o c i a l work i n t h e f i e l d o f o h i l d w e l f a r e makes a number of heavy demands on t h e e m t i o n a l l i f e o f i t s ' p r a e t l t i o n e r s . Handling very d i f f i c u l t s i t u a t i o n s w i t h l i m i t e d resources, r e g u l a r c o n t a c t w i t h demanding, o f t e n reeitrta..: c l i e n t s , and having r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r s i g n i f i c a n t aepects of c h i l d ~ e n ' s l i v e s are a l l f a c t o r s whioh can erode t h e idealism, c o n v i c t i o n , and enthusiasm o f t h e s o c i a l worker. P r o t e o t i v e s e r v i c e workers i n p a r t i c u l a r a r e seen t o experience s t r e s s i n r e l a t i o n t o r o l e ambiauity and r o l e c o n f l i c t (Kadushin. 1974). T h i e study w i l l determine whether t h i s i s s i m i l a r l y t r u e i n Newfoundland, o r whether t h e r e e r e v a r i a t i o n s r e l a t e d t o geographical area or access t o c o r n u n i t y resources. Such F a c t o r s may be a eource of s t r e s s and c r e a t e c o n f l i c t f o r t h e worker, o u t o f s d e s i r e t o meet c l i e n t s ' needs b u t r e c o g n i z i n g a t the same t i m t h e inadequacy of resources t o respond a p p r o p r i a t e l y .
14 S t a t i s t i c s f o r t h i s province i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e number of c h i l d r e n admitted t o h o s p i t a l f o r p a y o h i a t r i s care i s much h i g h e r than t h e n a t i o n a l average (Department o f Health S t a t i s t i c s , 1988). It i s recognized t h a t i n m s t Newfoundland communities t h e r e i s complete l a c k of community based p s y c h i s t r i o services. Whether t h i s can account f o r t h e higher (average) h o s p i t a l admiesions i s uncertain.
Nevertheless, s o c i a l workers may experience s t r e s s from t h e discrepanoy between t h e i r d e s i r e t o h e l p c l i e n t s and the lack o f adequate resources.
C h i l d welfare workers i n t h i s province are s m ~ l o y e d by the Government o f Elewfoundland and Labrador and, t h e r e f o r e , work i n a system which i s p r i m a r i l y aooountable t o government d e c i s i o n makers who c o n t r o l the S o d a 1 Services' budget. I n such a s e t t i n g budget r e s t r a i n t s w i l l a f f e c t t h e l e v e l o f s e r v i c e a v a i l a b l e t o meet t h e needs o f c h i l d w e l f a r e programs. Recant P r o v i n c i a l Governlnent concerns r e l a t e d t o r i s i n g h e a l t h and s o d a 1 s e r v i c e c o s t s have placed increaeed emphaeis on f i n a n o i a l a c c o u n t a b i l i t y . Because of t h i s focus, supervisors and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s face t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f balancing t h e i n i t i a t i v e s of s c o s t - b e n e f i t f i n a n o i a l m o n i t o r i n g approach w i t h s e r v i c e considerations t o c l i e n t s . Under such circunstances, Caseworkere may perceive t h e i r supervisors as being more concerned w i t h organization and bureaucracy than they are w i t h c l i e n t needs (Wasserman. 1971). This may be e f a c t o r
15 c o n t r i b u t i n g t o s o c i a l worker s t r e s s and w i l l be explored i n t h i s study.
I t ha8 been suggested t h a t b e i n g able t o i d e n t i f y t h e s t r e s s o r e i n one's l i f e i s t h e f i r s t important step i n
%treSe reduotion. This study w i l l i d e n t i f y the s t r e s s o r s t h a t c h i l d welfare workers experience and w i l l i d e n t i f y t h e ways i n which they cape w i t h streea. Knowing what t h e s t r e s s o r s are i n t h e work environment i s t h e f i r s t step i n l e a r n i n g t o cope more e f f e c t i v e l y . Such knowledge and understanding may be the basis f o r remedial and/or p r e v e n t a t i v e action. Workers may be empowered and motivated t o a c t and t h u s imp~ove t h e i r personal well-being (Oirdano 6 Everly. 1979).
T h i s e x p l o r a t o r y study on s o c i a l workers' perception of s t r e s s i n the work environment w i l l provide some understanding 07 t h e f a c t o r s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e t o s t r e s s as a b a s i s f o r b e t t e r planning of i n t e r v e n t i o n s t r a t e g i e s (Donovan 1987).
The study o f s t r e s s , i d e n t i f y i n g s t r e s s f a c t o r s and 8 u g g B ~ t i n g ways f o r move e f f e c t i v e coping nay f o s t e r b e t t e r p e r f ~ r m a n o e and more optimal l e v e l s o f personal well-being.
Learning t o avoid s t r e s s - r e l a t e d s i t u a t i o n s can r e s u l t i n b e t t e r s e r v i c e t o c l i e n t s . For t h e management o f s t r e s s t o be e f f e c t i v e , i t s n a t u r e and o r i g i n s must be i d e n t i f i e d and s t r a t e g i e s f o r Control must be devised (Chinnery, 1979).
16 CHAPTER 3
L i t e r a t u r e Review
Streen and t h e work Envir- The work environment pl&ces many demands on employeee, which r e s u l t i n the B X D B ~ ~ B ~ C B of S t r e w f o r Some PBDPlB. Stre88 85 defined by Selye (1976) i s seen as t h e "on-specific response o f t h e body t o any demand made upon it. The i n t e n s i t y and d u r a t i o n o f t h i s a d a p t a t i o n p a t t e r n prepares t h e organism f o r f i g h t or f l i g h t . I t i s 88sumed t o be c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o the r a t e o f wear and t e a r i n the organism, and as a consequence i s probably r e l a t e d t o m o r b i d i t y and m r t e l i t y . S t r e s s i s n o t r e l a t e d t o one s p e c i f i c disease b u t r a t h e r i s seen as r e l a t e d t o a v a r i e t y o f diseases. I n o t h e r words, if environmental changes occur f r e q u e n t l y , a r e of g r e a t magnitude and/or t h e organism i s ~ a r t i e u l s r l y vulnerable, s t r e s s r e a c t i o n s u s u a l l y increase i n i n t e n s i t y end d u r a t i o n (Levi. 1972).
Job s t r e s s may be seen as s c o n d i t i o n i n which somt f a c t o r , or combination o f f a c t o r s w i t h i n t h e v o r k BnYiVOnment, i n t e r a c t s w i t h t h e worker t o d i s r u p t h i e l h e r p s ~ c h o l o g i c a l or p h y s i o l o g i c a l h m e o s t a s i s . It i e o l e a r from informal Observation t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s respond t o i d e n t i c a l j o b s i t u a t i o n s i n very d i f f e r e n t ways. For t h i e reason French and others a t t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r Soaial Re8earch. U n i v e r s i t y o f Michigan, conceive of j o b s t r e s s as
17 a poor person-environment f i t (Margo1 i s 6 Kroes. 1974).
When the worker'= needs are f r u s t r a t e d or h i s a b i l i t i e e mismatched w i t h r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , j o b r e l a t e d s t r a i n i s l i k e l y t o occur ( M a r a o l i s k Kroes 1974).
Job s t r e s s i s seen to have a s e r i o u s e f f e c t on employee health. Beehr and Newman's (1978) review o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e showed c o n s i s t e n t r e p l i c a t i o n o f f i n d $ n g s which saw s t r e s s on t h e j o b as r e l a t e d t o employee h e a l t h and well being.
Caplan e t a l . 6 (1980) study o f 23 d i f f e r e n t occupations shows t h a t s e v e r a l major e f f e c t s o f j o b = t r e e s h o l d acroes
~ c c u p a t i o n s , and t h a t p a r t i c u l a r s t r e s s o r e vary f r o m occupation t o occupation. These e f f e c t s a r e job d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n , psychological symptoms such as d e p r e s s i r l and a n x i e t y and somatic symptoms such as headaches and v a r i o u s r i s k f a c t o r s i n coronary h e a r t diseeea.
A study b y Shirom e t . a l . (1973). m o n g 782 rnale Kibbutz members, found t h a t there was a higher c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e j o b s t l e s s o r , r o l e c o n f l i o t , and h e a r t disease among w h i t e c o l l a r workers than among b l u e c o l l a r workers.
That i s , w h i t e c o l l a r workers experience h e a r t disease and r o l e c o n f l i c t t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t than blue o o l l a r workers.
Stress and t h e Humn Servioes: Berkeley Planning A s s o d a t e s (1977) completed an e v a l u a t i o n of c h i l d abuse and n e g l e c t demonetretion p r o j e c t s . From t h e i r observations t h e y conslude t h a t human s e r v i c e jobs pore demands t h a t are very d i f f e r e n t f r o m those of o t h e r p r o f e s s i o n s because
18 workers must use themeelves an t h e v e h i c l e s f o r meeting t h e needs o f c l i e n t s , who i n t u r n do n o t always express g r a t i t u d e or appreciation. Msslach (1978), i n an a r t i c l e entit1ed"Burned Out", describes t h e emotional demande posed by c l i e n t s , and Cherniss (1980) notes t h a t a p r o f e s s i o n a l mystique c o n t r i b u t e s t o burnout by c r e s t i n g u n r e a l i s t i c expectations among new human s e r v i c e workers, t h e i r c l i e n t s , and t h e i r agencies.
Edelwich and Brodsky (1983) s t a t e t h a t u n r e a l i s t i c expectations o f t h e r a p i h t s (e.9. expecting t o be successful w i t h a l l c l i e n t s i n s p i t e of t h e i r having a v a r i e t y of problems, and expeoting immediate or q u i c k success) can be d e v a s t a t i l ~ g t o t h e wirker.
A88888in9 the e x t e n t of t h e r a p e u t i c success i e d i f f i c u l t t o accomplish i n t h e h e l p i ~ t g professions. This l a c k o f c r i t e r i a f o r measuring accomplishment i s found t o be a source o f s t r e s s f o r human s e r v i c e workers (Cherniss 1980, Cherniss end E g n a t i o ~ . 1978, Daley, 1979, Deutch, 1884. Edelwich I Brodsky. 1983. Farber and H a i f e t z , 1982, Pines and Kafry, 1978.). Therapists r e p o r t t h a t t h e i r i n a b l l l t y t o h e l p an a c u t e l y d i s t r e s s e d o l i e n t , and the l a c k o f observable i n d i c a t o r s o f progress w i t h c l i e n t s were two v e r y h i g h s t r e s s f a c t o r s i n therapeutio work (Oeutch. 1984, Hasenfeld 1982, and Wainer 1982).
The Farber and H e i f e t z study (1982) r e f e r r e d t o above p o i n t s o u t t h a t when psychotherapeutic work i s p a r t i c u l a r l y
i s f r u s t r a t i n g and o n l y m i n i n e l l y successful
-
and t h i s may o f t e n be t h e case when one i s overworked o r d e a l i n g w i t h s u i c i d a l , homicidal, depressed, o r e s p e c i a l l y r e s i s t a n t p a t i e n t s - d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t and burnout occur. The nature of t h e t h e r a p e u t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p between c h i l d w e l f a r e worker and c l i e n t i s o b v i o u s l y s i m i l a r end r e l e v a n t t o t h i s f i e l d .Complemnting t h e work o f Farber and H e i f e t z (1982) i s t h e f i n d i n g t h a t , among t h e s t a f f of community mental h e a l t h program^, a sen08 o f accomplishment i n one's work i s t h e s i n g l e most i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t o r t o j o b s a t i s f a c t i o n ( a h e r n i s 8 and Egnatios, 1978). Chernies (1980) concludes t h a t achieving a sense o f e f f i c a c y i s perhaps one of t h e s t r o n g e s t j o b r e l a t e d goals t h s t human s e r v i c e workers b r i n g t o t h e i r work. With t h e c u r r e n t e w h a s i e on a c c o u n t a b i l i t y and program e v a l u a t i o n , i t i s recognized t h a t t h e r e i s l i t t l e i n the way o f ongoing e v a l u a t i o n t h s t provides f r e q u e n t r e l e v a n t feedback t o t h e p r a c t i t i o n e r . Thus t h e worker i s f r e q u e n t l y unaware o f whether h i s e f f o r t s are viewed as succesr:ul.
S i m i l a r l y . Streepy (1981) found f r o m a study o f 108 d i r e c t s e r v i c e p r o v i d e r s f r o m 12 New Jersey f a m i l y s e r v i c e agencies t h a t t h e g r e a t e r t h e p o s i t i v e feedback f r o m c l i e n t s t h e lower the b u r n o u t scare. Likewise, i n a survey o f 215 poyshologists, s o c i a l workers, and p s y c h i a t r i e t s , 74% o f t h e respondents o i t e d p e r c e i v e d laok o f t h e r a p e u t i c sucoess as t h e s i n g l e most s t r e s s f u l aspect o f t h e i r work (Farber end
20 H e i f e t z 1982).
S o c i a l Workers and Stre- Pines and Kafry (1978) r e p o r t t h a t s t r e s s among s o c i a l workers w i l l v a r y depending on t h e p a r t i c u l a r demands o f t h e j o b and on t h e resources t h a t are a v a i l a b l e t o t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l . S o c i a l work p r a c t i s e i s oharac;terized by t h e use o f empathic a b i l i t i e s whish make t h e p r a c t i t i o n e r v u l n e r a b l e t o j o b s t r e s s . In t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c l i e n t - c e n t r e d o r i e n t a t i o n t h e focua i s almost e x s l u s i v e l y on t h e c l i e n t and l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n i e g i v e n t o t h e s t r e s s e s encountered b y the p r o f e s s i o n a l .
Pines and K a f r y (1978) conducted a s t u d y oP s t r e s s among 129 s o c i a l workers i n t h e f i e l d o f s o c i a l s e r v i s e e and found t h a t eleven p e r o e n t o f the s o c i a l workers showed t h e m s t extreme form o f work tedium. They r e p o r t e d t h a t tedium was s i g n i f i s a n t l y and n e g a t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h such j o b s a t i s f a c t i o n i n d i o a s a s work a t t i t u d e s , o v e r a l l j o b s a t i s f a c t i o n , l i k i n g f o r t h e job. t h e caseload, and t h e agency. A p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n was seen w i t h a d e s i r e t o leave t h e j o b and t h e develorrrnent o f negative a t t i t u d e s toward c l i e n t s .
Streas amng c h i l d welfare workers i s a l s o r e p o r t e d . H a r r i s o n (1978). i n a Tennessee study. surveyed 112 c h i l d p r o t e c t i o n s e r v i c e workers end found t h a t they experienced h i g h l e v e l s o f s t r e s s i n r e l a t i o n t o r o l e ambiguity, r o l e c o n f l i c t and low degrees o f s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h p r o n o t i o n a l ODPOrtUnitieS and w i t h t h e work i t s e l f .
2 1 Role c o n f l i c t as a source o f s t r e s s i s seen t o e x i s t when an i n d i v i d u a l i n a p a r t i c u l a r work r o l e i s t o r n by c o n f l i c t i n g job demands or doing t h i n g s t h a t s l h e does n o t want t o do (Jayaratne 6 Chess, 1984; Larocco, House 6 French, 1980). For example, t h e c o n f l i c t between o r g a n i z a t i o n a l demands and Drofeosional standards creates s t r a i n f o r t h e s o c i a l worker who cannot meet b o t h demands a t the same t i n e . S/he may be r e q u i r e d t o complete reDorts w i t h i n a given sohedule whish l i m i t s h e r / h i s a b i l i t y t o p r o v i d e t h e c o u n s e l l i n g time needed by f a m i l i e s i n c r i s i s
I (Green 7966, K a t r 6 Kahn 1978).
Muoh o f the r o l e s t r a i n i n c h i l d w e l f a r e work seems t o o r i g i n a t e from t h e apparent c o n t r a d i c t i o n between t h e s o c i a l work r o l e s of advocate, broker and enabler and t h e s p e c i f i c demands of a S e t t i n g i n whlch the a o d s l worker operating under the a u t h o r i t y o f law, o f t e n has t o apprehend c h i l d r e n . The d i f f i c u l t y o f i n t e g r a t i n g these demands i s seen as an e x r n ~ l e o f r o l e c o n f l i c t (Harrison, 1918). Harrlson.8 s t u d y found t h a t t h e mean score f o r r o l e c o n f l i s t among 112 c h i l d p r o t e c t i v e s e r v i o e workers was h i g h e r than t h a t o f any o t h e r sample found, and t h a t t h e mean r o l e ambiguity score f o r t h e Sam group Was found t o be h l g h e r than t h a t Of any sample except one.
I n s t i t u t i o n s 1 d i e r e g a r d f o r c l i e n t s i n f a v o u r of a d m i n i s t r a t i v e , f i n a n c i a l , and bureauoratic needs i e seen t o be a major source o f s t r e s s (Cherniss, 1980. Edelwich and
22 Brodsky, 1983, Kargsr. 1981. Lewis. 1980). When agency resources and/or p r i o r i t i e s d i c t a t e a p a r t i c u l a r l e v e l o f s e r v i c e t o 01ients which workers f e e l i s incdequats, t h e worker i s placed i n the p o s i t i o n o f appearing t o support a standard w i t h which s/he i s i n e s s e n t i a l disagreement. Such dilemmas can produce i n t o l e r a b l e i n t e r n a l i z e d c o n f l i c t s and inner-directed anger (Lewis. 1980).
Other stressore noted i n the l i t e r a t u r e i n c l u d e performanse o f work t h a t i s emotionally demanding, c e r t a i n p e r s o n a l i t y o h a r a s t e r i s t i o s o f the workers, and a person-centred o r i e n t a t i o n (House, 1981: McFadden, 1980:
Pines. Aronson and Ksfry. 1981). Cherniss, 1980. noted t h a t since the p r a c t i c e o f therapy i s focused e n t i r e l y on c l i e n t s who need services, ths professional r o l e i s defined by
~ l i e n t s ' needs. C l i e n t s ' needs i n c h i l d welfare a i t u s t i o n s are o f t e n so great t h a t the worker's emotional resources a r e s e r i o u s l y taxed. F o r example. answering a c h i l d abuse = a l l a t n i g h t i n a h i g h c r i m e ares, working w i t h a o h i l d who has been permanently damaged p h y s i c a l l y or emotionally, or removal o f a c h i l d from h i s n a t u r a l parents a v e r t h e i r s t r o n g objections plaoes considerable s t r a i n on e worker.
Maslach (1978) reports i n her observational study
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"Ones o c i a l worker i n c h i l d w e l f a r e s t a t e d t h a t if he d i d n ' t leave h i s work a t the o f f i c e , he could hardly stand t o face h i 8 own children. Likewise, when he was a t work, he could n o t t h i n k of h i s family because he would then oversympathize
23 w i t h h i 8 c l i e n t s . l e a d i n g t o unbearable emotional s t r e s s "
(P. 18). Other s t u d i e s have a l s o found high burnout r a t e s among =ere p r o v i d e r s working w i t h c h i l d abuse c l i e n t s . (Daley, 1979, Lecroy k Rank 1986, Maslach, 19821.
The s o c i a l worker whose r o l e i s t o seek out, explore.
empathize and a r t i c u l a t e t h e f e e l i n g dimension. i n a sense u n d e r l i n e s and h i g h l i g h t s t h e a g i t a t i o n , h o s t i l i t y , aggression, and depression t h a t a c l i e n t may be f e e l i n g . The a c t u a l Procees o f c o u n s e l l i n g may i n i t s e l f add t o t h e d i s t r e s s e d f e e l i n g s o f t h e c l i e n t . The worker's assumption.
of course, i s t h a t t h i s focus, if handled properly, w i l l l e a d t o r e l i e f Tor t h e c l i e n t . Regardless o f outcome, t h i s t y p e o f Process places the worker i n a h i g h l y emotional environment c h a r a c t e r i z e d by considerable emotional upheaval and t u r m o i l (McFsdden 1980).
The c o n t i n u a l exposure t o events such as c h i l d and wife abuse. d e s t r u c t i v e m a r i t a l arguments. d i f f i o u l t c h i l d placement decisions. depression. i n j u r y , death and s u i c i d e can c r e a t e what has been termed an occupational hazard f o r t h e s o c i a l worker. The s o c i a l worker absorbs and responda t o these t e n s i m - s a t u r a t e d circumstances, which t a k e t h e i r t o l l i n terms of the s o c i a l worker's f e e l i n g s o f s t r e s s and a n x i e t y (McFadden 19801.
It would Beem t h e n t h a t the a f f e o t i v e nature o f s o c i a l work as a p r o f e s s i o n has been i d e n t i f i e d as s major source of a n x i e t y , t e n s i o n and s t r e s s f o r the p r a o t i t i o n e r .
24 HcFadden (1980) r e f e r s t o "encounter s t r e s s " experienced by people who are simply exposed t o h i g h l e v e l s o f c o n t a c t w i t h others. He s t a t e s t h s t c e r t a i n jabs which i n v o l v e v i r t u a l l y n o t h i n g e l s e b u t c o n t s c t w i t h people, p a r t i c u l a r l y unpleasant emotional contact, a r e extremely s t r e s s f u l f o r the people involved. People i n these jobs are seen t o have s u b s t a n t i a l adjustment d i f f i c u l t i e s l i n k e d t o t h e 'encounter stress' o f t h e i r d a i l y a c t i v i t i e s .
McFsdden (1980) a l s o notes t h a t besides the emotional component i n v o l v e d i n e o c i a l work, another feature promoting s t r e s s appears t o be t h e " o r i s i s ' f a c t o r found i n many s e t t i n g s . In personal i n t e r v i e w s w i t h s o c i a l workers f r o m d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s o f work, t h e n o t i o n t h a t c r i s e s were p r e v a l e n t and s t r e s s f u l seemed t o be q u i t e cornon.
The nature of s o c i a l work, according t o McFadden (1980). i s such t h a t i t can cause a l i e n a t i o n of i t s ' p r a c t i t i o n e r s fmm t h e i r middle-class peer group, a P o t e n t i a l l y important support group. As human s e r v i c e profeasionels, s o c i a l workers may f e e l more undsrstandlng of 600ia1 deviants and as a consequence h o l d b e l i e f s whioh are unpopuler w i t h h i s / h e r middle-class peer group,
McFadden (1980) a l s o notes t h s t s o c i a l workers are caught between two d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l i d e o l o g i e s . On t h e one hand t h e r e i s S o c i a l Darwinism and t h e P u r i t a n e t h i c which VIeWs people as responsible f o r t h e i r own f a t e and d e s t i n y . On t h e o t h e r hand I s the humanitarian athoe which b e l i e v e s
25 thet s o d e t y plays the key role in terms of providing conditions. which can foster problems or p r m t e uell-boing.
E v e ~ y o n e is potentially dependent and the humanitarian ethos ensU1-es the obligation of Support from the cmmunity.
Social work falls on the humanitarian side of this ideologicel dispute. However, society fluotvates between these beliefs. The s o d a 1 worker, as s representative of society, is faced with the diPficult task of operation- alizing theae beliefs. For example, Kadushin (1974) reports that the child welPere worker ie comissioned by o o d o t y to perform certain tasks end then s o d e t y denies him the resouroes to complete the tasks. Kadushin (1974) states that the child welfare worker has to implement s ~ o l i c y that reflects society's ambivalence and has to resolve, inside himself, the behavioral inplicationa of thet ambivalence.
Mc Fsddsn 11980) also refers t o the ~rofession of social work as stress provoking since it lacks those 'tools of the trade" which help establish a firm social identity.
Doctors have stethosc~pes, m c h a n i c s wrenches, eto. He refers to the marginal position of sooial work among other
and oites poor pay aa one indicator of marginality.
It ha8 also been noted by writers that people who work in the human service field tend to be sensitive t o the needs of others, humanitarian, sympathetic and they want to help (Cherniss. 1980). Most social workers acknowledge the fact
2s t h a t they enjoy working w i t h people aa one o f t h e major ressons f o r t h e i r choice o f a o c i a l work as a career ( P i n e s L Kafry, 1978). S o c i a l workers avo responsive t o t h e dedicatory e t h i c , and as Kadushin has s t a t e d t h e "work i s n o t seen as a j o b b u t as a c a l l i n g ' i n t h a t the reward i s inherent i n t h e a c t of g i v i n g (Kadushin, 1974).
Persons w i t h these c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s work i n an O E C U ~ ? & ~ O ~ t h a t has s person-centred o r i e n t a t i o n . While most human r e l a t i o n s h i p s are seen as s y m m t r i c s l t h e t h e r a p e u t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p i s viewed as ooaplernentary
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t h a ti e , t h e f l o w o f emotional a u p p l i e a goea one way w i t h t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r emotional d e p l e t i o n on the p a r t o f t h e worker (Pines and Kafry, 1978). Those very a t t r i b u t e s t h a t make some people i n t e r e s t e d i n and g u a l i f i e d f o r socis1 work are a l s o t h e a t t r i b u t e s t h a t make them s e n s i t i v e t o t h e many emotional pressures i n v o l v e d i n t h a t work. The i n t e r m i n g l i n g of personal c h a r a c t e r i s t i o s w i t h work i s one of t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t occupational problems faced by t h e s o c i a l worker who i s o o n s t a n t l y exposed t o e m o t i o n a l l y e v o c a t i v e experiences (Kadushin, 1974).
A l l i e d P m f e s s i o n a l s
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Teachers and N u r s x Kendell (19821, i n h e r survey o f 588 r e g u l a r classroom teachers, examined several c a t e g o r i e s of stressore. She found t h a t most teachers i n her study experienced moderate l e v e l s of s t r e s s . The oategories o f T i n e Management, ParentlTeacher R e l a t i o n s , Student Behaviour and Teacher/Teaoher r e l a t i o n s$
27 Were considered by high school teachers se being
eignificantly stressful for them. Teachers experienos stress with having to teaoh children of below average intelligence, with spreading their time and energies over many areas, and with the peroeived restrictions of life in a rural community. Teachers with 20 or more years of experience reported significantly higher levels of stress than teachers with four or less years of experience:
teeohers in medium sized sohools (populstion of 201-400) perceived signifieently higher levels o f stress than did teachere from larger and smaller sire schools.
Also Linehan (1987) conducted a study of stress m o n g 235 nurses in a major health care facility in St. John's.
Newfoundland. Wilson's instrument Was modified for use with the nursing profession
.
The findings reveal similarities to the results of the teacher stress study showing that nurses experienced moderate levels of job stress.mrsonallDemoars~htc Variablesi Individual vulnerability will affect the extent to which streeeors influence individual worksre. Qirdano end Everly (19791, note that aspects of personality are implicated in stress.
They observe that the areas of self-concept. Consistent behavioral patterns (Type A and Type 81 and anxious reactivity affect stress level* among individuals. For example, poor self-expectation will likely lead to failure at behavioral tasks. The Type A PeraonalitY, a
28 c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p a t t e r n of goal-oriented, ego-involved behavlour, i s h i g h l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h severs s t r e s s and coronary h e a r t disease. Also. they note t h a t anxiety reaction, a c h r o n i c a n x i e t y or f e a r i s p a r t of a feedback process t h a t perpetuates and adds t o t h e s t r e s s response and l o ~ e r s performance.
Nancy R a t l i f f Li988), i n a review o f the l i t e r a t u r e on s t r e s s among human s e r v i c e workers, a l s o r e f e r s t o the p e r s o n s l l t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f workers which i n f l u e n c e t h e e x t e n t t o which they w i l l experience s t r e s s . She r e f e r s t o persons w i t h n e u r o t i c a n x i e t y as being more prone t o s t r e s s and burnout. She notes t h a t f l e x i b i l i t y i s another p e r s o n a l i t y t r s i t t h a t affects s t r e s s r e a c t i o n s because . f l e x i b l e persons f i n d i t d i f f i c u l t t o s e t l i m i t s end say no t o e x t r a demands. The combination of the emotional i n t e n s i t y of most human s e r v i c e work, the s e l e o t i v e sample o f people who ChD08e t o w o ~ k i n t h i s area, and t h e c l i e n t - c e n t r e d o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e work c o n t r i b u t e t o h i g h l e v e l s o f s t r e s s (Pines, Aronson and K a f r y , 1981).
Personal/denographio f a c t o r s such as m a r i t a l status, work experience, age, education and gender s t a t u s are seen as s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o s t r e s s l e v e l s . S i m i l a r t o Maslsch's research (1982). Linehan's study I19811 confirmed a r e l a t i o n s h i p between m a r i t a l s t a t u s end j o b strees.
Single end d i v o r c e d care D m v i d s r s tend t o be a t g r e a t e r r i s k of s u f f e r i n g s t r e s s - r e l a t e d symptoms than do married
29 care providers.
With regard t o work experience, a o l i e n t f o l l o w up study by I s a b e l Wolesk (1979) i n e i g h t f a m i l y couneelling agencies found t h a t workers w i t h eleven or w r o years o f experience WBPB 1868 e f f e c t i v e i n t h e i r :;rk rnan those w i t h less experience. I t was then proposed t h a t burnout might account f o r the lowered effectiveness o f the more e x w r i e n c e d workers. Klaq, Kennedy and Kendell-Woodward, i n t h e i r study o f teaohers (1983), found t h a t the m r e experienced teachers (20 o r more years) reported the moat StrB88.
However. Berkeley Planning Associates (1977), i n an e v a l u a t i o n of C h i l d Abuse O e m n a t r a t i o n Project=. found t h a t burnout occurred more o f t e n among younger and l e s s experienced workers. The s m e r e s u l t was found by Strsepy (1981) and Maslach a Jackson (1981). Also, Corsoran (1986) found from a study of 139 s o c i a l workers i n Texas t h a t as p r a c t i t i o n e r s g o t o l d e r and gained Inore human s e r v i c e r e l a t e d experience they experienced less emotional exhaustion and depersonalization.
~ g e was g e n e r a l l y found t o be n e g a t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h burnout. Beck (1981) c m e t o t h i s conclusion from a study o f 244 c o u n s e l l o r s i n f a m i l y s e r v i c e agencies across the U n i t e d States. S i m i l a r f i n d i n g s were reported by Msslach 6 Jackson (1981). Also Freudenberger (1980). and Maslaoh (1982) reported t h a t younger care providers a r e more
