People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria
Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research
8 MAI 1945 UNIVERSITY / GUELMA ةملاق / 1945 يام 8 ةعماج FACULTY OF LETTERS AND LANGUAGES تاغللا و بادلآا ةيلك DEPARTMENT OF LETTERS & ENGLISH LANGUAGE ةيزيلجنلااةغللا و بادلآا مسق
The Attitude of EFL Students’ and Teachers’ toward the Role of Self-esteem in Raising Students’ Autonomy: Case of
Third Year Students at the University of 08 Mai 1945 Guelma.
A Dissertation Submitted to the Department of Letters and English Language in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Master Degree in Language and Culture.
Condidate:
Adala MERANI
BOARD OF EXAMINERS
Chairwoman: Mrs. Ilhem CHEKkAT (MA.A) University of 8 Mai 1945 Guelma Supervisor: Mrs. Hasna HENAINIA (MA.B) University of 8 Mai 1945- Guelma Examiner: Mr. Bilal ZENNOU (MA.B) University of 8 Mai 1945- Guelma
June 2018
i Dedication
To my beloved parents whose love always strengthen my will To my lovely brothers and my aunt
To all my friends with whom I shared the university life with its Lights and shadows.
ii Acknowledgment
First and foremost, praise be to ALLAH without whose support this humble work could not have been achieved.
From the first step of this research to the last draft, my gratitude goes to my supervisor Mrs. Hasna HENAINIA for her keen guidance and encouragement in time of great need.
I also gratefully acknowledge the committee members Mrs. Ilhem CHEKKAT who has agreed to preside the jury, and Mr. Bilal ZENNOU who has accepted to examine my Master dissertation.
Last but not least, I would like to thank Mr. Mohamed Walid CHETTIBI and Mr. Mahfoud ALLI ZOUI who accepted to answer the questions of the interview.
iii Abstract
The present study purports itself to investigate teachers and learners’ attitudes towards the role of self-esteem in raising learner’s autonomy. The hypothesis of this research is that if learner has a high self-esteem, then their autonomy would increase. Moreover, it seeks to find out third year students’ level of self-esteem and how it affects their autonomy. To reach this objective, we reviewed relevant literature in order to gather information about the two key concepts of our study. A questionnaire was addressed to 100 third year students and structured interview was held with their teachers from the English Department of Guelma University to gauge their awareness about enhancing learner autonomy. The findings of the investigation revealed that both teachers and students considered autonomous learning as a basic tenet of a successful learner who can manage his/her learning. In addition, the results show that there is a positive relationship between learners’ self-esteem and their autonomy.
iv List of Tables
Table 1: Levels of Autonomy……….………20
Table 2: Comparison between Autonomous and Non-Autonomous Classrooms…………..25
Table 3: Years of Studying English Language………...………39
Table 4: Students’ Choice to Study English………39
Table 5: Students’ Appreciations of their Level in English………40
Table 6: Student’s Definition of Self-esteem……….………41
Table 7: Students Perception towards being Inferior to Others………..42
Table 8: Students’ Feeling towards Negative Comments……….……….43
Table 9: Students’ Feeling towards Comparison to Others………43
Table 10: Students Scores of Rosenberg Scale………46
Table 11:Students’ Participation in the Classroom………47
Table 12: Students’ Feelings when they Present in Front of their Teachers………..48
Table 13: Students’ Definitions of Autonomy……….………..49
Table 14: Students Perceptions towards the Importance of Autonomy………..50
Table 15: Responsibility in Learning English in the Classroom………....50
Table 16: Students Assessment of their Progress in Learning………51
Table 17:Teachers’ Awareness towards Independent Learning……….………52
Table 18: Students’ Autonomy Grades………..53
v
Table 19: Students’ Assumption towards the Contribution of Self-Esteem on Learner Autonomy...55
vi List of Figures
Figure 1: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs………10
Figure 2: Self-Concept as an Umbrella term………..12
Figure 3: Self-Determination Theory……….14
Figure 4: Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale………..16
Figure 5: Autonomy in Language Learning and Related Areas of Practice..………29
vii List of Abbreviations
LA: Learner Autonomy
RSES: Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale CSEI: Coopersmith Self-esteem Inventory
viii Content
Dedication………i
Acknowledgment………ii
Abstract………..iii
List of Tables……….iv
List of Figures………...v
List of Abbreviations……….……vi
Introduction 1. Statement of the Problem………1
2. Aims of the Study………...…1
3. Research Questions………1
4. Research Hypothesis1……….2
4. Research Methodology………..……2
6. Structure of the Dissertation………..………2
Chapter One: Self-esteem in the Language Classroom Introduction………5
1. Definition of Self-esteem………...5
2. Types of Self-esteem……….7
2.1. High Self-esteem……….………..……7
2.2. Low Self-esteem………8
3. Causes of Low Self-esteem ………..8
4. Self-esteem and Academic Achievement………..8
5. Fostering Learners’ Self-esteem………9
6. Levels of Self-esteem………...………11
6.1. Global Self-esteem………11
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6.2. Situational Self-esteem………..…11
6.3. Task Self-esteem………...11
7. Self-concept and Self-esteem………..…11
8. Theories of Self-esteem……….………..…13
8.1. The Terror Management Theory…….………...…..13
8.2. The Self Determination Theory……….………..………14
8.3. The Socio-Meter Theory……….……15
9. Self-esteem Measurement……….……..16
9.1. The Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale...…...16
9.2. Coopersmith Self-esteem Scale………..………...…….17
Conclusion………..………...…….17
Chapter Two: EFL Learner Autonomy Introduction……….…….………..………19
1. Levels of Learner Autonomy…………..………..………19
2. Definition of Learner Autonomy………..………..…………..20
3. Perspectives of Learner Autonomy………..22
3.1. The Technical Perspective……….23
3.2. The Psychological Perspective………..………23
4. Autonomy in the Classroom………24
5. The Importance of Autonomous Learning………..25
6. Condition to Develop Autonomy………26
6.1. Raising Awareness………...………...26
6.2. Changing Attitude...………27
6.3. Transferring Roles………..27
7. Promoting Learner Autonomy in Language Classroom...……….27
8. Characteristics of Autonomous Learner………30
9. Teacher Autonomy and Learner Autonomy………..31
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10. Ways to Foster Learner Autonomy in English Teaching and Learning………31
10.1. Teaching Learning Strategies………..31
10.2. Self-reports……….……….32
10.3. Dairies and Evaluation Sheets……….…………33
10.4. Learner Autonomy through Portfolio Creation……….……….33
11. Assessing Learner Autonomy……….………..34
Conclusion……….………...34
Chapter Three: Field Investigation Section One:Students’ Questionnaire Introduction………..37
1. Population of the Study………37
2. Description of Students’ Questionnaire………...37
3. Administration of the Questionnaire………38
4. Data Analysis and Interpretation……….……….38
4.1. Analysis of the results ……….………….38
5. Summary of the Questionnaire Results………...56
Section Two: Teachers’ Interview Introduction……….59
1. Interview as a Research Method in a Qualitative Research………59
2. Types of the Interview………60
3. Description of the Interview………...60
4. Analysis of the Interview Results………...61
5. Summary of the Results………..63
General Conclusion and Recommendations………...…….64
Limitation of the Study ………...65
List of References………66
xi
Appendices……….76 Summaries………..84
1 Introduction
1.Statement of the Problem
It is broadly acknowledged that autonomous learning has expanded in the literature of foreign language teaching and learning. In addition, it is common to assume that some personality traits and psychological aspects have a great influence of being an autonomous learner, such as self-esteem. Furthermore, most of the students of English classes are passive, they just tend to receive information from their teachers, they do not reflect on their learning and do not even ask when they do not understand. Therefore, they cannot integrate their knowledge in real life circumstances.It is of great paramount that learners focus on their autonomy, work on their self-esteem and develop the needed competence to become better in the foreign language.
2.Aims of the Study
The main purpose of this dissertation is to shed light on the students’ and teachers’
perceptions of the notion of autonomy in the foreign language framework. It is also tends to explore the main contribution of self-esteem to promote self-directed learning, and more importantly to raise learners’ awareness towards self-esteem and how to have a high level of this later.
3. Research Questions
Research questions are put forward:
1- What is self-esteem?
2- What is learner autonomy?
3- How do teachers and learners perceive autonomous learning?
4- To what extent does self-esteem contribute in fostering LA.?
2 4. Research Hypothesis
Self-esteem is one of the essential and effective factors that influence LA. The lack of self- esteem would probably lead to be non-autonomous learner. So we hypothesize that:
If learners have a high self-esteem, then their self-autonomy would increase. (H1)
The null hypothesis implies that no relation exists between the two variables.
If learners have self-esteem, then there will be no effect on self-autonomy. (H2)
5.Research Methodology
Our study would be conducted by both quantitative and qualitative research methods. The questionnaire is a quantitative descriptive method, it has been chosen to conduct our research since this later relates to a specific activity which focus at identifying and measuring both students level of self-esteem and self-autonomy. The questionnaire has been administered to third year students of English Department at the 08 Mai 1945 University of Guelma for the purpose of laying out particular information.
The second method of our investigation is a qualitative one, which is an interview that has been held with the teachers of English Department of Guelma. In order to have clear vision about English teachers ‘attitude towards LA and its relation with self-esteem.
6. Structure of the Research
This study is divided into a general introduction in addition to three chapters and a general conclusion. The first two chapters are theoretical, chapter one gives an overview of self-esteem, it deals with its definition and major causes of low self-esteem. Second chapter is devoted for EFL Learner Autonomy, it provides the main conditions under which it can be changed. Chapter three involves the field investigation, it contains the analysis of the data
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derived from the questionnaire administered to third year students and the interview that has been conducted with English Language teachers at the Department of English of Guelma. By the end of this chapter some pedagogical implications and recommendation are given.
Chapter One: Self-esteem in the Language Classroom Introduction
1. Definition of Self-esteem 2. Types of Self-esteem 2.1. High Self-esteem 2.2. Low Self-esteem 3. Causes of Low Self-esteem
4. Self-esteem and Academic Achievement 5. Fostering Learners’ Self-esteem
6. Levels of Self-esteem 6.1. Global Self-esteem 6.2. Situational Self-esteem 6.3. Task Self-esteem
7. Self-concept and Self-esteem 8. Theories of Self-esteem
8.1. The Terror Management Theory 8.2. The Self Determination Theory 8.3. The Socio-Meter Theory 9. Self-esteem Measurement
9.1. The Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale 9.2. Coopersmith Self-esteem Scale Conclusion
5 Chapter One
Self-Esteem in the Language Classroom.
Introduction
Self-esteem is one of the common themes in social psychology and popular in academic sphere. It is important to have a positive attitude towards living, because it affects how you think, act and even how you relate to other people. Also, it allows you to live life to your potential. On this study we will go in depth and focus on the different types of the concept and its main theories. Self-esteem and the academic achievement will be explored with the two types of self-esteem. Causes of low esteem will be mentioned besides different strategies to develop it. Then, the different levels or areas of self-esteem will be discussed with stating the difference between this latter and self-concept. By the end of the chapter the various theories of self-esteem will be explored with its different measurement tools.
1.1.Definition of Self-Esteem
The term is first introduced by William James who is known as the father of American psychology in his book Principle of Psychology. William (1890) states that the self is “part of me” that is one’s body, abilities, reputation, strengths and weaknesses, and possessions. If any of those components is decreased or developed, individuals can behave as they were diminished or enhanced, because they definethe part as the self. According to William (1890, p.296) self-esteem equals success divided by pretentions. Thus, to gain a high self-esteem, individuals have to raise success and lower pretention. Also, James describes self-esteem as a ratio of one’s actual behavior, this ratio is unstable, so this denotes that self-esteem is dynamic because failure can occur at any moment.
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Brown (2007, p.154) proposes another definition of self-esteem; he claims that:
Self-esteem is probably the most pervasive aspect of human behavior. It could easily be claimed that no successful cognitive or effective activity can be carried out without some degree of self-esteem, self-confidence, knowledge of yourself and self-efficacy, believe in your own capacities to successfully perform that activity.
According to Brown, self-esteem is a very important factor in one’s behavior, in order to reach a successful cognitive activity or to perform in a correct way, individuals should carry out a belief of their abilities. Consequently, the absence of self-esteem will affect individuals and make them distrust their capacities, which cause a low production. In addition to that Rosenberg (1965) offers another definition of self-esteem as a feeling of one’s worth, also, he views that self-esteem is composed of positive and negative attitude about the self.
Individuals who have positive self-esteem, will be more flexible to take charge of their lives and grow from their mistakes without any fear.
Self-esteem is seen as a personal trait which tends to be enduring and stable, and encompasses within itself a host of beliefs about oneself. Self-esteem means different things diverse people. To some, it means feeling good and loving yourself unconditionally, self- worth and respect. It is very vital for one to have a high self-esteem as it paves the way for love and success in life. In this context Coopersmith (1967) posts that self-esteem is the individual’s judgment of self-worth. Also, it is the evaluation of one’s self. If this assessment is negative s/he will feel incompetent and inferior, on the other hand , when it is positive the individual will see him/herself worthy and will promote a strong self-esteem.
To sum up, self-esteem is a crucial trait of one’s personality. It is all about how individuals see and value themselves. It describes the person’s overall sense of self-worth and
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the ability to judge themselves. After dealing with the concept of self-esteem in general in the next title, the investigator will go deeper and identify the two types of self-esteem.
1.2.Types of Self-Esteem
Self-esteem can be a negative or a positive factor that contribute in the field of language learning, because of its high effects on learning a foreign language, there are two types of self-esteem:
1.2.1. High Self-esteem
Generally, individuals who have a high self-esteem believe in their abilities and skills to cope with problems, and open to experience new challenges. Therefore, they do not wait for someone else to fix them or wait for golden opportunity; they get up and take what is necessary to fixtheir problems because they realize its up to them. A person who has high self-esteem is positive and has optimistic view regarding his/her life. People with high self-esteem tend to have high competence level, which means they have the skill set to succeed in life (Thomas, 2014). According to Branden (1985) a person with high self-esteem has the power to handle criticism, s/he acknowledges his/her own value and accept him/herself as a whole with all weaknesses and strengths. Also, s/he is flexible responding the situation, which means s/he changes in different life aspects without any fear. As Roberts et al (2005, p.105) states three facts about high self-esteem as follows: Firstly, high self-esteem is reflected in the possession of a secure sense of identity, and ability to acknowledge and value own efforts and achievement. Secondly, high self-esteem gives confidence, energy and optimism. Thirdly, high self-esteem is promoted by positive self-experiences.
8 1.2.2. Low Self-esteem
People with low self-esteem focus more on failure instead of success. They feel badly about themselves and lack confidence. According to Rosenberg and Owens (2001) individuals who have low self-esteem tend to be hypersensitive to criticism, they are not open to constructive criticism, they feel insecure. Moreover, a person with low self-esteem is always afraid to do new things and s/he avoids taking risks. In general, low self-esteem is having negative beliefs about oneself and tend to be pessimistic towards people. According to Guindon (2002) people with low-esteem are characterized as unhappy, negative, unmotivated, have poor self-image, suffer from depression and anxiety, as well as, they do not value their talents. This type of self-esteem can result from various factors which will be discussed on the following title.
1.3.Causes of low Self-esteem
It is difficult to identify one cause of low self-esteem for everyone. You build your beliefs about yourself through a long period of time, this process is based on various experiences either negative or positive ones. Moreover, Larson (2000, p. 12) considers that low self- esteem will lead to a development of poor self-image, this mainly due to a range of different things. A negative feedback from the teacher can raise learners negative feelings towards themselves, this causes themto lose motivation and blocks the ability to reach their goals.
Another important factor is difficult childhood experiences.Most people with low self-esteem have a history either of mental or physical abuse in their childhood. The effects of this abuse are deep-rooted and difficult to treat.
1.4.Self-Esteem and Academic Achievement
Self-esteem and academic achievement are correlated concepts; according to Erickson (1968) the academic achievement plays a significance role in building a positive, healthy view
9
of the self. Furthermore, self-esteem has been identified to play a major role in learning outcomes. In other words, when learners receive good grades, they automatically feel better about themselves, consequently, their self-worth will increase their self-esteem. In addition, a healthy self-esteem raises a pleasant feeling towards learning, it leads learners to be satisfied about their outcomes. Hence, having a healthy self-esteem is, the better worth of the self would be, will lead to higher academic achievements. Moreover, Fenollar, Romon and Cuestas (2008) analyzed the major factors, such as self-esteem that influence academic achievement. They found that, the family, expectations from others and learning approaches do influence achievement, whereas, self-esteem has the strongest effect on learning. After recognizing how self-esteem affects academic achievement. In the following title different ways to foster learner’s self-esteem will be discussed.
1.5.Fostering Learner ‘Self-esteem
In order to promote your self-esteem, you are required to challenge and change the negative beliefs about yourself. Family and teachers are the most powerful factors that can influence learners’ self-esteem through different ways. The family has a crucial role in the development of their children’s abilities and perceptions. Since, the child gets his/her first feedback about their qualities from the family; this feedback has a great impact on his/her self-esteem. Therefore, parents should be aware of how they influence their children positively. Firstly, by appreciating and encouraging them to make decisions. This will lead to confidence and independence. Parents may give their children praise if they get good grades in their studies, but in a wise way. If their children fail in certain level, parents here should teach them that if they do not fail they will not learn how to succeed.
Concerning the academic sphere, teachers play a major role to enhance their learners’ self- esteem because of its importance in improving their academic achievements. According to
10
Battle (1992) as cited in Larson (2009, p.22), “self esteem refers to the perception the individuals possesses of his or her own worth. Also, individual’s perception about the self develops gradually and becomes more differentiated as he or she matures and interacts with significant others.” This means that the perception of the self is mainly related to the past events, and will change over time. Moreover, teachers can take the first step to help their learners to enhance their self-esteem by encouraging them to follow their interests and talents;
this will lead automatically to increase confidence, because learners who are confident of their abilities are most likely to use them to achieve good grades.
Figure1: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (done by Kirby and Mcdonald, 2009:9)
Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs is formed of five levels of needs; among the important need to become self-actualized is self-esteem needs. In other words, learners who have low self-esteem fail to meet their needs. Consequently, every learner should enhance his
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sense of self-esteem to develop self-actualization as it is shown in the pyramid in the figure1.
Levels of Self-esteem
For Brown (2007) there are three faces of self-esteem, mentioned in his book Principles of Language Learning and Teaching as follows:
1.6.1. Global Self-esteem
Global self-esteem is the general evaluation of one’s own value over time and across different situations. For instance; we can have a negative self-esteem in one area of life with a positive one in another. Furthermore, it is a stable characteristic in mature adults which cannot be changed unless by active people or if there is an extensive treatment.
1.6.2. Situational Self-esteem
Situational or specific self-esteem is one’s self appraisal; it differs according to the circumstances and traits. In specific context such as: academic sphere, social interaction, with family. In personality traits like empathy, shyness, and other qualities of personalities, or on specific traits such as: communicative abilities, intelligence…etc.
1.6.3. Task Self-esteem
Task self-esteem is related to specific tasks within particular situations. For instance, in the educational sphere it might refer to the students ‘self assessment of one subject matter area like mathematics or in a foreign language class like: writing and reading.
1.6.Self concept and Self-esteem
Self-concept and self-esteem are two crucial components of our lives. These components can shape how we develop during childhood and can affect who we become as adults. Both self-concept and self-esteem are reflective processes; they are influenced by the observation
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of one’s own self and behavior objectively and the reaction of others to individuals. People can extend their self-concept or self-esteem through comparing oneself to those of the surrounding.
While both self-concept and self-esteem refer to an individual’s cognitions and feelings about the self, there are key differences between the tow. Self-concept is the perception that individuals have of their own worth. This includes a composition of their feelings, a generalized view of their social acceptance, and their personal feelings about themselves (Belmore &Cillessen, 2006). Self-esteem refers to the extent to which individuals like, accept, or approve themselves, it answers the question: am I good enough?
Figure2: Self-concept as an umbrella term (Lawrence, 2006, p. 3).
Self-concept
Self-image Ideal self
Self-esteem
As the diagram above demonstrates that self concept is the key which helps self-esteem to progress. Firstly, self-image refer to how learners see themselves, if learners become aware of their self-image, they will start thinking how to possess the ideal self. Therefore, self-esteem includes both of them, in other words, it is how learners see themselves and how they want to be. As Lawrence (2006:5) claims in this context that “self-esteem is the individuals’
evaluation of the discrepancy between self-image and ideal self “. In the next title we will discuss the main theories of self-esteem.
13 1.7.Theories of Self-esteem
1.8.1. The Terror Management Theory
The terror management theory was established by social psychologists: Tom Pyszczynski, Jeff Greenberg, and Sheldon Solomon in 1986, and it was strongly influenced by Becker’s work (1973). This theory was developed to address two main questions that had previously been neglected by academic psychologists, but are now recognized for understanding human behavior: what are the psychological foundations of culture? What is the nature and function of self-esteem? Moreover, the terror management theory begins with two broad assumptions.
First, humans share with all life forms a biological predisposition toward self-preservation and reproduction. Second, humans are unique in their use of linguistic symbolic thought process which fosters self-awareness and the ability to protect themselves from the existential anxiety they experienced in the past. The terror management theory posits that self-esteem buffers against death-related thoughts and anxiety, from this view research demonstrates that thinking about death increases the need for self-esteem. (Gailliot, Schmeichel and Baumcister, 2006) Becker (1973) views on cultural influence of death anxiety helps to explain diverse human phenomena as self-esteem. In fact, he argued that one historical manifestation of human coping with death is the creation and maintenance of culture. The creation of culture and the idea of immortality have emerged as ways to defend against this death anxiety. Thus, the creation of culture promises security to those that live up to the cultural standards of value (Rosenblatt et al., 1989), and allows human beings to share beliefs with others in group members. This shared goal, ultimately lends to individuals a sense of value in a world of meaning. The socio-cognitive account of constructed meaning and value provides human beings with the possibility of immortality (Becker, 1973) in this context, one can assume that self-esteem is seen as a culturally built construction. Since culture gives a possibility for
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individuals to reduce terror. This possibility is accomplished when a person feels that s/he a valuable member of the culture which means s/he plays an important role in the society.
Terror Management Theory tries to describe the purpose behind the need of self-esteem, as well as, to explain what psychological functions it handles. Furthermore, the theory proposes that high self-esteem acts as a buffer against uneasiness in the knowledge of the individuals’
consequent death.
1.8.2. Self-Determination Theory
Self-Determination theory was established first by researchers Edward L. Deci and M.
Ryan in the mid 1980’s at the University of Rocheter. This theory is all about human motivation. It indicates that there are two basic types of motivation which are: intrinsic and extrinsic. Furthermore, intrinsic motivation is characterized by doing something purely because of enjoyment or fun. Whereas, extrinsic motivation, a person tends to do a task or activity mainly because doing so will yield some kind of reward. Deci and Ryan identified three universal, psychological, and innate needs: competence, autonomy, and psychological relatedness.
Figure3: Self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan 1995).
Self-Determination Theory
Competence Humans’ three basic needs Relatedness
Autonomy Need to be effective
in dealing with
environment. Needs to control the course of their lives.
Need to have a close, affectionate relationship with others.
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Firstly, the need for competence means the desire to control and master the outcomes and the environment, as wells as, to know how things will turn out and what are the results of our actions. Secondly, the need for relatedness which means to be connected and experience caring for others, in other words our actions and daily activities involve other people and through this, we seek the feeling of belongingness. Finally, the need for autonomy deals with the desire to be an independent agent in your own life. Deci and Ryan (1980) stated that to be autonomous does not mean to be independent. It means having a sense of free will when doing something or acting out of our own interests and values. Furthermore, self- determination theory introduces two types of self-esteem, contingent and non-contingent self- esteem. The former, deals with individuals who tend to see their self-satisfaction based on accomplishing certain objectives and they are strongly driven by the desire to appear worthy to the self and others. The latter, success and failure for certain people do not determine their self-worth.
1.8.3. The Socio-Meter Theory
The socio-meter theory was developed by Mark Leary in (1995). This theory states that a minimum level of social inclusion is essential for humans to reproduce and survive with self- esteem functioning as a socio-meter. The socio-meter theory proposes that the self-esteem system is a socio-meter that is involved in the maintenance of interpersonal relationships (Leary & Downs, 1995, p. 518).
There are two main aspects of the socio-meter theory, treat self-esteem and state self- esteem. The former, deals with the perception changes in the person’s level of social inclusion within a certain context. The latter, is about one’s accumulated lifelong perception of social inclusion and exclusion.
16 1.8.Self-esteem Measurement
1.9.1. The Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale (RSES)
The RSES developed in 1965, this instrument used largely to measure self-esteem. It is created originally for use with adolescents, then, it was administered to a wide range of age groups, such as; adolescents, university students, adults, and elderly persons. Moreover, the scale consists of ten items: five positive statements and five negative statements. However, the positive and negative items aremixed together in order to decrease respondents bias. Each statement hasfour options to choose which are: strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree. Participants are required to choose one response for each item which is the most likely to resemble them. Concerning, the analysis of data, the negative statements are reverse in scoring. Thus, high and low scores on positive and negative statements have the same interpretation. The total score ranger from10 to 30, with higher scores implies higher self- esteem. (Gray-little, Williams & Hancock, 1997).
Figure4: Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (1965).
1- On the whole, I am satisfied with myself.
2- At times, I think I am not good at all.
3- I feel I have a number of good qualities.
4- I am able to do things as well as most other people.
5- I feel I do not have much to be proud of.
6- I certainly feel useless at times.
7- I feel that I am a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others.
8- I wish I could have more respect for myself.
9- All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure.
10- I take a positive attitude toward myself.
17 1.9.2. Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (CSEI)
A second widely used scale is the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory, it was developed by Coopersmith in 1967, it was originally designed to measure children’s self-esteem. Later on, it was revised by Ryden (1978) to use on adults. It is consisted of 58 items, for each one the informants are required to answer whether the statement given is “like me” or “not like me”. If participants answered “like me” for 3 or more of these items: 1, 6, 13, 20, 27, 34, 41, and 48. It suggests that he or she is trying too hard to present him/herself in a positive light.
Therefore, these participants should not be included in the analysis. However, high self- esteem items are: “like me” on 2, 4, 5, 10, 11, 14, 18, 19, 21, 23, 24, 28, 29, 32, 36, 45, 47, 55, 5. While, “Unlike me” on the rest.
Conclusion
Self-esteem is an important factor in effective learning, because learners have different personalities and perceptions of the self. In this chapter, we explored the definition, types, and the major factors that cause low self-esteem. Due to its importance, huge efforts have been implemented to foster it. Concluding with major theories, and measurements of self-esteem.
Chapter Two: EFL Learner Autonomy Introduction
1. Levels of Learner Autonomy 2. Definition of Learner Autonomy 3. Perspectives of Learner Autonomy 3.1. The Technical Perspective 3.2. The Psychological Perspective 4. Autonomy in the Classroom
5. The Importance of Autonomous Learning 6. Condition to Develop Autonomy
6.1. Raising Awareness 6.2. Changing Attitude 6.3. Transferring Roles
7. Promoting Learner Autonomy in Language Classroom 8. Characteristics of Autonomous Learner
9. Teacher Autonomy and Learner Autonomy
10. Ways to Foster Learner Autonomy in English Teaching and Learning 10.1. Teaching Learning Strategies
10.2. Self-reports
10.3. Dairies and Evaluation Sheets
10.4. Learner Autonomy through Portfolio Creation 11. Assessing Learner Autonomy
Conclusion
19 Chapter Two
EFL Learner Autonomy Introduction
The perspective of language learning has changed from transmitting a set of rules to learners, to a process in which the learner takes more responsibility in learning. Consequently, the learner becomes autonomous in language learning. “Autonomy is a precondition for an effective learning” (Benson, 2001:24) this means that autonomy is an important basis on which leaner’s focus should stand on. This chapter is mainly outlined to provide the different levels of autonomy, also, deals with the definition and the various levels of the term. Then, followed by different perceptive of autonomy, mainly the technical and psychological ones.
Then, the description of the classroom autonomy, with the importance of autonomy and some conditions to develop it. By the end of the chapter, the investigator will focus on some approaches and ways for promoting learner autonomy followed by how to assess it.
2.1.Levels of Learner Autonomy
By the end of the 1990’s different researchers argued that the concept of autonomy is a matter of levels, there are various models of learner autonomy. Firstly, Nunan (1997) tries to make a model of five levels of autonomy in the learner: behavior; awareness, involvement, intervention, creation and transcendence. Concerning the awareness level, for instance when the learner is conscious about the pedagogical goals and the materials needed. At the involvement and intervention level, learners are required to recognize strategy implication of pedagogical tasks. Next, determine their own learning styles and strategies. Finally, at the transcendent level learner should be able to make a link between classrooms’ learning content and the world beyond it
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Secondly, for Littlewood (1997) there are three levels of autonomy that include: first, the ability to work independently with the language and use it to communicate personal thoughts and ideas in real life situations (autonomy as a communicator). In the classroom organization sphere it includes the ability of learners to take the responsibility for their own learning (autonomy as a learner). However, in other spheres it promotes more generalized autonomy as individuals (autonomy as a person). Thirdly, in the same context Macaro (1997) suggests that a closely similar three stages model. The above explanation of autonomy levels is summarized in the following table:
Table 1: Levels of Autonomy.
Since there are different levels of autonomy it is difficult to give a proper definition. In the current study we are more concerned with Littlewood’s model especially the second stage which is “autonomy as a learner”.
2.2.Definition of Learner Autonomy
The concept of autonomy is difficult to define properly. This is mainly due to the fact that there are degrees of autonomy and the behavior of autonomous learners can change according to their age. Also, how far they have advanced in their own learning. The term autonomy is derived firstly from the Greek word “autonomia” which refer to someone or something which Nunan’s Model (1997) Littlewood’s Model (1997) Macaro’s Model (1997)
-Awareness -Involvement -Intervention -Creation -Transcendence
-Autonomy as a Communicator
-Autonomy as a learner -Autonomy as a person
-Autonomy of language Competence
-Autonomy of language Learning competence -Autonomy of choice and Action
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lives by his/her own rules. Moreover, learner autonomy was raised in the field of foreign language learning in the 1979 report prepared by Holec for the Council of Europe under the title of Autonomy in Foreign Language Learning. According to Holec (1981) at that time Western countries had passed through a long way in industrialization, they were characterized by social progress rather than the quantity of materials they produce. Hence, the focus was more in increasing the standards of living, this would certainly bring respect for human beings and individualization.
Holec (1981) defined autonomy as the ability of the learners to take charge of their own learning, by doing this, learners hold the responsibility for all the decisions of all aspects of learning, and they set the objectives, contents, and progression. Also, the methods to be used in the learning process. They determine the procedure of acquisition properly and assess what has been acquired. In this context Holec states that:
To say of a learner that he is autonomous is to say that he is capable of taking charge of his own learning and nothing more ...to take charge of one’s learning is to bear responsibility for all the decisions concerning all aspects of this learning.(Holec, 1981 :3).
Holec’s (1981) definition covers all the areas that include transmitting the control over learning from teachers to learners, however, other researchers do not agree with him since Holec’s description of learner autonomy does not take into consideration “The nature of the cognitive capabilities underlying effective self-management of learning” (Benson, 2001:49).
Little noticed this in Holec’s definition and argues that:
Autonomyis a capacity for detachment, criticalreflection, decisionmaking, and independent action. It entails that the learner will develop a particular kind of psychological relation to the process and content of hislearning. (Little, 1991 :3-4)
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This definition adds a crucial psychological aspect to Holec’s definition since it describes autonomy as a cognitive and self management processes of learning. Actually, learners should understand the “why”, the” what” and the “how” of their learning in order to develop their autonomy. In addition, Dam (1995) states that autonomous learners want to act independently and in co-operation with others, as socially responsible persons. In other words, the concept of autonomy includes collaboration and interdependence. Also, Dickson (1987:11) claims that
“the situation in which the learner is totally responsible for all the decisions” this indicate that the learners are independently in need to be fully self reliant, and determine what to learn and how to be assessed. According to him, autonomy mainly refers to the situation in which the learner is responsible for the decisions concerned with his/her learning and the implementation of these decisions.
According to Dickson (1987) autonomy is a gradual, individual and never ending process of self-discovery. It is a process which a person gradually discovers. An autonomous learner acts independently and in cooperation with others. He participates actively in social processes of his learning, he interprets new information according to his background knowledge, he knows exactly how to learn and how to reflect critically on the process of learning. He can make correct decisions during the process of learning, he can act independently when it is necessary and he can develop this knowledge to real life situations. Furthermore, one ingredient for academic success is under the umbrella of critical thinking and the ability to decide about what to learn and acquire. Through the following title, the investigator tries to highlight the different perspectives of learner autonomy via several dimensions.
2.3.Perspectives of Learner Autonomy
Even though the concept of learner autonomy was introduced over decades ago, it still includes different terminological confusions. It is mirrored through different views and
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connotations from the field of language teaching and learning. According to Benson et al (1997) the term is defined as follows:
2.3.1. The Technical Perspective:
The technical perspective emphasizes on the technical methods and processes to promote learning through: meta-cognitive, cognitive, and social strategies. For example, providing the suitable classroom environment and the needed teaching aids. Therefore, autonomous education serves to give learners control over their learning. In practical understanding of Holec’s definition of autonomy which means that the learner accepts responsibility for making decisions in respect of five components of the learning process. From specifying the objectives and contents, through selection of methods and techniques, to monitor the acquisition procedure and the evaluation of both what s/he has learnt and of the learning process itself. Additionally, Holec considers a learner who is autonomous ‘’is himself capable of making all these decisions’’, and this definition explains ‘’What autonomous learners are able to do’’, it does not explain ‘’How they are able to do’’(Benson, 2006 :23). This latter is the focus of the psychological perspective on learner autonomy that is examined in the following title.
2.3.2.The Psychological Perceptive
In opposition to the previous perspective, the psychological perspective means those characteristics that make it possible for the learner to take control of the learningprocess.
(Benson, 1997 :19). According to Benson who defines autonomy in terms of control rather than responsibility, this perceptive involves control over two cognitive processes: meta- cognitiveknowledge, and reflection. Firstly, meta-cognitive knowledge refers to learners beliefs. Flavell (1979) divided it into three sub-sections: person knowledge which is related to the knowledge about learners variables that affect learning. Then, task knowledge which is the
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knowledge about the purpose and the needs of a task. Finally, strategic knowledge which mainly refer to the learning strategies and their implementation. The second main type of psychological perceptive is reflection which is according to Benson (2001: 93-95) take three forms: reflection on the target language, the process itself and on learning ways of thinking about learning. Hence, autonomy has been discussed in different fields but the current study is focusing on the educational field more precisely on classroom autonomy through the following title the investigator tries to explain more what autonomy in the classroom.
2.4.Autonomy in the Classroom
Learners cannot be totally out of the control of their teachers, because the teacher is still the major source of learning materials. Also, the syllabus remains the main document for guiding students to learn. To construct the real autonomy in the classroom, the philosophy of learner-centered education should be fostered inside the classroom. According to Reinders and Lamb (2006) in the classroom autonomy teachers’ attitude changes from seeing them as passive receivers to collaborators which means they share the responsibility with their teachers in language learning.
Furthermore, Reinders and Lamb (2006) suggest three ways by which autonomy in the classroom can be displayed. Firstly, organizational autonomy support, for example: it permits students in decision-making role concerning the classroom management. Then, procedural autonomy support, for instance: providing students with choices about the use of various media to present concepts. Cognitive autonomy support, by giving chances for students to assess and correct their mistakes and to correct each other.
English teachers play different roles in constructing an environment which really supports autonomy and rises learners’ motivation. Therefore, autonomous learning is more efficient
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than non-autonomous learning. In this context Nunan (1996) gave a comparison between autonomous classrooms and non-autonomous classroomsas it is mentioned below:
Table2: Comparison between Autonomous and Non-Autonomous Classrooms (Nunan: 1996- 21)
Autonomous Classrooms Non-Autonomous Classrooms
-Decisions are made with much reference to students.
-Teacher introduces range of activities by taking students’ needs and interests into consideration .
-Students are allowed to reflect on assess and evaluate their learning process.
-Teachers make all decisions about content and classroom norms.
-Students are exposed to the activities they are expected to perform.
-The assessment and evaluation part are structured in a traditional manner in a way that tests and exams are carried out.
Therefore, autonomous learning is more efficient than non-autonomous learning, and it a fundamental goal in language learning process, this paves the way to the importance of learner autonomy in the educational context. Through the next title the importance of autonomous learning will be discussed.
2.5.The Importance of Autonomous Learning
Learner autonomy is a crucial factor to improve learning, this is due to several reasons.
Firstly, the time the learners spends in the classroom is not enough, and the learning process is not limited just for classroom environment, since, practice is more important in making an actual learning. This only occurs through guiding learners to become autonomous, once they become autonomous, they will achieve a skill to stay all along their lives, because it is a habit of an independent thinking (Jiao, 2005).
Another reason is that learner autonomy enhances motivation, which consequently creates effective learning. This happens once the leaner is the decision-maker in the classroom,
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hence, the learners feel more independent instead of being dependent to teachers. According to Deci (1995), if autonomous learners believe in responsibility for their own learning and try to improve the skills of self-management in learning, they will be intrinsically motivated.
Therefore, the success in learning will build up their intrinsic motivation.
The third reason is that being an autonomous learner gives much more opportunities to the use of target language mainly in non-native environment. Consequently, autonomy will not be just as a treatment for developing learners’ language skills, however, it makes them able to create and use all the chances to communicate their message in EFL situation. In this context Van and John (2003:18) agree with this view that the learner has many opportunities in the internet and other multimedia sources. Thus, helping the learners to supply themselves with tools and strategies will allow them to take advantage of the opportunities offered by their extended classroom. In fact, it is important for teachers to give some chances for learner to think and act autonomously. In addition, they should guide them to gather, organize, and employ data for themselves.
2.6.Conditions to Develop Autonomy
It is not an easy task for a teacher to change the attitude of learners who are used to the teacher- centered methods to become autonomous learners. According to Johnson (2004) changing these conditions is related to changing effective, cognitive and behavior systems, if not any other change would be temporary. On the other hand, Scharle and Szabo (2000: 09) claim that there are three basic conditions to develop autonomy, they are as follows:
2.6.1. Raising Awareness
The teacher shares some responsibilities with their learners, especially the help and guidance that could be created in order to boost awareness among learners about the usefulness of self-renewal in the learning process. For that reason, teachers encourage his/her
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learners to be critical thinkers and take off the concept of passivity from their minds. In this context, Santrock (2006: 315) supports that “teachersserve as facilitators and guides rather than directors and molders of learning”. This definition expresses the function of the teacher, also, the learners should be completely aware of their own responsibilities.
2.6.2. Changing Attitude
It is assumed that the teacher is the knowledge provider, in fact the total dependence on him is no more resulting to perfect-reaching endings. Therefore, a great depth is now advocated for changing the learners’ attitudes, this is not going to exclude the role of the teacher in the classrooms. But, through determining the major principles of self regulated dependence. As Little (1990: 07) argues that “autonomy is not synonym of self instruction, it’s not limited to learning without teacher.” According to him,the teacher is always the source of motivation and more importantly the map designer of his course.
2.6.3. Transferring Roles
The role of the teacher in any particular autonomous leaning situation is to reach the learners’ needs, besides giving them the chance to determine what is needed to be tackled in the lesson. More importantly, to spread out the idea of learner centeredness. For Dam (2003:136): “leaner autonomy develops [….] in the teacher’s own development and awareness, as regard to his or her role in the whole process”. It is true that the existence of some of these conditions, the development of autonomous learning would be easier. But, the level of autonomy needed will differ according to the context in which the learning takes place.
2.7.Promoting Learner Autonomy in Language Classroom
There are different theories describing how to promote learner autonomy, and each scholar tackles the issue from a different angle. The categorization of Benson (2001: 170-178) seems to be more comprehensive. He gave six different approaches to fostering learner autonomy. Firstly, resource-based approaches and technology-based approaches deal mainly
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with the out- class strategies that focus at promoting learner autonomy. However, the other four approaches are based on the classroom context.
According to Benson (2001), in the resource-based approach there are some key concepts which the learner should take into consideration to gain some opportunities for independent learning. They are: self-access; which is the set of materials that are designed in a given way that enables the students to work on their own. These materials take many forms such as:
libraries, language laboratories…etc. Besides the other key concepts which are self- instruction and distance learning. They are very important in promoting autonomous learning but, they need some support or instruction for the use of the resources. On the other hand, the technology-based approach mainly refers to computer assisted language learning. This will assist learners to self-direct and control their learning.
Moreover, the Learner-based approach, this type puts emphasis on the psychological and behavioral changes in learners. It emphasizes on the leaner training. In other words, the more learners are included in the use of the effective strategies, the more they will learn independently. The Curriculum-based approaches, for Benson are these approaches that extend the concept of learner control throughout the management of learning to the curriculum. Brown (1995: 187) presents a list of “concepts with which the curriculum will be related to their preferences” which are:
1- Learning Approaches 2- Attitudes toward Learning 3- Learning Styles
4- Strategies used in learning 5- Learning activities
6- Patterns of interaction
7- Degree of learner’s control over their own learning 8- What constitutes effective teaching
9- The nature of effective learning
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As it is mentioned in the list above, involving learners in the progress of the curriculum in many ways would foster autonomy. The learners will notice that their choices and decisions are useful, thus, they would be active to take place in the learning process, and the curriculum they create. Furthermore, theclassroom-based approach is more advocated in comparison to the previous one, because this approach focuses more on the changes in the relationship between the teachers and learners inside the classroom (Benson: 2001-151). The learner will work in a supportive and a collaborative atmosphere.
Finally, theteacher-based approach is defined by Barfield et al (2002-218) as: “teachers should start by themselves before promoting autonomy to learners, and they some freedom to apply their autonomy in teaching”. Language teachers should develop a professional knowledge on the different ways to foster and to encourage the development of learner autonomy. After seeing the different approaches to develop learner autonomy the next title deals with the characteristics and features of an autonomous learner.
Figure.5. Autonomy in Language Learning and related areas of practice.
(Benson, 2001, p. 112).
Autonomy Resource-based approach
(independent use of learning resources.) Curriculum-based
approach (control over curriculum decisions.)
Technology- based approach independent use of learning technologies.)
Classroom-based approach (control over classroom decision.)
Learner-based approach (development of autonomous learning skills.) Teacher-based
approach (focus on teacher roles and teacher education.)
30 2.8.Characteristics of the Autonomous Learner
Different researchers have proposed several characteristics to autonomous learners.
Dickinson (1993) states that autonomous learners can identify what they have been taught, they are able to choose and implement the suitable learning strategies. Also, they are able to monitor their own use of the learning strategy. According to Candy (1991) the autonomous learner is as follows: logical and analytical, curious, open and highly motivated, also, s/he is a reflective and self-aware, flexible and competent, disciplined, persistent and responsible, creative and self-sufficient, information seeker, knowledgeable and skillful, besides the fact that s/he a critical thinker.
Moreover, For Holec (1981) and Little (1991) the autonomous learners are those who can take charge of their own learning. Also, they are conscious about their educational and personal needs and able to identify their own objectives and goals in the learning process. In addition, they can make a link between what is to be learned, the resource needed and how to learn. Autonomous learners have the capacity to select the appropriate methods and techniques needed, and assess what have been acquired.
Finally, Cotterall (1995-200) claims that: “autonomous learners are likely to be individuals who have overcome the obstacles which educational background, cultural norms and prior experience may have put in their way”. This means that learners who are conditioned to cultural and traditional norms are not expected to be ready for change. The capacity of learner autonomy can be innate or maybe acquired and developed with practice, as it may be lost if it is not used. Hence, in language learning, learners need to be conscious about how language systems work and what is needed for the development of their learning.
31 2.9.Teacher Autonomy and Learner Autonomy
Little (1995) stated that teacher autonomy and learner autonomy are interdependent, and teachers who want to develop learner autonomy need to “start with themselves, reflecting on their own beliefs, practices, experiences and expectations of the teaching/learning situation”
(Little, 1995:47). The idea of teacher autonomy was first introduced by Allwright (1988) in the field of language teaching, and then developed by Little (1995). It refers mainly to the freedom of teachers in the implementation of the curriculum, besides the control over their teaching process. Moreover, teachers have important roles in promoting autonomy in their learners, by facilitating to learners to make personal goals.
According to Reinders and Balcikanli (2011), there are two main aspects of teaching which develop learner autonomy, the autonomy of teachers and the set of teaching skills which are relevant to foster autonomy. Also, the language classroom is the most valuable context for learners to face the idea of autonomy and ameliorate the necessary skills. All in all, teacher autonomy and learner autonomy are approximately connected, it is the teacher’s responsibility to raise a good atmosphere for learners, where they can acquire and use the knowledge by themselves.
2.10. Ways to Foster Learner Autonomy in English Teaching and Learning
2.10.1 Teaching Learning Strategies
Based on Oxford definition, strategies are “…specific actions taken by the learner to make learning more easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations.”(1989: 8). That is to say, learning strategies mean the set of characteristics we want to rise in students to make them able to become skillful language learners. In order to learn in an autonomous manner, teachers should provide learners with sufficient training to prepare them for more independent learning, because the job of teachers
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is not mainly to teach language but, to teach learning. Firstly, meta-cognitive strategies which refer mainly to the set of methods used to enable learners to understand the way they learn, in other words, to think about their thinking, and to manipulate their cognitive process. For example; organizational tools like checklists, rubrics…etc.
In addition to that, social strategies are crucial in the language learning process, since language is for communication. There are three types of strategies included in the social strategy (Oxford 1990) as follows: cooperating with others, for instance; interacting with native speakers to help in your understanding. Asking questions, for example asking for clarification, verification or correction. Then, Empathizing which is very important in communication, and it means to put oneself in the situation of another to get his/her point of view. Through using social strategies learners can enhance their cultural understanding.
Moreover, socio- affective strategies that help learners to control and regulate their motivation and attitudes in their learning process. According to Oxford (1990) affective strategies are related to the learners’ emotional requirements for instance confidence, and social strategies increase interaction with the target language. Therefore, good language learners monitor their attitude and emotions about learning and comprehend the negative feelings, and teachers can create a positive feeling in class by providing them more responsibility, and rising the amount of natural communication. Such techniques like self- reinforcement and positive self-talk are used to make learners gain an effective control of their emotions, attitudes, and motivation associated to language learning.
2.10.2. Self-Reports
Wenden (1998: 107) claims that the best way to gather information about how students go through the learning task and making them able to become conscious of their own strategies is to assign a given task and ask them to do a report about what they are thinking
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while performing it. This self-report is named as “introspective”, they are supposed to give an information about the strategy learners use during the report time. Another kind of self- report is called the “retrospective” self-report because learners are requested to think back or retrospect on their learning. This type is open ended in terms that there are no limits put on what students answer to the question in the task. There are two main types of retrospective self-report which are semi-structured interviews and structured questionnaires. The former emphasizes on a specific skill, it is an open ended question that allows a discussion with the interviewee instead of direct questions and answer format. The latter, deals with the same information but in a different way, through tools like explicit questions then requesting learners to agree or disagree, write true or false…etc.
2.10.3. Diaries and Evaluation Sheets
Diaries and evaluation sheets provide the learners the possibility to plan, control and assess their learning and determine any obstacles with proposing solutions. The aim of diaries in learning is mainly to work like an instrument for assessing and implementing personal learning. Evaluation sheets and diaries encourage learners to self-analyses, applying information and make personal opinions. It supports personal development and identifies their weaknesses and strengths. (Wenden, 1998, p. 107).
2.10.4. Learner Autonomy through Portfolio Creation
Portfolio is the documentation of the learning process and a proof of their development into paper. Students in their portfolio mention their goals, and design their learning goals and assess their progress. Through this, they learn how to make decisions by their own on what they need to master different ways of learning and how to evaluate their progress consequently, to become good planners and foster self- management strategies. The use of portfolio motivates learners to take control of learning. According to Thomsen (2010),
