Université de Lorraine
École doctorale Sciences et Ingénierie des Ressources Naturelles Laboratoire GeoRessources
Laboratoire d’Excellence « Ressources21 »
THÈSE DE DOCTORAT
Présentée et soutenue publiquement pour l’obtention du titre de
Docteur de l’Université de Lorraine en « Géosciences »
___________________________________________________________________________
Mining risk assessment at the territory scale: development of a tool tested on the
example of gold mining in French Guiana
L’analyse des risques des projets miniers à l’échelle territoriale : développement d’un
outil d’aide à la décision testé sur le cas de l’exploitation aurifère en Guyane française
par
Ottone SCAMMACCA
soutenue le 3 décembre 2020
______________________________________________ Devant le jury composé de :
Claire CÔTE Associate Professor, University of Queensland (SMI) Rapportrice
Franck MARLE Professeur, CentraleSupélec (LGI) Rapporteur
Anne-Sylvie ANDRÉ- MAYER Professeure, Université de Lorraine (GeoRessources) Examinatrice Jean-Louis MOREL Professeur émérite, Université de Lorraine (LSE) Examinateur Nicolas ROLLO Maître de conférences, Université de Nantes (LETG) Examinateur Magali ROSSI Maître de conférences, Université Savoie Mont Blanc (Edytem) Examinatrice Sylvain CAURLA Ingénieur de recherche, INRAE Nancy - AgroParisTech (BETA) Invité
Yann GUNZBURGER Professeur, Université de Lorraine (GeoRessources) Directeur de thèse Rasool MEHDIZADEH Maître de conférences, Université de Lorraine (GeoRessources) Co-directeur de thèse
Laboratoire Georessources (UMR 7359), Université́ de Lorraine, Campus ARTEM, 92 rue du Sergent Blandan, Nancy 54000
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Institutional acknowledgments
This thesis (2017-2020) has been realized entirely at the laboratory GeoRessources (UMR7359), Université de Lorraine – CNRS (http://georessources.univ-lorraine.fr ). The work was funded by the French National Research Agency (ANR) through the national program “Investissements d'avenir” (ANR-10-LABX-21–01/LABEX RESSOURCES21) and the Laboratoire d’Excellence (LabEx) Ressources 21 (https://ressources21.univ-lorraine.fr ).
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Remerciements
Et voilà, trois ans écoulés à la fois rapides comme des éclairs et lents comme une tortue fatiguée. Le temps d’une thèse ! Le temps, quand même, de vraiment beaucoup de choses, beaucoup d’émotions, beaucoup d’amis et de connaissances, vieilles et nouvelles, beaucoup d’expériences, en solo ou en compagnie, beaucoup de « dernières lignes droites », beaucoup de tout ! Et c’est vrai que, comme tout, la thèse est une expérience de vie qui aide un peu à la connaissance de soi…On devient tellement habitués à remettre tout en question et tout analyser pendant trois ans, jour par jour, qu’on risque de faire pareil avec nous-mêmes, et plonger dans des abysses débordants de réflexions et pensées.
Ces années ont été extrêmement enrichissantes sur plusieurs aspects, me permettant de chercher mais aussi découvrir et de me découvrir. J’ai eu la chance de travailler sur un sujet très large et foisonnant qui m’a lié à la Guyane d’une façon inattendue et extrêmement forte. Mais tout ce bagage infini d’expériences et de vécu, je le dois à toutes les personnes rencontrées. L’être humain est comme une éponge qui, tout en faisant épreuve d’un certain esprit critique, absorbe et se façonne du vécu, du bien et du mal de tous ceux qui croisent ou partagent une partie de son chemin.
C’est pour cette raison que je tiens à remercier toutes les personnes rencontrées au fil de ces trois ans qui m’ont toutes donné des grandes ou petits briques pour continuer à me construire. Je n’ai pas réussi, cause temps et émotions, à le faire à la fin de ma soutenance et alors je vais essayer de vous remercier un/e par un/e ici. Car cette thèse n’est pas à moi mais à tous ceux qui m’ont permis d’y arriver. (Et vive les longs pavés!).
Tout d’abord, merci à Claire Côte, Frank Marle, Jean-Louis Morel, Anne-Sylvie André-Mayer, Nicolas Rollo, Magali Rossi et Sylvain Caurla d’avoir pris part à l’évaluation de ces trois ans de travail. Merci d’avoir pris le temps de me lire et de m’écouter, en espérant avoir répondu à toutes vos attentes.
Merci à toutes les personnes qui ont suivi, contribué et supporté le travail de ces trois ans, notamment en Guyane. Merci à la Collectivité Territoriale de la Guyane, en particulier au Pôle Technique et Minier, avec Thibaut Brouard et Mathieu Champion. Merci beaucoup pour votre présence continue pendant l’entièreté de la thèse, pour votre aide et le support. Je chéris énormément notre mission sur le terrain avec Pascal (merci beaucoup Pascal !). Merci aussi à Marie Chaix, Loïc Buzaré et Bénédicte Maximin. Merci beaucoup à l’Office National des Forêts, en particulier à Alain Coppel, Alexandre David, Clément Coignard, Olivier Brunaux et Jean-Luc Sibille. Merci à l’Office de l’Eau et en particulier à Marjorie Gallay. Merci de toute ton aide, tes conseils et ton support.
Merci à Damien Brélivet et à l’Agence Régionale de Santé pour la très grande disponibilité à plusieurs reprises. Merci à l’Université de Guyane, Marianne Palisse et à la Licence VALORESS.
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J’ai été honoré de pouvoir présenter mes travaux pendant une séance de cours (Arnauld, tu seras remercié plus tard..quand même !).
Merci au BRGM, en particulier à Marine Cabidoche et Laure Verneyre. Merci aussi à la DEAL, à Guy Faoucher et Adrien Ortelli pour le temps accordé et les discussions passionnantes. Merci à Rémi Galin et Diana Guillon pour les nombreux échanges eus et pour votre temps. Merci à Julien Cambou et Denis Lenganey du Parc Amazonien de Guyane. Un grand merci aussi à Gustave Marceillon, Remy Aubert, Karyn Cunico-Leal, Sophie Merlindun, Mouna Zayer du Service Urbanisme de la Mairie de Mana : votre aide et support ont été fondamentaux pour nous. Merci à Juliette Guirado pour sa gentillesse et pour le court échange téléphonique. Merci à Jules Queguiner de la Mairie de Saint Laurent du Maroni pour les informations concernant les PLU de la commune. Merci beaucoup à l’IRD, à Michel Brossard et à Stéphane Calmant pour votre intérêt dans mes recherches. Merci à Philippe Poggi de la DRRT Guyane, Didier Lemoine, Sébastien Linarès et Damien Ripert de la Préfecture pour le temps accordé et les belles discussions eues. Merci aussi beaucoup à Martial Tombu, à Antoine Gardel du CNRS et Laurent Kelle de WWF France pour leur disponibilité.
Merci à la Fédération Guyane Nature Environnement, à la disponibilité de certains membres du collectif Or de Question rencontrés pendant ces trois ans, merci à Marie Fleury, Michel Dubouillé et Marine Calmet. Merci à Jeunesse Autochtone de Guyane et à Christophe Pierre pour les quelques échanges eus.
Un très grand merci à Alexandre Cailleau et à la Compagnie Minière Espérance-Société Minière Saint-Elie. Merci beaucoup pour l’accueil, la visite des sites mais surtout merci pour tous les conseils, les échanges et la bienveillance à mon égard au long de ces trois ans. Un grand bonjour à Nico et à sa femme (ses plats..ohlala, j’en rêve encore !). Merci à Didier Tamagno et Pierre Gibert de nous avoir accueilli sur leur site de Dieu Merci et de nous avoir fourni des nombreuses informations essentielles pour bien mener notre travail et de leur grande disponibilité. Merci beaucoup à Pascal et à la Société Al Maktoum de m’avoir permis de visiter leur site alluvionnaire : ça a été une journée inoubliable pour moi, couronnée par une superbe soirée-diner en compagnie !
Merci à Remi Pernod et Robin Tschofenr de Amazon Gold de nous avoir accueilli sur leur site pendant toute la journée et des informations transmises. Merci beaucoup à Elodie et Julie Brunstein pour la grande disponibilité et pour leur travail extrêmement important que vous réalisez. Merci à Pierre Rostan pour tous nos échanges et pour vos éclairages extrêmement intéressants sur la gestion des résidus et la construction de digues et de barranques. Merci à Philippe Matheus de la Compagnie Minière Boulanger pour sa disponibilité. Merci aussi à Monique Raymond de Iamgold et à Alex Guez, Pierre Paris, Jean-François Orru, Chantal Roy et Marie-Françoise Bahloul de la Compagnie Minière Montagne d’Or pour la très grande disponibilité et l’opportunité de pouvoir échanger avec vous.
Je souhaite remercier beaucoup aussi les membres de mon comité de suivi. Arnauld, merci beaucoup pour ton amitié, pour toutes nos discussions sur plein de sujets variés, nos quelques petits verres à Cayenne, ton aide et ton support sur beaucoup d’aspects liés à la thèse et pas
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que ! Je crois et j’espère que nous aurons l’occasion de continuer à rester liés entre la Métropole, La Guyane mais aussi Rome, que je sais tu chéris (au moins) un tout petit peu ! Michel, merci beaucoup de ta présence et des apports, des idées stimulantes que tu as pu apporter et sur lesquelles nous avons pu réfléchir, discuter et échanger ou se critiquer. Merci aussi pour la richesse des sujets variés (macrocosme !), la gentillesse et grande disponibilité que t’as pu avoir toujours à mon égard. Jean-Alain, je suis très content de t’avoir eu dans le comité et je chéris beaucoup aussi notre petit séjour canadien. Tu passeras le bonjour à ton fils de ma part aussi ! Merci beaucoup pour tout !
À vous tous je tiens à faire mes plus grands remerciements pour m’avoir permis de faire ce travail que j’espère réponde à toutes vos attentes ! En tout cas, il y a des très nombreuses personnes qui ne se sont pas sauvées de moi autant que vous.
Ce doctorat s’est fait grâce à mes encadrants, Yann et Rasool avec lesquels on a appris à se connaitre le long de ces trois ans. Ça n’a pas été toujours facile, en plus cette dernière année de distances, quarantaines et confinements est bien particulière. Néanmoins, ils ont pu m’accompagner, me guider, se confronter à mon entêtement (et moi a leurs), entre un verre au bar et un dans l’avion. Nous avons partagé des nombreuses missions, voyages, dans des lieux très différents, en vivant des expériences passionnantes. Nous avons eu des maitres hominides qui nous ont appris à ouvrir des noix de coco à mains nues (à mains nues !!!), nous sommes allés voir les caïmans à Kaw et bien d’autres expériences. Yann, merci beaucoup de ton amitié, nos partages musicaux – il faudra qu’on rattrape quelques concerts, d’ailleurs– et les conseils de lectures. Merci aussi de nos discussions et de nos pipelettes mentales sur tel ou tel autre aspect de thèse et de vie. Tu es une très bonne personne et je suis bien content que tu aies pu être mon directeur de thèse. Rasool, merci beaucoup pour tout le soutien. On peut dire que tu as commencé ce doctorat avec moi en débutant une bien plus importante aventure, celle de père, et je suis honoré d’avoir pu rencontrer ton petit Navid et Katia (d’ailleurs, j’ai hâte de le revoir bien grandi !). Merci pour toutes nos discussions devant ton tableau, la construction et la critique d’idées. Merci aussi d’avoir essayé de calmer toujours toute engueulade (amicale bien sûr !) entre moi et Yann (« eeehhm, ohlala regardez le ciel est trop beau ! »). Merci de m’avoir initié au persan et de m’avoir accueilli chez toi à Ispahan dans ce pays magique. Merci de m’avoir fait connaitre plein de personnes là-bas (avec lesquels nous sommes toujours en contact) et ta superbe famille. On continuera certainement nos discussions sur le setar, sur l’histoire de la Perse et bien d’autres !
Il y aurait 10 000 choses en plus à dire, mais on les gardera pour nous (tout ne doit pas être écrit ici ! ;)). Merci beaucoup pour tout et tout ce qui ne résume pas à quelques lignes. On a été une belle team !
Merci aussi à ma deuxième maison pendant ces trois ans. Le beau laboratoire GeoRessources, plus en particulier sa « filiale » à l’École des Mines, dans le bâtiment recherche, oui le bâtiment avec les murs rouge-assassin perturbant, et oui l’équipe poétiquement appelée GOR. Blague à part, merci à tous pour l’accueil, le partage de beaux moments, nos soirées-diners et nos
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soutiens réciproques. Tout d’abord, merci beaucoup Marie, tu as été mon grand petit refuge de confidences. Merci de m’avoir supporté comme amie, collègue et comme psychologue (!). Toi aussi, tu commences la plus belle des aventures, avec la petite Adèle qu’on espère voir bientôt, avec son beau vieux papa Geremia. Olivier, un grand merci pour tout ton support et ta présence pendant ces années. Je me souviendrai beaucoup de notre beau voyage en Guyane…et de ce lit double… Marianne, toi aussi, tu m’as accompagné dans mes quelques délires et folies ! Merci pour tout, tes conseils, nos discussions-cailloux, etc. Un de plus beaux souvenir de ces trois ans (et pas que !) sera sûrement le concert de Ian Paice qu’on a partagé chez Paulette. Magique !!!
Agnès, tu sais aussi pour tout ce que je te dois. Merci pour ton soutien et ton amitié. Merci pour tes conseils, nos confidences et nos échanges sportifs. On se verra bientôt à Berycham ! Merci aussi Sylvain, nous nous sommes connus à Nantes, et bieeen ravi de t’avoir retrouvé à Nancy ! Tout le meilleur courage pour ton aventure bordelaise.
Jana, tu sais aussi que quelques lignes ne suffisent pas. Tu as été et tu restes toujours avec Marie, une grande colonne portante de l’équipe et de la vie en son sein. Merci de tous nos échanges, portant littéralement sur tout, merci de ton soutien, du debut d’une très belle amitié et merci de m’avoir donné l’occasion de te soutenir, j’espère, assez (en vrai, on s’en fiche de tout ça…merci pour chocolat et biscuits !). Le même vaut pour Elio et Ever, mes petites fleurs du R114. On a respiré le même air, on s’est supportés les uns les autres et … et basta, ce qui se passe en R114, restes en R114 (Un grand bisou à Maria, Ever !).
Mimi, tu fais partie du trio-pilier avec Jana et Marie comme tu t’en doutes. Merci de tout le soutien. Vous trois nous avez toujours gâtés et soutenus, nous les doctorants et tous les autres membres de l’équipe ! On attend bien ton foufou !!! Marine, c’est bien normal qu’une petite partie te soit dédiée aussi. Tu es restée au labo pendant quelques mois. Malheureusement, la chance nous a fait tomber dessus une pandémie mondiale…mais je suis très heureux de t’avoir connu si bien en si peu de temps. Nous continuerons de nous écrire comme d’habitude et tu me tiendras au courant de ce que tu deviens !
Dalija, nous avons commencé ensemble la thèse et finalement je crois qu’on a appris à se connaitre beaucoup plus et mieux dans cette dernière année, encore plus qu’avant. Je suis très content qu’on ait partagé le même sort pendant ces années de thèses en parallèle. Et je suis bien content que maintenant tu puisses partager le quotidien de ton bureau avec Émeline. Émeline, je t’ai toujours dit que je t’apprécie beaucoup et combien j’aime bien nos échanges socio-politiques..et pas que !!! Merci Emilio, t’es un grand pote et une belle personne. Tu vas cartonner ton doctorat, j’en suis sûr. Guillaume et Laura aussi, je suis très content de ne vous avoir pas ratés. Vous allez former une très belle équipe au labo (je ne parle pas des vieux là !). Merci aussi au Sénat, Christian et Bernard (oui je vous appelle le Sénat !). Merci pour tous nos débats et pour tous vos conseils chargés d’expérience !
Merci aux autres membres de GéoRessources, Madame la Directrice Anne-Sylvie, Monsieur le Directeur Émérite, Jacques pour un petit voyage dans la géologie lorraine. Merci Philippe Marion pour les échanges : j’ai été très heureux de passer du temps avec vous pour notre article. Et un grand merci à tous les autres. La distance des équipes de GeoRessources ont
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contraint nos rapports au quotidien, mais j’ai été toujours heureux de vous voir, discuter et échanger avec vous lors des nombreuses occasions de rassemblement de tous les membre du labo. Et en plus, maintenant Jacques a migré à ARTEM, ce qui a facilité que je puisse le souler au moins pendant mes derniers mois de thèse et rattraper le retard !
Merci à toute l’équipe INERIS. Merci à Virginie, Roxane, Nathalie, Nicolas et Francesca pour nos pauses-clope, nos échanges très très profonds et tout le reste. Merci Benoit, merci Régis, merci Mountaka, Catherine, Marwan, Vincent, Cyrille, Isabelle, Alice, Jannès, Franz, Emmanuelle, Stella. Un merci tout particulier à Alain, mon voisin et mentor d’escalade. J’espère que tu arriveras à t’améliorer un peu à grimper. Comme ça peut être un jour tu me surpasseras ! Un grand merci à l’Ecole des Mines, à Christine Fradet, Abdel, Laure, Thierry et tous ceux que j’ai pu croiser pendant ce chemin !
Merci à tous pour les rires et les sourires !
Merci à toutes les personnes que j’ai rencontrées au fil de ces années. Merci Anne (Blanchart) pour ton amitié, ta disponibilité et pour nos repas riches en discussions passionnantes et rires. Merci à Nicolas Rollo, pour ton amitié, ton soutien et tes conseils pendant ces trois ans. Merci à Claire Froger, Thierry Lebeau, Béatrice Bechet et toutes les autres belles personnes que j’ai pu rencontrer à Nantes pendant la formation POLLUSOLS. Merci à Guillaume Echevarria pour nos discussions sur l’agromine et la phytoremediation. Merci à Christian Franck pour sa grande disponibilité et pour tous les passionnants et enrichissants échanges sur les digues minières. Merci aussi Denis Breysse pour tous vos précieux conseils et merci à toute l’équipe à Talence de m’avoir accueilli pour quelques jours en 2018. Merci à Jean-Alain à nouveau, Magali Rossi, Marie Forget, Kristina Bergeron et à toutes les autres personnes avec lesquelles nous avons pu partager la courte période à Vancouver mais aussi à Chambery. Merci à Marie-Odile Simonnot, pour nos échanges et pour m’avoir permis de participer à des projets extrêmement intéressants. Merci Aurore Stéphant pour nos échanges passionnants sur la mine et sur SystExt. Merci à Éleonore Lèbre de tes conseils ; j’espère que nous aurons l’occasion de garder contact. Thank you, Stephen Northey, for the continuous exchanges concerning your incredible researches. Thank you very much Scott Ferson and Carolina Morais, for the interesting exchanges and for the great opportunity to recently present my works for the Risk Institute of the Liverpool University and for the wonderful project IMAWARE.
Un merci tout particulier aussi à David Montagne et Philippe Baveye, deux grands mentors pour moi à qui je sens devoir beaucoup et qui m’ont initié à la réflexion scientifique. Merci beaucoup de votre présence pendant ces trois ans. Merci de vos conseils, de votre soutien moral et professionnel, votre bienveillance et merci de votre amitié. (David, un jour on arrivera à voir la rueketa avec Charlotte !). Merci David de m’avoir fait confiance pour cet après thèse.
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Un merci particulier aussi aux agents de l’ONFI et à Pierre-Emmanuel Leclercq pour sa gentillesse et disponibilité, et pour m’avoir aidé à réfléchir sur ce que je souhaite faire dans les prochaines années de ma vie. Malgré courts, nos échanges m’ont beaucoup fait songer et j’espère vraiment qu’un jour je pourrai contribuer à vos activités.
Merci à tous les amis nancéens (la place Stan, la place Stan, la place Stan !)! Merci à Mélanie, tu as été probablement ma toute première amie ici et ça me manque de me faire tabasser un peu sur le ring ! Merci à Veronica, Jennifer, Clémence, Félix pour tout votre soutien ! Merci à mon big mec Franck et à Marion. Vous êtes parmi mes plus proches ici à Nancy et je vous remercie de nos soirées, nos discussions philosophiques en partageant nos angoisses et nos folies. On se fera bientôt une bonne soirée d’épanouissement ! Franck, tout particulièrement, merci pour tous les coups que tu m’as filés et pour tous ceux que t’as encaissés ! Tu vas me manquer comme sparring partner mec ! S’il n’y avait pas eu de Punch ici à Nancy aussi je me serais senti bien perdu ! Merci Sabrina, Anne-Laure, Valérie, Momo, Cyril (quand même !!!), PF, Chloé, Cynthia. Un merci très particulier aussi à ma Soso Romain : tu es une grande grande amie de confiance, une personne superbe et je t’aime tout fort. Merci aussi à mes deux petites voisines, Nathalie et Maela, trop dommage que ce fut si court notre voisinage ! Mais rien n’est fini ! Merci aussi Meryem, trop dommage qu’on n’en ait pas profité plus avant ton départ pour Lyon !!!
Dommage que cette période n’ait pas permis de profiter un peu plus de Nancy et de vous tous. Mais il ne sera jamais trop tard !
Un grand grand merci aux amis guyanais. Tout d’abord, un grand merci à ma Vava. Tu bouges tout le temps et tu sais que je te hais (d’envie) pour ça mais je suis heureux de t’avoir trouvée en Guyane au bon moment. Merci à toute la coloc Morpho. Merci, Laetitia, Moustaki, Thibaut, Julien et tous les autres.
Merci à Thibaut ! Je me permets de te mettre ici, car pour moi c’est le cas. Merci merci de tout le temps que tu m’as dédié mais aussi à nos quelques soirées que j’ai passées avec grand plaisir, en espérant qu’il y en aura bien d’autres ! Merci aussi Manou, j’ai été ravi de te voir resplendissante en Guyane et tu sais combien j’apprécie tout ce que tu fais avec grand effort et pas sans difficultés. J’étais trop content de passer une soirée avec toi à Kaw et connaitre ton copain !
Un grand grand merci tout particulier à mon Élo, très belle petite d’or découverte en Guyane, à nos petites aventures, à notre soirée takitaki (avec Vale d’ailleurs) et à tous les autres moments et ceux qu’on aurait pu avoir (et qu’on aura sûrement un jour !). De toute façon, on se verra bientôt, j’y crois ! Merci à Clem aussi, j’ai été très heureux de te connaitre ma petite Blanche Gardin ! ;) Merci beaucoup à toute la coloc Remire, Simon, Anna-Lou, Anne, Max et tous les autres. Merci toujours pour les bons moments, courts mais intenses !
Je ne suis déjà pas une personne super facile à vivre en général peut être, et pendant la thèse disons que cela a touché tout particulièrement aussi mes plus proches au quotidien aussi. Merci
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de tout mon cœur Chacha, Mimi. Il n’y a besoin de rien de plus, car vous savez tout. Merci Claire et Hugo (tu deviendras un grand enseignant !), Carlotta, Hamza, Momo, Aliénor, Gianmarco, Graziano, Ophélie pour le grand grand grand soutien de ces années. Merci beaucoup de m’avoir supporté avec patience. Claire, Hugo, il faudra se mettre sur notre projet ! Équipe Géo ne lâche rien ! Carlotta, avec toi on a découvert la Lorraine …Et la place Stan ! Merci Claire mabiche, Kevin, Zozo, Marion, Adrien, Adèle, Freddy, Amir. Merci Léna pour tout. J’espère que ta vie de montagne te sourit ! Merci beaucoup aussi à Antoine et Louise qui ont su me conseiller pendant un moment un peu particulier. On n’oublie pas et j’ai apprécié vraiment beaucoup! Merci aussi à Polo, Camille, Margaux, Chloé, Florian, PG, Pauline, Jeremy, Alex, Faustine, Adi et à toute l’équipe Versaillaise. Un merci particulier aussi à Chabou qui est quand même rentrée dans le vif de la thèse !!! On aura nos petits noms associés au moins sur un truc quand même !
Merci RomRom et Lisa pour votre soutien, votre amitié et vos conseils qui m’ont beaucoup aidé et soutenu. Lisa, tu as été très importante pour moi et t’en as subi aussi, surtout au début de ma thèse et tu le sais !
Merci à vous tous pour tous les sourires, les rires, les pleurs, les discussions sérieuses, profondes ou superficielles, les blabla inutiles toujours utiles, le verre de trop, le verre de moins. Grazie a casa mia, tra Roma e Napoli. Grazie ai miei amori e alla mia grande famiglia. La mia Caro, Sofi, Cri, Edo, Pietro, Cle, Denni, Lupo, Asca, Livia, Eleonora, Giulia, Marta, Miri, Flaminia, Olga, Filippo, Laura, Giovi, Mewi, Enrico, Luchino, Sofi, Beniamino, Iaia, Andrea e alla nuova generazione di pargoli. Grazie a Peppino, Bavarella, Nachina, Puppu, Luchino, Cello, Gio e tutti gli altri. Servirebbero altre 100 pagine per elencarvi tutti, ringraziarvi e per esprimervi la mia gratitudine quotidiana di supporto e sopportazion ! Ed anche se lontani geograficamente, mi siete sempre stati vicino senza se e senza ma, da una vita di amicizia.
Merci à Marcel, Sophie, Hadrien et Cyrielle Fauré. Merci de m’avoir invité dans votre maison depuis 7 ans désormais. Merci de tous vos conseils, votre bienveillance et votre soutien. Ce doctorat est pour vous aussi !
Grazie a mia nonna che nonostante i suoi (49) anni é riuscita sempre a tirarmi su e a darmi i veri consigli old-school che noi ci sogniamo ! Grazie a mio nonno e ai miei nonni perché sono sempre qua. Grazie a Luciana, che sta con me da quando avevo gli occhi ancora chiusi !Grazie a moi zio Andrea per il supporto sempre e in tutto. Grazie a zia Filena, zio Filippo e zio Stefano. Grazie a tutti i cugini e (ormai)..pure i nipoti ! Grazie anche zio Blasco perché siamo tra i pochi Scammacca ad aver scelto la strada della ricerca. Grazie à Mario ed agli altri cugini in Trinacria. Ci vedremo presto !
Per ultimi, ma sicuramente i primi per ordine di importanza, ai miei genitori ed a mia sorella Irenea perché se sono qui lo devo almeno per ¾ a loro (datemi almeno ¼ di merito). Grazie per
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il supporto sempre e comunque e perché non é possibile ringraziare chi ti mette al mondo insegnandoti a camminaré né chi ti rompe le scatole …sempre da quando al mondo sei stato messo. Questo dottorato é soprattutto per voi ma solo perché vi appartiene già. Avete dato tutto e continuate a farlo dopo 28 anni di sopportazione (perché ho preso dai migliori, no ?!). Enfin, à Adeline. Elle a certainement subi tout l’ « insupportabilité » de mon être (ça pourrait être un nouveau livre de Kundera) pendant trois ans. Pourtant, bien que son martyre ait commencé en 2013 (quand même !) elle a toujours étée là, jour par jour, à me soutenir avec amour et patience, à me conseiller, me calmer et me motiver, profiter des beaux moments. Tout le monde te dit « aaah comment tu fais à le supporter, t’es une sainte ! ». Même ma mère le dit ! Et ben, ils ont tous raison, je crois. Je ne le dis pas, mais tu l’es vraiment avec toutes tes qualités et ta grande force (il en faut quand même !).
Je ne peux pas te dédier ce doctorat car il t’appartient déjà, pour tous les sacrifices que tu as su faire avec moi, pour tout ce qu’on a partagé et pour continuer à me tolérer avec douceur, tendresse, amour et patience.
À vous tous, et pas que, un grand MERCI pour avoir été, être et rester avec moi avec bienveillance, patience et amour.
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List of publications
Scientific papers
Scammacca Ottone, Gunzburger Yann, Mehdizadeh Rasool, Gold mining in French Guiana: a multi-criteria classification of mining projects for risk assessment at the territory scale, The Extractive Industry and Society, 2021 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2020.06.020
Conference papers
Scammacca Ottone, Gunzburger Yann, Mehdizadeh Rasool, Dynamic, Multi-Perspective and Multi-Scale Risk Assessment of Mining Projects under Tropical Climate, in both their Geoscientific and Social Dimension, June 2018, RFG 2018 - Resources for Future GenerationsAt: Vancouver, BC, CANADA.
Sauer Lorenzo, Robert Louis-Guilhem, Scammacca Ottone, Mehdizadeh Rasool, Gunzburger Yann, Development of a method to assess the susceptibility of tailints dams’ failure due to overtopping, Proceedings of the 29th European Safety and Reliability Conference, Hannover, 2019
Scammacca Ottone, Mehdizadeh Rasool, Gnzburger Yann, An integrated methodology for risk assessment of mining projects at different spatial scales, Proceedings of the 29th European Safety and Reliability Conference, Hannover, 2019
Others
Scammacca Ottone, Gunzburger Yann, Mehdizadeh Rasool, Classification multicritère des exploitations aurifères en Guyane pour l’analyse des risques et des opportunités à l’échelle territoriale, Révue Géologues, Les Guyanes (Guyane Française, Suriname, Guyana), GEOL206, Septembre 2020.
Scammacca Ottone, Marion Philippe, Pourquoi utilise-t-on du cyanure pour extraire de l’or?, The Conversation France, publié le 21 octobre 2019, https://theconversation.com/pourquoi-utilise-t-on-du-cyanure-pour-extraire-lor-122670
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Table of Contents
Glossary ... XV Acronyms ... XVII
General introduction ... 1
Part I – General context and objectives of the thesis ... 5
Chapter 1. Mining, territory and risks ... 7
1. The mining system ... 7
2. Mining performances at the territory level: a call for sustainability in the mining sector ... 9
3. Risks associated with mining projects ... 17
4. Existing methods for risk assessment in the mining sector and their gaps ... 23
Conclusion ... 37
Chapter 2. Objectives of the thesis and development of a methodology via the application on a case-study ... 39
1. Our approach and objectives of the study ... 39
2. Theoretical development of the methodological framework ... 41
3. Criteria used for the selection of a case-study ... 51
Conclusion ... 52
Part II – Application on gold mining in French Guiana: definition of the systems and development of the scenarios ... 53
Chapter 3. The territory system: French Guiana and Mana river basin ... 55
1. General presentation of French Guiana and its specificities ... 55
2. Selection of the spatial scale: Mana river basin ... 60
3. Actors considered and temporal dimension of the application ... 66
Conclusion ... 68
Chapter 4. The mine system: overview and classification of gold mining in FG ... 69
1. Overview of gold mining across the world ... 69
2. Gold mining in the Guiana Shield ... 72
3. Gold mining in French Guiana ... 75
4. Gold mining in the Mana RB ... 85
5. Classification of gold mines and development of standardized project-types ... 86
Conclusion ... 99
Chapter 5. Development of the Territorial Mining scenarios (TMS) ... 101
1. Territorial objectives and Territorial Mining Scenarios (TMS) ... 101
2. Fictional localization of the gold mining projects ... 103
Conclusion ... 106
Chapter 6. Risk identification and risk scenarios development ... 107
1. Risk identification for each gold mine-type in French Guiana ... 107
2. Accidental Risk scenario (RSa) development ... 116
3. Ordinary Risk scenario (RSo) development ... 125
Conclusion ... 126
Part III – Application on gold mining in French Guiana: assessment of the risk scenarios and TMS scoring ... 127
XIV
Chapter 7. Assessment of the accidental Risk Scenario (RSa) ... 129
1. Assessment of dam failure consequences through vulnerability indicators ... 130
2. Calculation of the flooded area ... 135
3. Mapping socio-ecological vulnerability to flooding ... 144
4. Estimation of the consequence scores of the RSa ... 149
5. Probability assessment and risk estimation ... 152
6. Calculation of the RSa risk score for each TMS... 154
7. Alternative estimation of the RSa score for each TMS ... 155
Conclusion ... 157
Chapter 8. Assessment of the ordinary risk scenario (RSo) ... 159
1. Evaluation of the positive and negative consequences for each TMS ... 159
2. Aggregation of the risks and final score for each territorial mining scenario (TMS) ... 163
2.1. Aggregation of the positive and negative consequences ... 163
2.2. Aggregation of positive and negative consequences and final score ... 164
Conclusion ... 165
Chapter 9. Global risk score of the territorial mining scenarios and multi-actor weighting ... 167
1. Assessment of the global risk score of each TMS ... 167
2. Multi-actor assessment of the relative importance of each consequence ... 169
Conclusion ... 174
Part IV – Discussion of the approach proposed in this study and its application ... 175
Chapter 10. Discussion on the application of our approach to the French Guiana gold mining sector... 177
1. The influence of system definition on the final scores ... 177
2. The influence of the chosen territorial mining scenarios on the results ... 184
3. Rapidity and reliability of the RSa and RSo scores assessment ... 188
4. Final TMS scores and weighting coefficients ... 196
5. Comparison of the territorial scenarios: which scenario is the “best”? ... 201
Conclusion and perspectives for the application of our approach in FG gold mining sector ... 202
Chapter 11. Advantages, limits, perspectives of our approach and concluding remarks ... 205
1. Added value of the approach proposed in this study ... 205
2. Geospatial issues of the approach and its application ... 209
3. Future perspectives of our approach ... 211
General Conclusion ... 217
Bibliographic references ... 221
Websites ... 240
Résumé étendu et continu en français ... 241
Appendices ... 249
Abstract ... 291
XV
Glossary
Term Definition References
Accident Failure of a system, due to unexpected conditions.
Accidental (or abnormal) conditions
Unexpected and extraordinary operating conditions of a system deviating from normal conditions and resulting in a potential failure, a malfunction
49 CFR 192.503
Consequence
Outcome of an event positively or negatively affecting the objectives. Initial consequences can also escalate through cascading and cumulative effects. Consequences can be direct when they occur on the short term immediately after the risk event, or indirect when they are generated by direct consequences ISO 31000, (2008); Andreoni and Miola, 2014 Ecosystem service
Conditions and processes through which natural ecosystems - and the species that make them up - sustain and fulfill human life through the production of ecosystem goods the harvest and trade of which represent an important and familiar part of the human economy.
Costanza et al., (1997); Daily, (1997)
Failure Event that negatively alter the achievement of the functions of a system.
Impacted Area Geographical space that is influenced by the occurrence of a risk event.
Indicator Variable that represent a specific quantity, a state, or interactions that
are not directly accessible or may be difficult to estimate.
Kandziora et al.,
(2012)
Mining project (or “mine”)
Temporary set of coordinated and controlled activities – with start and finish dates, conforming to specific requirements, including the constraints of time, cost and resources – that undertakes a process to exploit a geological deposit.
(ISO 10006, 2017); (PMI, 2004) Ordinary (or normal) conditions
Operating conditions of a system that represents as closely as possible the range of performance, use, activity that can reasonably be expected.
IEC 62368-1, (2010)
Performance Capability of a structure, a component or a system to perform the functions for which it was designed.
Talon and Curt (2016)
Probability Measure of the chance of occurrence expressed as a number between
0 and 1, where 0 is impossibility and 1 is absolute certainty. ISO 31000, (2008) Risk
Effect of uncertainty on objectives. Risk equals the product of probability and consequences. It can be positive, when it enhances the expected objectives and negative, when it worsens them.
ISO 31000, (2008)
Risk aggregation Process to combine individual risks to obtain a more complete
understanding of risk. ISO 31000, (2008)
XVI
Risk event Occurrence or change of a particular set of circumstance. ISO 31000, (2008)
Risk management process
Systematic procedure consisting in communicating, consulting, establishing the context, identifying, analyzing, evaluating, treating, monitoring and reviewing risk.
ISO 31000, (2008)
Risk perception Stakeholder’s view on a risk. ISO 31000, (2008)
Risk scenario
Result of a simulation that foresights some possible alternatives and future realities involving the occurrence of a series of risk events during normal (RSo) or accidental (RSa) operating conditions.
Socio-Ecological System
A system composed of biogeophysical components and human actors (individual and collective) in mutual interaction. They provide ecosystem services that satisfy societal needs and support human well-being.
Gotts et al.,
(2018)
Stakeholders Any person or organization that can affect, be affected by, or perceive
themselves to be affected by a decision or activity. ISO 31000, (2008)
System
Any set of connected, interacting, interdependent processes and group of units forming an integrated whole which drives itself or is driven to achieve one or several specific goals, in a dynamic and active environment, through the performance of specific functions.
Le Moigne, (1990) ; Erodney (2016)
System component
Characteristic element part of a specific system which assures the achievement of the performances and the functions of the whole system.
System function Characteristic purpose of a system as well as the values provided by it.
Merriam-Webster, (2016)
Territorial Mining Scenario (TMS)
Result of a simulation that foresights some possible alternatives and future realities involving different land-planning strategies for the development of mining activities at the territory level.
Territory
Integrative space of physical phenomena and human and societal relationships, a conformation of morphological characteristics and heterogeneous distribution of its resources. The territory is a Socio-Ecological System.
Simone et al., (2018)
Vulnerability Intrinsic properties of something that create susceptibility to a source of
XVII
Acronyms
ASM Artisanal and Small Scale Mining
BT Bow-Tie diagram
DEM Digital Elevation Model
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment EIS Environmental Impact Statement ES Ecosystem Services
ESIA Environmental and Social Impact Assessment
FG French Guiana
GIS Geographic Information Systems GRI Global Report Initiative
i-ASM Illegal Artisanal and Small Scale Mining LCA Life Cycle Analysis
LSM Large-scale Mining
MSMc Medium-scale Mining with cyanidation MSMg Medium-scale Mining with gravimetry PSM Proactive Safety Measures
RB River Basin
RSa Accidental Risk Scenario RSM Reactive Safety Measures RSo Ordinary Risk Scenario SD Sustainable Development SDGs Sustainable Development Goals SES Socio-Ecological System
SIA Social Impact Assessment TLCA Territorial Life Cycle Assessment TMS Territorial Mining Scenario TSF Tailings Storage Facility
1
General introduction
In the current context of worldwide natural (e.g. climate change) and human (e.g. population growth) changes, mining industries must respond to a growing demand for minerals and metals while facing critical social and environmental challenges (Aznar-Sanchez et al., 2019). Since socio-economic development should not compromise socio-environmental integrity, the concept of sustainability has been introduced into mining through “the adoption of practices (…) that result in environmental and social improvements over traditional resource development methods, as well as negative impacts, while maintaining the health and safety of mine workers and the interests of stakeholders and affected communities” (Gorman and Dzombak, 2018).
Indeed, mining projects are the source of both positive (i.e. opportunities) and negative (i.e. losses) risks of different natures: social, environmental, economic. Such risks overcome the mere sphere of the mine sites themselves and affect the territories in which these activities are located. Furthermore, when opportunities are outweighed, negative outcomes of mining rebound on mining operators through sanctions or oppositions, leading to considerable entrepreneurial risks and financial losses (Bergeron et al., 2015).
Hence, mining activities should be evaluated according to the level of their positive and/or negative contributions to the socio-ecological system in which they are located. Moreover, the assessment of these contributions should focus on all the coexistent and variegated mine-types located within a given territory. For such reasons, we claim that mining projects are a matter of land-planning rather than simple standalone industrial objects. Fig. 1 presents the conceptual reciprocal interactions between a mine and the territory, as a socio-ecological system. Mining provides services to the human sphere but at the same time affects ecosystem services delivery and, thus, the satisfaction of the corresponding human needs.
The engagement of mining into land management relies on multiple factors of different orders. One of them concerns land-use, which means questioning on which purposes a territory is intended to be managed for and what are the potential positive or negative risks associated to such uses. For instance, what is the level of ecosystem services supply that a given land-use can guarantee for the viability of human society? As a matter of land-planning, mining is also a (geo)political key-issue, considerably tied to governance factors and global market trends. This implies the questioning of which development model(s) and future scenario(s) decision-makers, public authorities and civil society might choose for a given area (e.g. municipality, region, country) and what implications might be derived.
A wide range of tools are currently used for industrial risk assessment (Tixier et al., 2002): such tools are designed to be performed at the mine-scale, often on one project at the time. Also, from a regulatory point of view, socio-environmental impact statements are
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required by many legislations worldwide. However, by our knowledge, no tools are specifically designed to account for the technical specificities and the variability of mining activities or for their integration into land-planning strategies at the territory level.
This PhD thesis researches how mining activities and their specificities can be included into land-planning strategies based on their level of risks. Whether one or more mining projects should be developed on a territory implies political answers and political objectives. This thesis has the purpose to suggest a new way to look at this question and to propose a pluridisciplinary approach to support decision-making and land-planning through the development and comparison of potential alternative scenarios of mining development, according to their risks. These scenarios do not involve one single mine localized in a specific site but multiple and variegate mine types distributed in a given territory.
In order to operationalize this approach, a methodological framework has been developed based on existing methods and adapted to our purposes. The methodology has been tested on gold mining in French Guiana for a first application.
It is important to underline that this study does not propose a method to detail the level of risk (for which specific methods already exist) but to compare territorial scenarios based on their global level of risk and discuss them. The approach proposed in this study is an analytical approach to simulate and compare potential scenarios – rather than predict them – for decision-making purposes in a sector highly affected by uncertainty.
The thesis is divided in eleven chapters, grouped in four parts. Part I is destined to present the general context of the study. Three general concepts are behind the approach we wish to present: “mining”, “territory” and “risk” as well as their interactions (Chapter 1). The first part addresses as well the philosophy and the objectives of this thesis, the methodological framework developed to apply our approach and finally the case-study on which a demonstrative application will be performed (i.e. gold mining in French Guiana) (Chapter 2).
Parts II and III reflect the structure of the methodological framework followed to apply our approach to the selected case-study. Part II shows the first part of this demonstrative application. The territory and mining systems are detailed (respectively in Chapters 3 and 4) and combined to obtain multiple territorial mining scenarios (TMS) (Chapters 5). The risks related the TMS are then identified and used to develop two different risk scenarios related to the normal and accidental functioning of the mining projects (Chapter 6).
Parti III presents the final steps of the application, which consist in the assessment of the different risk scenarios independently (Chapter 7 and 8). Finally, the results of each risk scenario are combined in order to assign a global score to each territorial mining scenario (Chapter 9).
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Part IV is destined to the discussion of the proposed approach and its demonstrative application (Chapters 10-11). Advantages and gaps are addressed along with the future perspectives and challenges that future studies should consider in order to improve our approach.
Figure 1 Integration of mining projects in Socio-Ecological Systems taking into consideration the reciprocal interactions between biophysical and human processes. Original, based on Bennet et al., (2009) and Berrouet et al., (2018) conceptual
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Chapter 1. Mining, territory and risks
This first chapter aims to introduce the three key-concepts of the current thesis: mining, territory and risk assessment. The chapter reviews the unique features of a mining system and its integration in wider territorial units (i.e. a socio-ecological system). As it will be detailed, the interactions between a mining system and the territory where this activity is performed can result in different outcomes (i.e. risks) that affect both the territory and mining projects them-selves. These risks and the emerging difficulties for their assessment are here described in order to underline the current need for holistic and integrative approaches of risk management applied to the mining sector at wider spatial scales for land-planning purposes.
1. The mining system
For the methodological purposes of the current thesis, a mining project is here considered as a technical system whose main function is the exploitation of a mineral deposit in order to supply marketable products, with the objective of answering a world-wide demand for raw materials. In this section, the technical and operational dimensions of mining activities are described before a synthetic description of their reach at a world-wide scale.
1.1. What is a mining project?
As other human activities, mining is a socio-technical system characterized by complex interactions between humans and various technical processes at different spatio-temporal scales (Badri et al., 2012; Pactwa et al., 2018). A mining system could be considered as an organized set of connected mining processes (i.e. mining phasing), a scheme of facilities, tangible and intangible assets (e.g. exploitation engines, processing plants, mining licenses) and human resources needed to achieve one main goal: the extraction of minerals and/or metals from orebodies. It requires a special investment or allocation of resources such as capital, and completion within a specified time period (Allen, 2006).
From a traditional business perspective, a mining project is an investment business project which seeks an economically viable geologic deposit to explore and, in case, to extract in order to originate one or several marketable products (Lechner et al., 2017). The mining techniques involved for the exploitation of the deposit, the size of the project it-self and the entrepreneurial structure of a mining project can take a wide range of forms, according to the targeted commodity, the technical and financial capability of the mining operator and external factors related to the territory where mining is performed (e.g. regulatory frameworks, climatic conditions, accessibility of the mine site).
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1.2. Mining phasing
Technically speaking, the exploitation of a mining deposit follows four main phases (Fig. 2). The first phase of prospecting and exploration has the purpose of defining and delimiting the geologic deposit. The spatial scale of the prospecting is considerably broad, during strategic exploration, in order to detect geochemical anomalies and tightened increasingly as the target deposit is identified, delimited and the reserves are estimated (Charles et al., 2017).
Once the results of mineral prospection are promising, the second phase involves scoping, prefeasibility and feasibility studies of the mining project, its planification, financing and finally, its construction (Kister et al., 2017). This phase has the purpose to evaluate the construction and operational costs in order to assure the financial and technical viability of the project before its operation. Every technical aspect of the mining operation is defined during this second step (e.g. ore exploitation techniques, mineral processing method, waste and water management procedures, site rehabilitation and mine closure) along with a general state of the art of the mine site, the identification of the related impacts likely to occur, the measures and safety procedures to reduce and stop the dysfunctions, the dismantling and reorganization of the mine site and its infrastructures, the monitoring and the anticipation of the residual risks (Poulard et al., 2017).
The third phase consists in the exploitation of the deposit, the processing of the extracted materials and their transformation into marketable products. This phase involves as well the management of wastes, water and processing residues as well as the progressive rehabilitation of the mine site.
During the final phase, the mining operator must implement the rehabilitation measures that have been detailed during the prefeasibility and feasibility studies (potentially modified and adapted all along the operation of the mine). This phase aims to return the mine to its initial state and it is accompanied with land reclamation measures, the application of procedures to stop, reduce or compensate socio-environmental dysfunction that the mining project might generate (e.g. reduction of acid drainage from old uncovered mine wastes, revegetalization of the mine site) (Poulard et al., 2017).
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2. Mining performances at the territory level: a call for sustainability in the mining
sector
The main objective of a mining system is the exploitation of a geological deposit for the production of marketable raw materials. This goal is achieved through the satisfaction of specific technical and operational performances. A performance is defined as the aptitude or the capability of a mining system or its components to perform the functions (i.e. objectives) for which it was designed (i.e. exploit the mineral deposit) (Talon and Curt, 2017).
However, in order to achieve such objective, mining activities might generate a wide range of outcomes that could exceed the mine site it-self, and positively or negatively affect the territory in which mining is performed. The territoriality of mining has been highlighted by scientific literature and public authorities during the years, in order to underline the need of the implementation of more pertinent land planning strategies for mining regions. During the last decades, the issue of sustainability has been increasingly addressed in the mining sector through the integration of socio-environmental performances intended to switch mining projects from mere business activities to development-aiming projects.
The territorial footprint of a mining project is thus represented by the nature of its performances and how mining contributes to the socio-ecological functions (i.e. ecosystem services delivery, well-being enhancement) of the territory in which mining is performed.
2.1. “Traditional” vision of mining activities as business projects
The consideration of a mining project as a system aiming at the only extraction of a given commodity from a business-based perspective represents the traditional vision of mining activities. This vision is nevertheless significant since in some regions it is more complex to efficiently integrate development and mining sustainable performances for political, regulatory, technical, cultural and socio-environmental factors.
During all the mining life cycle, a wide range of technical, operational and financial performances must fulfill such primary business functions. These performances are related to all the internal aspects of a mining project (Badri et al., 2012), including internal processes (e.g. methods and work procedures), systems (e.g. technical, management and organizational) and persons (within the organization or externally in interaction with the organization). They concern mining techniques (engineering, energetic performances, etc.), labor force (occupational safety and health performances, working conditions, training of workers, etc.), the geological deposit (existence and size of the deposit), production (financial viability, productivity and profitability performances, access to capital, subcontracting, etc.), logistics (accessibility to the site, communication, etc.) (Mancini and Sala, 20128; Pactwa et al., 2018). Technical, operational and financial performances depend also on legal and political requirements such as the possession of a mining license and the fulfillment of all the regulatory obligations, including the respect of
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national and international public policies and potential political support from local Governments where mining is performed.
The level at which mining performances are or are not guaranteed depends intrinsically on the structural and functional organization of the different components of the mining system (e.g. human, material and immaterial assets) like any business activity. Mining components vary considerably according to the targeted commodity, the type of geological deposits and mining techniques employed but also to the structure of the mining company and external socio-economic factors. Durucan et al., (2006) perform a Life-Cycle Assessment on mining projects describing the links between each structural component of a mining project (Fig. 3).
Figure 3 Boundaries of a mining system described by Durucan et al., (2006) for a Life-Cycle assessment
2.2. Mining and Territory: a Socio-Ecological approach
As mentioned, as other human activities, mining might be an essential source of income and a potential driver for economic development (e.g. creation of wealth, job opportunities, technological development, raw materials supply, local business development, social infrastructures expansion) (Amirshenava and Osanloo, 2019), especially in regions where the opportunities for other economic activities might be limited. Mining is also the potential source of negative outcomes of different natures affecting ecosystem services supply (e.g. soil, water and air degradation, fragmentation of natural habitats), the derived socio-ecosystem services and, hence, human well-being (e.g. poor health condition, social conflicts, insecurity) (Badri et
al., 2012; Schimann et al., 2012; Falck and Spangenberg, 2014; Nguyen et al., 2017; Bansah et al., 2018). Such impacts often exceed the perimeter of the mine-site and affect the territory
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where the mining project is located. However, unlike some other human activities, mining presents a peculiar feature, since it does not question project location (Castilla- Gomez and Herrera-Herbert, 2015).
Despite the many definitions given by scientific literature (Simone et al., 2018), in this thesis, a territory is defined as every Socio-Ecological System (SES), composed of biogeophysical components and human actors (individual and collective) in mutual interaction (Blair and Buytaert, 2016; Gotts et al., 2018): socio-ecosystems are affected by human activities and in turn, they provide ecosystem services – or disservices – that might satisfy societal needs and support human well-being (Schulze et al., 2017; Berrouet et al., 2018; Gotts et al., 2018) (Fig. 1). This definition is independent from any administrative, geographical or biophysical boundaries that might be inferred (e.g. municipality, water catchment, region, nation). A territory system has, thus, two main functions to which a mining project must contribute as well. On one side, the delivery of ecosystem services, as the “benefits supplied to societies by natural ecosystems” (Daily, 1997; Costanza et al., 1997) and on the other one, the support of well-being as a global assessment of a person’s quality of life (WHO, 1997; Dodge et al., 2012).
2.3. Mining and sustainable development
Because of its negative impacts, during the last decades mining has increasingly come under the spotlight of international media and civil society criticism, and experienced increased conflicts and opposition from local communities (Hilson, 2002a; Falck and Spangenberg, 2014, Conde and Le Billon, 2017). This has pointed out the urgency for mining operators to consider in our modern society the concept of sustainable development and to include standards for the improvement of environmental and social mining performances (UNDP, 2018). Mining projects started being considered through a holistic approach as a part of a larger system – rather than as an industrial object left alone – integrating both a human and natural component on a broader spatial scale (Fig. 1). The consideration of mining projects as contributing parts of a larger socio-ecological system allowed a major shift from the traditional vision of mining as mere business activity towards a modern vision of potential development projects (Falck and Spangenberg, 2014; Singh and Singh, 2016).
The rise of sustainability and development concerns, as well as the associated new regulatory frameworks, encouraged industrials to take into consideration the socio-environmental and governance dimensions of mining (Christmann et al., 2016; Husted and Sousa-Filho, 2017). Despite this switch has not been made clear yet, this new dimension allows the incorporation of new socio-environmental and “sustainable-development (SD) performances” that may be sought by mining operators (Azapagic, 2004; McLellan et al., 2009; Hodge, 2014; Nguyen et al., 2017; Betancur-Corredor et al., 2018; Pactwa et al., 2018; Zvarivadza, 2018; Amirshenava and Osanloo, 2019; Aznar-Sanchez et al., 2019). Among them, several international initiatives propose the integration of the frameworks proposed by the
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International Finance Corporation (IFC) or the Equator Principles (UNDP, 2018; Equator Principles, 2020) in the mining sector.
At the international level, SD performance indicators for mining have been proposed withing the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) (Azapagic, 2004; GRI, 2013; Mancini and Sala, 2018). Mancini and Sala (2018) reviewed and compared all these different frameworks for socio-environmental indicators to be integrated within the mining sector, including the GRI indicators and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). At the national level, countries such Australia, have developed their own handbooks and guiding manuals to implement SD performances into mining activities (Australian Government, 2011).
The SDGs have been set by the U.N. General Assembly set in 2015 – as part of UN Resolution 70/1 and the 2030 Agenda – to be achieved by the year 2030: these 17 goals include the three different dimensions of sustainability (e.g. zero hunger, good health and well-being, land and water quality, education quality). The relevance of SDGs in the mining sector has been pointed out by multiple authors (Mancini and Sala, 2018; Monteiro et al., 2019; Kumi et al., 2020) and a White Paper published by the U.N. presents the discussion of what should be considered to implement SDGs specifically in the mining industry (UNDP et al., 2016) (Fig. 4).
For instance, the Responsible Mining Index evaluates the performances of single mining companies and their achievement of the SDGs (RMF, 2020).
The International Council of Mining and Metals (ICMM) proposes also an index to assess the worldwide contribution of mining to the socio-economic development of each country based on multiple existing performance indicators (ICMM, 2012; ICMM, 2016).
Other initiatives concern the framework defined within the Earth Observation Miners (EO Miners) project, supported by the European Commission (http://www.eo-miners.eu ), that aims to facilitate and improve the interaction between the mineral extractive industry and society in view of its sustainable development while improving its societal acceptability (Falck and Spangenberg, 2014).
General SD indexes have been proposed over the years in order to measure SD performances. For instance, Amirshenava and Osanloo (2019) review and combine different methods in order to propose a quantitative assessment methodology for SD-related impacts in the mining sector. Or else, Dialga, (2018) try to estimate SD indexes per each mining country. A quantitative model has been proposed by Husted and Sousa-Filho., (2017) in order to assess the impact of sustainable governance practices on environmental, societal and governance (ESG) performances including country-level variables such as country stakeholder orientation and country financial stability risk. Other authors discussed specific aspects of the mining industry, such as the implementation of SD performances within the mining design phase (McLellan et al., 2009), or in other cases the integration of SD through new innovations and
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technologies for mining activities (Aznar-Sanchez et al., 2019). Few papers are discussed on a commodity-basis: Betancur-Corredor et al., (2018) point out the challenges and constraints to meet more sustainable conditions in gold mining sector while Hoadley and Limpitlaw, (2004) focus on artisanal and small-scale gold mining.
Figure 4 Major issues areas for mining and the implementation of SDGs (UNDP et al., 2016)
2.4. Mining activities as development projects: the integration of new performances
Therefore, to the traditional operational performances of a mining project, which are related to its technical and economic viability as a business project, a new range of social, economic and environmental performances have been integrated. Such performances involve the capability of a mining project to support and contribute to the well-being and growth of the territory where it is located while avoiding environmental degradation (Fig. 5). For instance, economic performances might concern the economic profitability of the mining activity outside of the project-itself, i.e. to the surrounding human and physical environments. They include contributions to local and national incomes, the generation of foreign exchanges, raw materials supply, business and employment opportunity development. Social performances include the support to local livelihood (local direct and indirect employment, promotion of local commerce, education improvement, infrastructure improvement, societal acceptance, etc.), to the
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preservation of human health (related to potential impacts on air, soil, water and other natural resources that may affect health of local community and their safety), human rights (child labor interdiction, respect of indigenous rights, control on the development of illicit mining communities, gender equality, etc.), land-use and planning contributions (residential, agricultural and urban areas maintain and support, adequate distance from sensitive areas, etc.), product responsibility (customer health and safety, materials stewardship), communication and stakeholders involvement (Voinov et al., 2016). Environmental performances are represented by the capability of mining operators to preserve the bio-geo-pedological resources and ecosystems of a territory, avoiding their bio-physical and chemical degradation but also implementing measures for the restoration of the site, revegetalization and land rehabilitation.
Figure 5 The transition from the traditional connotation of mining activities as merely business projects to projects integrating SD performances
2.5. Socio-ecological vulnerability of mining territories
Based on what has been presented until now, a mining project is much more than a simple and local industrial object. Its functioning and its outcomes – positive or negative they might be – exceed the mine perimeter and may affect the functioning of a larger territorial system. Therefore, the management of a mining project and the assessment of its risks – depending on the implementation or not of the mentioned performances – cannot overlook the specific features and the vulnerability of the SES where mining is performed. At the same time, decision-makers and land-planners should account for the peculiar interaction between the territory, its vulnerability and the different mining activities there located: both project-management and land-planning decisions should be performed on different spatial scales.
The definitions of vulnerability are very variegated (Table 1). They are not unanimous, and some terminological gaps should be addressed. For instance, the definition of Muller et al., (2011) focuses on the susceptibility to experience damage, limiting vulnerability only to “negative” events affecting the functioning of a system. Based on the general definitions presented in Table 1 and the consideration of a territory through a SES approach, territorial vulnerability to mining might be considered as the ecological vulnerability, i.e. the
socio-15
ecological conditions and processes of a territory that determine its level of exposure and susceptibility to – positive or negative – stresses, changes and regime shifts due to mining activities. Therefore, vulnerability is an important component of risk that influence both the likelihood of occurrence of a risk event and the intensity of its consequences (Lauerbourg et
al., 2020).
Table 1 Examples of definition of "vulnerability" in scientific literature
Vulnerability definition References
The susceptibility of a system to experience damage Muller et al., 2011 The conditions and processes that determine the exposure and susceptibility of
an individual, a community, a system, or a unit to disaster as well as their capacities to respond effectively to them
Maikhuri et al., 2017
The affinity of a system to changes, determined by both, the exposure to external stresses and shocks and the intrinsic factors that determine the systems' resilience
Lauerbourg et al., 2020
The function of system exposure to changes, its susceptibility to be affected by a change and its resilience to restore its functioning after the change occurred
Nasiri et al., 2015;
Sowman and Raemaekers, 2018
Intrinsic properties of something that create susceptibility to a source of risk that
can lead to a consequence ISO, 2008
The application of vulnerability assessment of SES has been discussed by several recent papers (Berrouet et al., 2018; Sowman and Raemaekers, 2018; Mekonnen et al., 2019). The interest of a socio-ecological vulnerability assessment is the identification of vulnerable areas (Lauerbourg et al., 2020), which would be an important parameter that must be accounted for in risk assessment and as support for decision-making for land-planning. Since this approach is relatively recent, no applications to the mining sector have been found except for sectorial studies which aimed to assess the ecological vulnerability of given mining systems at a territory level (Pandey and Bardsley, 2015; Peng et al., 2015; von der Forst, 2018). For instance, Peng et
al., (2015) explores ecological and vulnerability assessment of mining cities at the landscape
scale.
SES vulnerability assessment has been often coupled with the ecosystem services framework (de Chazal et al., 2008; Berrouet et al., 2018). Berrouet et al., (2018) propose a conceptual framework for the vulnerability assessment of SES with a particular regard on soil-related ecosystem services. As suggested by the same authors, socio-ecological vulnerability depends on the level of provided/lost benefits and assets that a system might supply and, most of all, “on the type of need that such benefits satisfy”.
Among the different methodologies to assess vulnerability, one of the most common method is the use of vulnerability indicators (Nasiri et al., 2016). In the cases of such large spatial areas, some methods use available data for providing a logical image of vulnerable spots through GIS-based tools, which help support decision-making and land-planning. According to Nasiri et al., (2016), indicator-based assessment approaches can be “the greatest policy-making tool for