THE RESONANCE OF BIOLOGICAL MOTION THROUGH VISUAL PERCEPTION IN THE HUMAN BRAIN

MOTOR SCIENCES FACULTY

THE RESONANCE OF BIOLOGICAL MOTION

THROUGH VISUAL PERCEPTION IN THE HUMAN

BRAIN

Work presented to obtain the doctoral degree in the field of Motor Sciences

Doctoral thesis of Carlos Enrique Cevallos Barragán

Director:

Guy Cheron

1

Supervisory committee:

Bernard Dan

1,3

, Paul Verbanck

2

1_{Laboratory of Neurophysiology and Movement Biomechanics, Université Libre de Bruxelles}

Neuroscience Institut, Université Libre de Bruxelles; Laboratory of Electrophysiology, Université de Mons-Hainaut, Mons, Belgium

2_{Psychological Medicine Laboratory and Addictology, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium}

3_{Laboratory of Neurophysiology and Movement Biomechanics, Université Libre de Bruxelles}

MOTOR SCIENCES FACULTY

THE RESONANCE OF BIOLOGICAL MOTION

THROUGH VISUAL PERCEPTION IN THE HUMAN

BRAIN

Work presented to obtain the doctoral degree in the field of Motor Sciences

Doctoral thesis of Carlos Enrique Cevallos Barragán

Director:

Guy Cheron

1

Supervisory committee:

Bernard Dan

1,3

, Paul Verbanck

2

1_{Laboratory of Neurophysiology and Movement Biomechanics, Université Libre de Bruxelles}

Neuroscience Institut, Université Libre de Bruxelles; Laboratory of Electrophysiology, Université de Mons-Hainaut, Mons, Belgium

2_{Psychological Medicine Laboratory and Addictology, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium}

3_{Laboratory of Neurophysiology and Movement Biomechanics, Université Libre de Bruxelles}

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE ... I

 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... III

 

WORK PRESENTATION ... 1

  INTRODUCTION ... 1  From motion to cognition ... 1  EEG as a new tool in movement science ... 2  Brain dynamics ... 3 

FROM WALKING TO COGNITION AND EEG BIOMARKERS ... 5

 

FROM CENTRAL PATTERN GENERATORS TO PLASTICITY ... 5 

OSCILLATIONS IN THE HUMAN BRAIN DURING WALKING EXECUTION, IMAGINATION AND OBSERVATION ... 6 

BRAIN OSCILLATIONS IN SPORT: TOWARD EEG BIOMARKERS OF PERFORMANCE ... 18 

MOVEMENT PERCEPTION, FROM OTHERS TO SELF ... 44

 

EEG DYNAMICS AND MIRROR NEURONS ... 44 

NEURAL RHYTHMIC SYMPHONY OF HUMAN WALKING OBSERVATION: UPSIDE‐DOWN AND UNCOORDINATED CONDITION ON CORTICAL  THETA, ALPHA, BETA AND GAMMA OSCILLATIONS ... 44 

LONG‐LASTING CORTICAL REORGANIZATION AS THE RESULT OF MOTOR IMAGERY OF THROWING A BALL IN A VIRTUAL TENNIS COURT ... 65 

INTEGRATION OF INFORMATION ... 76

 

MICROSTATES ANALYSIS ... 76 

SHORT‐TERM EEG DYNAMICS AND NEURAL GENERATORS EVOKED BY IMPLICIT NAVIGATIONAL IMAGES ... 77 

MICROSTATE ANALYSIS OF CHECKERBOARD AND 3D TUNNEL PATTERN STIMULATION ... 125 

NEW METHODS IN THE PATH OF MOTOR REHABILITATION ... 140

 

FROM PERCEPTION TO REHABILITATION ... 140 

BRAIN UNIQUENESS, LEARNING AND PLASTICITY ... 141 

PERSPECTIVES... 142

 

ANNEXES ... 153

 

MICROSTATES IN ADHD CHILDREN DURING A VISUAL CUED GO/NOGO TASK ... 154 

SPECTRAL ANALYSIS OF EEG OSCILLATION IN ANGELMAN SYNDROME ... 155 

EEG SPECTRAL ANALYSIS IN NON‐CONVULSIVE STATUS EPILEPTICUS IN ANGELMAN SYNDROME AND OTHER CONDITIONS ... 156 

MATURATION OF HIGH‐DENSITY EEG OSCILLATORY VISUAL RESPONSES IN INFANTS BORN PRETERM ... 157 

i

PREFACE

The hearth of the works within this doctoral thesis is the motivation to find clues in human brain oscillations to help improve the quality of life of people with motor problems. I have mostly worked with gait movement, due to its relevance in many motor, social and cognitive aspects. My background as a mechanical engineer complementary to the work done in the neurological motor rehabilitation field has driven me to the idea that neurophysiology and biomechanics are the starting point to learn and understand motor performance.

In Ecuador, my country of origin, this thesis takes part in the good living national plan (Plan Nacional Buen Vivir) for Ecuadorian citizens. Promoted by local government from 2013 this plan has attached to an initiative started in 2007 to integrate the population, support in education and economy as well as implement facilities along the country people attained with handicaps. As the government has raised attention towards handicap there have been some difficulties to take specific actions. When looking closely to physical handicaps development and implemented help there has been a push towards basic rehabilitation and patient management but there has not been any country related research related to new methods on diagnosis nor rehabilitation.

ii cerebral lesions like: cerebrovascular attack (CVA) and cerebral palsy. During the time of work dedicated to this doctoral thesis I have learned to address different protocols to analyze motor gestures and brain oscillations through visual perception.

Our brain encompasses a changing symphony of oscillating activity throughout our lives. Up to the time we are born, we are ready to feel and move to interact with our world. Our senses develop rapidly and we start to perceive the world and learn. We visually perceive and process big amounts of information on a daily basis. At the same time we see movements from ourselves and from others in order to communicate and interact with our environment. We watch the world move. Moreover, from the links that exist between motor and sensory systems in human beings we may approach individual motor activity as a loop between a control (brain) over the effectors (muscles) which act, perceive and send the information back to the control source.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The achievement of this work has brought together life knowledge and learning experience. Walking along the learning path was not a one man job; I have been supported by many people. I hope that the completion of this work shows to them in some manner the result of this thesis the fruit of the learning I have had and represent at some extent the help and support they have provided in and out of the academic field.

Learning and acquiring experience needs the ability and expertise from someone that masters the subject. There are two people that I would like to thank in first place as I feel they have forged the acknowledged skills and concepts.

Professor Guy Cheron as it would have not been possible to achieve this work without his continuous support and motivation. Not only his knowledge on the presented field seems infinite but also his kindness and leadership are of invaluable strength. Prof. Cheron is always open to discussion and his door is always open to new proposals. The Laboratory he directs (LNMB) is at the top of the technology and it has been always a privilege to work with him and the people he collaborates.

iv I would like to thank the people in Ecuador, who have given me the opportunity to follow this doctoral thesis, to Jorge, Doris, Xavier and Patricia who put their trust in me. The Secretaría Nacional de Educación Superior, Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación for the scholarship.

Thanks to Anne Marie for her comprehension during the last stages of the work. For the colleagues and people in Belgium which I appreciate and have created special links in academia and in everyday life David, Celine, Raphael, Mathieu, Axelle, Karine, Felicien, Isabel, Raquel, Aline, Ernesto, Ernesto, Delphine, Pablo, Ana, Ana, Tiziano, Manu, Manu, Thomas, Karthik, Vincent, Elena and Claude. Pietro, Maddalena, Valentina, Prof. Rizzolatti and all colleagues in Italy which showed me that science can be in every corner of our lives.

Friends in Ecuador and Belgium, in particular to Pierre and Maureen, who have taken the time to read and helped with the grammar issues and clarification of the ideas within this work.

Luna, who has been the balance in everyday life and has given me the extra support which full of love, taught me to be reflective and have confidence.

Last but not least, my parents, Francisco y Cecilia, with their consistent love and caring from the long distance and my brother, sister, Francisco and Karla who have been far from the eyes but near to the heart.

145

REFERENCES

Ambrosini, E., C. Sinigaglia and M. Costantini (2012). "Tie my hands, tie my eyes." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 38(2): 263-266.

Ariely, D. and G. S. Berns (2010). "Neuromarketing: the hope and hype of neuroimaging in business." Nature reviews neuroscience 11(4): 284-292.

Ayers, M. E. (2004). "Neurofeedback for cerebral palsy."

Azarpaikan, A., H. T. Torbati and M. Sohrabi (2014). "Neurofeedback and physical balance in Parkinson's patients." Gait & posture 40(1): 177-181.

Babiloni, F., F. Cincotti, D. Mattia, M. Mattiocco, S. Bufalari, F. D. V. Fallani, A. Tocci, L. Bianchi, M. G. Marciani and V. Meroni (2006). Neural basis for the brain responses to the marketing messages: an high resolution EEG study. Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, 2006. EMBS'06. 28th Annual International Conference of the IEEE, IEEE.

Bachers, A. (2004). "Neurofeedback with cerebral palsy and mental retardation: a case report."

Badcock, N. A., P. Mousikou, Y. Mahajan, P. de Lissa, J. Thie and G. McArthur (2013). "Validation of the Emotiv EPOC® EEG gaming system for measuring research quality auditory ERPs." PeerJ 1: e38.

Bourzac, K. (2016). "Neurostimulation: Bright sparks." Nature 531(7592): S6-S8.

Brunet, D., M. M. Murray and C. M. Michel (2011). "Spatiotemporal analysis of multichannel EEG: CARTOOL." Comput Intell Neurosci 2011: 813870.

Buccino, G., D. Arisi, P. Gough, D. Aprile, C. Ferri, L. Serotti, A. Tiberti and E. Fazzi (2012). "Improving upper limb motor functions through action observation treatment: a pilot study in chilren with cerebral palsy." Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology(54): 822-828. Buccino, G., R. Gatti, M. C. Giusti, A. Negrotti, A. Rossi, S. Calzetti and S. F. Cappa (2011). "Action observation treatment improves autonomy in daily activities in Parkinson's disease patients: results from a pilot study." Movement Disorders 26(10): 1963-1964.

Buttlar, M., R. Cilibrasi, D. Fisher, J. Foltynski, D. Griffiths, J. Hansmann, L. Hipper, K. Kabele, J. Meissner and J. Morrison (2006). The OpenEEG Project.

Buzsaki, G. (2006). Rhythms of the Brain, Oxford University Press.

146

Calvo-Merino, B., S. Ehrenberg, D. Leung and P. Haggard (2010). "Experts see it all: configural effects in action observation." Psychological Research PRPF 74(4): 400-406. Calvo-Merino, B., D. E. Glaser, J. Grezes, R. E. Passingham and P. Haggard (2005). "Action observation and acquired motor skills: an FMRI study with expert dancers." Cereb Cortex

15(8): 1243-1249.

Castermans, T., M. Duvinage, G. Cheron and T. Dutoit (2013). "Towards Effective Non-Invasive Brain-Computer Interfaces Dedicated to Gait Rehabilitation Systems." Brain Sciences 4(1): 1-48.

Castermans, T., M. Duvinage, G. Cheron and T. Dutoit (2014). "About the cortical origin of the low-delta and high-gamma rhythms observed in EEG signals during treadmill walking." Neuroscience Letters 561(0): 166-170.

Cebolla, A.-M., E. Palmero-Soler, B. Dan and G. Chéron (2014). "Modulation of the N30 generators of the somatosensory evoked potentials by the mirror neuron system." Neuroimage 95: 48-60.

Cebolla, A. M., M. Petieau, C. Cevallos, A. Leroy, B. Dan and G. Cheron (2015). "Long-lasting cortical reorganization as the result of motor imagery of throwing a ball in a virtual tennis court." Frontiers in Psychology 6: 1869.

Cevallos, C., S. Baijot, T. Hoellinger, C. Colin, N. Deconinck, G. Cheron and B. Dan (2014). Microstates in ADHD children during a visual cued GO/NOGO task. 26th Annual Meeting of the EACD. Vienna, Austria, EACD. PO25-1: 28.

Cevallos, C., D. Zarka, T. Hoellinger, A. Leroy, B. Dan and G. Cheron (2015). "Oscillations in the human brain during walking execution, imagination and observation." Neuropsychologia(0).

Courtine, G., B. Song, R. R. Roy, H. Zhong, J. E. Herrmann, Y. Ao, J. Qi, V. R. Edgerton and M. V. Sofroniew (2008). "Recovery of supraspinal control of stepping via indirect propriospinal relay connections after spinal cord injury." Nature medicine 14(1): 69-74.

Cowles, T., A. Clark, K. Mares, G. Peryer, R. Stuck and V. Pomeroy (2012). "Observation-to-Imitate Plus Practice Could Add Little to Physical Therapy Benefits Within 31 Days of Stroke Translational Randomized Controlled Trial." Neurorehabilitation and neural repair: 1545968312452470.

Cheron, G., A. Bengoetxea, E. Bouillot, F. Lacquaniti and B. Dan (2001). "Early emergence of temporal co-ordination of lower limb segments elevation angles in human locomotion." Neuroscience Letters 308(2): 123-127.

147

10-Hz electroencephalographic oscillations during the arrest reaction." Brain research

1121(1): 104-116.

Cheron, G., A. Leroy, E. Palmero-Soler, C. De Saedeleer, A. Bengoetxea, A. M. Cebolla, M. Vidal, B. Dan, A. Berthoz and J. McIntyre (2014). "Gravity influences top-down signals in visual processing." PLoS One 9(1): e82371.

Cheron, G., G. Petit, J. Cheron, A. Leroy, A. M. Cebolla, C. Cevallos, M. Petieau, D. Zarka, T. Hoellinger, A. M. Clarinval and B. Dan (2016). "Brain oscillations in sport: toward EEG biomarkers of performance." Frontiers in Psychology 7.

Dan, B., K. Pelc, L. Meirleir and G. Cheron (2015). "Phenotypic plasticity and the perception–action–cognition–environment paradigm in neurodevelopmental genetic disorders." Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology 57(s2): 52-54.

De Gelder, B. (2006). "Towards the neurobiology of emotional body language." Nature Reviews Neuroscience 7(3): 242-249.

Delorme, A. and S. Makeig (2004). "EEGLAB: an open source toolbox for analysis of single-trial EEG dynamics including independent component analysis." J Neurosci Methods 134(1): 9-21.

Delorme, A. and S. Makeig (2004). EEGLAB: an open source toolbox for analysis of single-trial EEG dynamics including independent component analysis, ELSEVIER SCIENCE BV. Dinomais, M., E. Chinier, G. Lignon, I. Richard, A. Ter Minassian and S. N. T. Tich (2013). "The effect of video-guidance on passive movement in patients with cerebral palsy: fMRI study." Research in developmental disabilities 34(10): 3487-3496.

Duvinage, M., T. Castermans, M. Petieau, T. Hoellinger, G. Cheron and T. Dutoit (2013). "Performance of the Emotiv Epoc headset for P300-based applications." Biomedical engineering online 12(1): 1.

Duysens, J. and H. W. Van de Crommert (1998). "Neural control of locomotion; The central pattern generator from cats to humans." Gait Posture 7(2): 131-141.

Fitzsimmons, N., M. Lebedev, I. Peikon and M. A. L. Nicolelis (2009). "Extracting kinematic parameters for monkey bipedal walking from cortical neuronal ensemble activity." Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience 3: 3.

Frey, J., R. Gervais, S. Fleck, F. Lotte and M. Hachet (2014). Teegi: tangible EEG interface. Proceedings of the 27th annual ACM symposium on User interface software and technology, ACM.

148

R. Hauffe and F. Thorsteinsson (2012). MINDWALKER: Going one step further with assistive lower limbs exoskeleton for SCI condition subjects. Biomedical Robotics and Biomechatronics (BioRob), 2012 4th IEEE RAS & EMBS International Conference on.

Gatti, R., A. Tettamanti, P. Gough, E. Riboldi, L. Marinoni and G. Buccino (2013). "Action observation versus motor imagery in learning a complex motor task: a short review of literature and a kinematics study." Neuroscience letters 540: 37-42.

Gazula, V. R., M. Roberts, C. Luzzio, A. F. Jawad and R. G. Kalb (2004). "Effects of limb exercise after spinal cord injury on motor neuron dendrite structure." Journal of Comparative Neurology 476(2): 130-145.

Grillner, S. and P. Wallen (1985). "Central pattern generators for locomotion, with special reference to vertebrates." Annu Rev Neurosci 8: 233-261.

Gueugneau, N., B. Mauvieux and C. Papaxanthis (2009). "Circadian modulation of mentally simulated motor actions: implications for the potential use of motor imagery in rehabilitation." Neurorehabil Neural Repair 23(3): 237-245.

Harcourt-Smith, W. E. and L. C. Aiello (2004). "Fossils, feet and the evolution of human bipedal locomotion." J Anat 204(5): 403-416.

Hicheur, H., H. Kadone, J. Grezes and A. Berthoz (2013). The combined role of motion-related cues and upper body posture for the expression of emotions during human walking. Modeling, simulation and optimization of bipedal walking, Springer: 71-85.

Husserl, E. (1982). Noesis and Noema. Ideas Pertaining to a Pure Phenomenology and to a Phenomenological Philosophy, Springer: 211-235.

Jwa, A. (2015). "Early adopters of the magical thinking cap: a study on do-it-yourself (DIY) transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) user community." Journal of Law and the Biosciences 2(2): 292-335.

Kim, J.-H. and B.-H. Lee (2013). "Action observation training for functional activities after stroke: a pilot randomized controlled trial." NeuroRehabilitation 33(4): 565-574.

Kleim, J. A. and T. A. Jones (2008). "Principles of experience-dependent neural plasticity: implications for rehabilitation after brain damage." Journal of speech, language, and hearing research 51(1): S225-S239.

Knight, A. P. and M. Baer (2014). "Get Up, Stand Up The Effects of a Non-Sedentary Workspace on Information Elaboration and Group Performance." Social Psychological and Personality Science: 1948550614538463.

149

Kravitz, D. J., K. S. Saleem, C. I. Baker and M. Mishkin (2011). "A new neural framework for visuospatial processing." Nature Reviews Neuroscience 12(4): 217-230.

Laver, K., S. George, S. Thomas, J. E. Deutsch and M. Crotty (2012). "Virtual reality for stroke rehabilitation." Stroke 43(2): e20-e21.

Leakey, M. and A. Walker (1997). "Early hominid fossils from Africa." Sci Am 276(6): 74-79. Lehmann, D., H. Ozaki and I. Pal (1987). "EEG alpha map series: brain micro-states by space-oriented adaptive segmentation." Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 67(3): 271-288.

Lehmann, D., W. K. Strik, B. Henggeler, T. Koenig and M. Koukkou (1998). "Brain electric microstates and momentary conscious mind states as building blocks of spontaneous thinking: I. Visual imagery and abstract thoughts." International Journal of Psychophysiology

29(1): 1-11.

Lombardo, C., B. Dan, K. Pelc, E. Veneselli, M. G. Baglietto, G. Cheron, C. Cevallos and A. M. Cebolla (2014). Spectral analysis of EEG oscillation in Angelman syndrome. EACD 2014. EACD. Viena, Austria. PO15.

Lombardo, C., B. Dan, K. Pelc, E. Veneselli, G. Cheron, C. Cevallos and A. M. Cebolla (2014). EEG spectral analysis in non-convulsive status epilepticus in Angelman syndrome and other conditions. EACD 2014. EACD. Viena, Austria.

Maffei, V., I. Indovina, E. Macaluso, Y. P. Ivanenko, A. O. G and F. Lacquaniti (2015). "Visual gravity cues in the interpretation of biological movements: neural correlates in humans." Neuroimage 104: 221-230.

Makeig, S. (2009). ERP Features and EEG Dynamics: An ICA Perspective. Oxford Handbook of Event-Related Potential Components. New York, Oxforn University Press. Makeig, S., M. Westerfield, T. P. Jung, S. Enghoff, J. Townsend, E. Courchesne and T. J. Sejnowski (2002). "Dynamic brain sources of visual evoked responses." Science 295(5555): 690-694.

Martino, C. A., S. Bonnì, M. Iosa, V. Ponzo, A. Fusco, C. Caltagirone and G. Koch (2015). "Clinical effects of non-invasive cerebellar magnetic stimulation treatment combined with neuromotor rehabilitation in traumatic brain injury. A single case study." Functional neurology: 1-4.

Morin, C. (2011). "Neuromarketing: the new science of consumer behavior." Society 48(2): 131-135.

150

Nicolelis, M. A. (2014). Brain-to-Brain Interfaces: When Reality Meets Science Fiction. Cerebrum: the Dana forum on brain science, Dana Foundation.

Orban, G. A., D. Fize, H. Peuskens, K. Denys, K. Nelissen, S. Sunaert, J. Todd and W. Vanduffel (2003). "Similarities and differences in motion processing between the human and macaque brain: evidence from fMRI." Neuropsychologia 41(13): 1757-1768.

Orgs, G., J. H. Dombrowski, M. Heil and P. Jansen‐Osmann (2008). "Expertise in dance modulates alpha/beta event‐related desynchronization during action observation." European Journal of Neuroscience 27(12): 3380-3384.

Orlovskij, G. N., T. G. Deliagina and S. Grillner (2003). Neuronal control of locomotion : from mollusc to man. Oxford [u.a., Oxford Univ. Press.

Palmero-Soler, E., K. Dolan, V. Hadamschek and P. A. Tass (2007). "swLORETA: a novel approach to robust source localization and synchronization tomography." Physics in Medicine and Biology 52(7): 1783.

Pascual-Leone, A., A. Amedi, F. Fregni and L. B. Merabet (2005). "The plastic human brain cortex." Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 28: 377-401.

Pelc, K., A. M. Cebolla, , C. Cevallos, L. Dewulf, J. A.B., G. Cheron and B. Dan (2014). "Feasibility of High-Density EEG Mismatch Negativity Paradigm for Assessing Phoneme Processing in Preterm Infants." J J Neur Neurosci 1(2).

Pelc, K., C. Cevallos, A. M. Cebolla, C. Graf Von Kalkreuth, A. Gajewska, G. Cheron and B. Dan (2015). Functional impairment of somatosensory association cortex in Angelman syndrome. EACD 2015. Copenhague, Denmark. 57: 57-58.

Pelc, K., C. Cevallos, A. M. Cebolla, C. Lombardo, G. Cheron and B. Dan (2015). Maturation of high-density EEG oscillatory visual responses in infants born preterm. EACD 2015. Copenhague, Denmark. 57: 38-39.

Petit, G., A. Cimochowska, C. Cevallos, G. Cheron, C. Kornreich, C. Hanak, E. Schroder, P. Verbanck and S. Campanella (2015). "Reduced processing of alcohol cues predicts abstinence in recently detoxified alcoholic patients in a three-month follow up period: An ERP study." Behavioural brain research 282: 84-94.

Pham, Q.-C., A. Berthoz and H. Hicheur (2011). "Invariance of locomotor trajectories across visual and gait direction conditions." Experimental brain research 210(2): 207-215.

Poincaré, H. (1968). "La science et l'hypothèse (1902)." Paris, Flammarion: 157.

151

Renard, Y., F. Lotte, G. Gibert, M. Congedo, E. Maby, V. Delannoy, O. Bertrand and A. Lécuyer (2010). "Openvibe: An open-source software platform to design, test, and use brain–computer interfaces in real and virtual environments." Presence 19(1): 35-53.

Rizzo, A. A., J. G. Buckwalter, T. Bowerly, C. Van Der Zaag, L. Humphrey, U. Neumann, C. Chua, C. Kyriakakis, A. Van Rooyen and D. Sisemore (2000). "The virtual classroom: a virtual reality environment for the assessment and rehabilitation of attention deficits." CyberPsychology & Behavior 3(3): 483-499.

Rizzolatti, G., L. Fadiga, V. Gallese and L. Fogassi (1996). "Premotor cortex and the recognition of motor actions." Brain Res Cogn Brain Res 3(2): 131-141.

Sacco, K., F. Cauda, L. Cerliani, D. Mate, S. Duca and G. Geminiani (2006). "Motor imagery of walking following training in locomotor attention. The effect of ‘the tango lesson’." Neuroimage 32(3): 1441-1449.

Sacks, O. (2010). Musicophilia: Tales of music and the brain, Vintage Canada.

Sadato, N., A. Pascual-Leone, J. Grafman, V. Ibañez, M.-P. Deiber, G. Dold and M. Hallett (1996). "Activation of the primary visual cortex by Braille reading in blind subjects." Nature

380(6574): 526-528.

Sánchez-Escandón, O., Y. Arana-Lechuga, G. Terán-Pérez, A. Ruiz-Chow, R. González-Robles, P. Shkurovich-Bialik, M. Collado-Corona and J. Velázquez-Moctezuma (2016). "Effect of low-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on sleep pattern and quality of life in patients with focal epilepsy." Sleep Medicine 20: 37-40.

Small, S., G. Buccino and A. Solodkin (2010). "The mirror neuron system and treatment of stroke." Developmental Psychobiology: 293-310.

Sokolov, A. A., M. Erb, W. Grodd, M. S. Tatagiba, R. S. Frackowiak and M. A. Pavlova (2014). "Recovery of biological motion perception and network plasticity after cerebellar tumor removal." Cortex 59: 146-152.

Stein, P. S. (1999). Neurons, networks, and motor behavior, MIT press.

Tello, R., C. Valadao, S. Müller, A. Ferreira, A. Bissoli, R. Carelli and T. Bastos-Filho (2015). Performance improvements for navigation of a robotic wheelchair based on SSVEP-BCI. XII SBAI–Simpósio Brasileiro de Automação Inteligente.

Underwood, E. (2016). "International brain projects proposed." Science 352(6283): 277-278. Walker, C. J. (2010). "Experiencing flow: Is doing it together better than doing it alone?" The Journal of Positive Psychology 5(1): 3-11.

152

Zarka, D., C. Cevallos, M. Petieau, T. Hoellinger, B. Dan and G. Cheron (2014). "Neural rhythmic symphony of human walking observation: Upside-down and Uncoordinated condition on cortical theta, alpha, beta and gamma oscillations." Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience 8.