UNITED NATIONS
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL
ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOE .AFRICA, -
Follow-up Committee on Industrialization in AftS^l ■'
Fourth mseting
Kaduna, Nigeria, 17-19 November 1977
7 November 1977 ENGLISH
Original: ENGLISH/FRENCH
Fourth Conference of African Ministers of Industry
Sponsored fcy ECA? OAU and UNTDO Kaduna, Nigeria, 22«26 November 1977
FIRST REPORT OF THE FIRST TEAM OF EXPERTS ON THE CONSTRUCTION' INDUSTEY MD BUILDING MATERIALS
HOTSTRY EEVELGPMT-. PROGRAMME
(PRGJEOP NO. 9.293)
Consents
I* INTRODUCTION* i*««*«»*»otoooo»*«evi4tt«fiia«<»Deo<ie>3oeia<io«*a<)«4 II. CURRENT SITUATION OF THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRI AND BUILDING
MATERIALS IN AFRICA*»e :
A* The construction industry, -,.s,o..«•*<: .<■•* ;cc-.««...••« t *
Paragraphs
1-5
1* Its importance to the
2. Common features of the industry*
3, Building cost break-down by types of production factor 4* Functional "break—down of costs.»<,«« »*«••<;.3ea.o*t>oo«e»
5« The contracting industry..,.6..fiG0.ffl»..»
6. Construction technology.«**««#t«.»»c««.*»<>
7. Concluding remarks.. . * .?*,.»••••c*«*•«•.
B. Building materials.,
1.2. Walling materials,.
3. Wood and wood-based 4« Iron and
5« Roofing materials*••««••«*.
6. Glass, sanitary ware, electrical fittings and accessories and finishes ».„»,,.
7- Concluding remarks*,..a«.,»B««
,6 6
7 8 12
1416 18 19
35
11 13 1517
20 - 21
22
2527
30 31 33 34
- 24 - 26 - 29 - 32
35
EOA/CM1.4/1MRMA E/CN.14/HUS/21
III. S FOB THE DEV3L0HMW OF
..,..^L... 36
A. Weed for a change in attitude or conception 3?
4-5
3? - B. --JfodS for- effective;plashing at the national level.,.,,. 46 _
1. Jleed for CQ-ordinatxon between the construction
industry and the building materials industrv a*
:2. Need for-sebtoral studies,., riaiB ■xadUstiy»••••••■• 4$
C Need for the formulation and application of codes and
D. Need to choose appropriate^-technologies.^,^,,.,,^.^.^^ 49 E. Need to malce use of local TOaoiiWiw.i.-. ;•:: Cft M P. Need for subregional or regional co-operation 53
G. Research institutions ,A ,.
H. Need to train national entrepreneurs, middle-level
technicxans and skilled manpower,...' ™% 66 _ 6j
■■I*- -Meed-for a Consulting Engineering Office 68 J. Need for a permanent team of experts...'„..^... 59
IV. RECOMMENDATIONS,.. , - - ..;-,., .. „...,... ,,."■.. ■ .■..!.. . ■/ .
A. Recommendations-to African countries
1. ■• At the. national -level ■■ ■ ■ ■ •'""-:--""■■"■ "■ " ■ ■"'■' ■■ :':: ■' •■■ ":-;- .;. &'• Au the subregLonal or
B. Recommendations to the Economic
1. Technical, project assistahce""" *' '
2* : ^^^l '^
•■ 3* Leadership and co-ordination1 r61e"
C. Special .recommendation ■ - ■ ■ ■-..-.-.- ■■■ -
D. Proposal .for a .-three-year work plari (table 7)
ANHEXES
ECA/CMl/PCIA94/WP/
Annas Is Additional statistical data on cement production and consumption
Annex Hi Additional statistical data on cement consumption and production in Africa
Annex Ills List of proposed pilot projects in the eight countries visited
ECA/ ui»ij..^
E/CN.
I. INTRODUCTION
1. In application of,various recommendations, resolutions and decision, the
most recent of which date back to the fourth conference of African Ministers held in Kinshasa in February 1977 and all of which give high priority to the development of
the building materials industry in Africa, the joint SCA/UNIDO Division formulated Project No. 9-293 entitled ''Development of the building and construction- industry in Africa", This project, which has been conceived in several phases, has just
begun to be implemented by sending a team comprising three African expert a*1 including two consultants with short-term contracts, into the field, ■■ ■ - ;- 2. Their mission is to.study the existing situation in the building and construction industry and in research organs and activities with a view to identifying needs, -' * projects with great potential. ;and priority areas and to recommend concrete measures for securing autonomy in the building and building materials industry in Africa between now and the year 2000,
3. The team left Addis Ababa on 13 August 1977 and returned on 23 October after having visited Lesotho, Gabon, Benin, Togo, the Niger, Ghana, Burundi and the Sudan, in that order. In each of these eight countries, the experts met with TJNDP officials and UNIDO experts and with high officials in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Planning, Commerce, Industry, Public Works, Housing,. Labour, Mines and Geology and other
Ministries, Its members also interviewed authorities in the financial institutions concerned; got in touch with local and foreign architects, engineers and contractors and visited units producing building materials and some housing developments
constructed under government auspices*
4. This report, which has been prepared especially for the Conference of African Ministers of Industry. %o be held in Kadunaj, Nigeria, in November 1977» contains
a ■ summary "o"f the observations made in the field supplemented with information available at ECA headquarters. It also deals with items essential to the success of a development programme in the building sector. Finally, it contains suggestions - for recommendations on the respective roles of African Governments and international"
organizations and for programming activities requiring their co-operation during the-
next three years. ■ . . . : -
• ■■-.■- a ■ . ■
5. It may be useful to explain that the main purpose of this report is to point out, at the present stage in the implementation of the programme, the urgent need for certain measures in the absence of which the sector is in danger of: soon "~
becoming a real socio-economic dead weight on the African countries.
/ /. 4/IK H/ /5 E/CN.14/lIUS/21
Page 2
II. CURRENT SITUATION OP THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY AND BUILDING MATERIALS IN AFRICA
A. The construction jnduatiy..
6. The linkage of the construction industry with the building materials industry is
very high. Any upward or downward change in the volume of construction activity will isro -a-ixpoportionBte .effect on the building materials industry. It is therefore •SS1& Africa^ ^^ * ^^ a°COUnt °f the situ^tio^ °* the construction
"1- Its importance to the economy
i+y ap*>ears ™-ce in national accounts, onoe as part of by type of asset and another time as a-'component of GDP by indus trial origin. For African countries its contribution to GDP ranges from 4 to 11 L
cent see table.1) and this percentage tends to increase with iSorea^ing » clpjta
fI ? 1 ?fr?Vf ca^lta} formation construction constitutes 40 to 60 iiF^iSt
of total capital formation (see table 1). The construction industry employs a large
proportion of the labour force - 6 to 10 per cent of total employment in industrialized countries and 2 to 6 per cent in less developed countries. 2/ By any measure
the sector is thus one of the most important sectors of the economy.2. Common features of the industry
8. .Construction is a very flexible sector which can expand and contract signifi
cantly in response to scattered, fluctuating and discontinuous demand. This is a
pattern-characteristics of the majority of African countries, where substantial animal fluctuations in the construction output of certain sectors can be observed
lollowing the initiation and completion of major infrastructure works (dams, large irrigation schemes, airports, harbours, and so on). The.industry-relies on an'unlimited supply of unskilled labour, easily recruited when a new job is started and
easily disbanded when the job is completed. The price it pays for its adaptability and responsiveness is high in terms of effective use of resources, human,technicalandfjLnancial '
9- Other features of the industry are the importance of construction materials as
its major input, the dominance of the public sector and dependence in foreign'contractors for major projects; and for local enterprises, chronic shortages of working capital required to cope with delays in settlement of accounts, inadequate planning of operations on site, and bad organization and management.
10. The industry can roughly be divided into the traditional and modern sectors. : .
Information on the volume of activity in the traditi-nal sector, in which themajority of the population are classified, is scanty. The centuries-old self-help
construction practice is the dominant feature of the traditional sector. The type of construction varies in different parts of Africa. The most common constructions are
stone walls, mud walls, mud walls reinforced with bamboo or wooden splinters, mud roofs on wood rafters, thatch roofs or palm leaf mats with wooden rafters. Effortsto improve construction practices and materials are scattered and unco-ordinated.
/TT .J-l -Construction Industryo UNIDO Monographs on Industrial Development, No. 2
(United Nations publication, Sales No. E.69.II.B.399 Vol.2), p.9.
|/ Iiii-5 P- 11. The range for the eight countries the mission visited is
3 to 5 per cent.
GDPAT1970FACTORCOSTFIXEDCAPITALFOaMATIONAri'CONSTANT Shareof■1970Share'of:i_975Shareof construe-*.;(millionsconstrue--(millionsconstruc tion(perofUStion(perofUStion(per centdollars)cent) 5 4 4
19586.4 1168.8 14040.7 706.0 5403.5 215.4 10558.1 443.2
'_25684.C 62858.6 5 4 4
17547.' 123?.3- 6507.3 342-5 11541.8 476.3
11 7- 5 4 54958?.7 2533.461280.5 4909.7
19651270---.Sliaroof1975 (millions(millionsconstrue-(millions ofU'ofu:;tion(per..c£US
_do_l_larsl_... dollars)^/. cexrt^^^^ollar&J._
9636,7 5309.0 1836.9 2.OC6.83079.34300,7 -■■■■2336,9 2094.62349i7 1245.3 896.9 122?.0
1171,.5 4SO.3 1C36>9 979-1
55-5 ■53 41 53.3 7292.89913.1 5227«.2----167S1-4 .53 ?et£j?iatestimates. 3offixed-capitalformationvie,savailableforonly5countriesintheForthAfricansubregion, "rican.subregion,3countries.intheCentralAfricansubregionand8countriesintheIjastern, 'erogeoftheeecountries1figuresv;eretakentocomputetheisharesofconstriction*bd H'H J O
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Page 5
11. Approximately 30 to 35 per cent of the output of the construction industry is accounted for "by dwellings:;; the rest is accounted for by manufacturing, transport, roadsj health, education and other public services. The mission observed concern on
the part of various African Governments for the urban housing problem, and because of the urgency of the problems low-cost housing programmes of varying magnitude are hastily being launched by some countries, all for urban dwellers. Most of these programmes are not really low-cost housing programmes, and suffer one way or another from the high cost of buildings, the lack of a systematic study of users requirements and bad construction practices, and invariably have some sort of problem related to the under-development of the country - lack of capital, shortage of skilled manpower, and so on. One striking thing about these housing schemes is the very big gap, in both cost and type of houses, between these units and rural houses. There is a conspicuous absence of intermediate houses which use less expensive materials and employ less sophisticated construction -techniques. Progress on solving housing problems depends on further efforts to close the gap between urban housing schemes . and rural houses*
3. Building cost break-down by types of production factor
12. Information obtained by the mission represents a wide scatter of data depending upon the time span and the type of work. TJie following range gives some indication of cost break-down by types of production factor for modern housing units; .3/
Per cent
Materials 45-60
Labour 20-35
Plant, equipment and overhead 15-25
13. The most striking feature of the cost break-down is the relatively high per centage for materials. Building costs are therefore very sensitive to the price of building materials. Another striking figure is that of labour. Contrary to common belief that labour costs are lower in developing countries, the share of the total building cost is of the same order of magnitude as in industrialized
countries, 4/ and this in spite of higher mate-rials costs and considerably lower
wages for unskilled labour. Low productivity and the lack of managerial and technical skills more than offset low wage rates. This is one indicator of the considerable scope for improvement in the productivity of building operations.
4- Funotional break-down of costs
14. Another method of analysing building costs is to break the costs into functional elements. The following range of costs bre^k-dowA by functional elements was
collected by the mission.
3/ Houses' with better finishes which incorporate electrical and complete
sanitary installations.
4/ Professor D.A. Turin, based on research material.
Y;.V<
E/CN-.14/HUS/21 /4//
Page 6
Infrastructure Structure
Walls (external and internal)
Roof .■
Flooring
■Doors and windows
Finishes - paints, varnishes etc Electrical installation
Sanitary installation
the lowep-lnoome population!
5- The contracting industry
6. Construction technolog
Per Ce;:t
1 1 ..3
1 2-P.O 3+21 1-20
-5-4.5 8-257-9 4-7 1-14
geared to meet the needs of
Page 7
7 • Concluding1 remarks
19. The construction industry is a very important sector of the eoonomy, especially during the first phase of development, because a substantial part of a country's scarce resources is invested in construction. Any reduction in cost or improvement in productivity can represent a very significant saving. Being less dependent on imported materials and foreign contractors also means savings of much-needed foreign exchange. In Africa there seems to be immense scope to do both, i.e.
to reduce costs by improving efficiency and by introducing better construction practices, and to save foreign exchange by replacing imported components with local resources. As table 1 shows, in 1970 alone Africa spent ftUS 5,228 million on
construction,, and *f this approximately &US 1,500 million was paid in hard" currency for imported building materials. 5/ Accumulated investment over the period 1965-1972
amounted to &US 25,6^0 million, and building materials imports over the period amounted to T>US li;,85O million. A 1-per-cent cost reduction over the 1970 level would mean over &TJS 1,228 million. Similarly, self-reliance in construction
materials'would mean a saving of over £US 1,300 million per year.2/If the situation is left as it is there is no doubt that.African countries will individually and collectively forego more- opportunities of reducing costs and benefiting from
significant foreign exchange savings. This enormous scope for improvement should be taken seriously at all levels - at the -country, subre-gional and regional levels.
B. Building materials
2r>. The mission has tried to..look into the existing building materials industry situation in the eight African countries visited. The type of industries and degree of sophistication of the existing industries vary from country to country- It was encouraging to note that some industries are operating very satisfactorily. But many others are suffering from one or more of the following drawbacks;
(i) A high component of imported raw materials;
,(ii). The technology employed is transferred technology and inappropriate
in the conditions which prevail?
(iii) Existing indigenous raw materials are not used. Even in cases where
stone or clay is available in large quantities, hoilew cement blocks produced from imported cement are pieferred. In cases where dolomite
is found locally, pure cement is used for a mortar. (Dolomite can be .
used to produce limo which can be substituted for cement in mortar and
plaster works). Where timber is found in abundance, the manufacture
of cement blocks is encouraged^ etcij
(iv) Low capacity utilization due either to lack of*-good management and
technical know-h«w or to an irregular supply cf imported raw material; '
(v) Ho effort to improve and'commercialize tradi-tional- building materials.
21. The most common pattern of development is to start with the-development of primary and bulk materials. This includes sand quarrying., gravel quarrying cr crushing and th^ production of walling materials and binding medium like cement and lime. Since it is not possible to discuss all the existing building materials and components, only a few of the major ones and components are discussed briefly
below. .... . .
%J Assuming that (_a) construction materials constitute pO per cent of total costs, (i) SO per cent of materials used are imported.
6/ SGA secretariat estimates.
/4///5 E/CIT.14/ilUS/21 Page 8
1. C_ement
22. Because of- the universal use of cement in all types of buildings and engineering works, the cement industry is a very important building materials industry. The.
process of manufacturing cement is simple but highly mechanized and requires a ■ big investment in machinery. In Africa, the production of cement has risen faster than anywhere 3l.se in the world., but per capita consumption is still well below the
world average, j/ The-greatest growth was recorded in the West African subregion.
In spite of this progress, Africa is still a net importer of cement. In 1973 alone, Africa..imp^rted more than VUS 290 million worth of cement, cement ©linkers-and lime.- North Africa 'showed both $. surplus and a deficit during the period 1969-1972, whiles- South Africa had a surplus for the period. Sast Africa was self-sufficient but barely sa. The^est African. ■ subregion had the greatest deficit of all. >
. t _ . "
23-. .There are now a,number of cement projects in the pipeline in West Africa, the - two most interesting being Ciments de l'Afrique de I1Quest (CIMAO) sponsored by Togo, Ghana-and the Ivory _G*ast and Ciments d'Qnigbelo of Benin-and Nigeria. Nigeria also-has-plans to expand its cement industry at a purely national level. Even if all the known projects in the pipline are operating to capacity in 1980, it seems that West Africa might have to import substantial, amounts of -clinker and even bagged Qt JV
24- Cement, is an_£xpensire_ building material and is out of the reach of the majority of Africans. Some research is now being undertaken with a view to reducing costs and to lowering the capacity of cement plants. While this-ef might benefit A-frican countries, parallel to this there must be an increased effort to look for cheaper substitutes. Pozzolana and lime are such substitutes which are simple-1 ia--nranu£aotur.a, and mos4L^ijater^s±Ln£ly--c-heaper than cement.
.Unfortunately their use is not widespread. Lime can be used to replace cement as mortar for masonry, for plastering walls, for whitewash or for manufacturing
stabilized soil blocks. The main uses of pozzolana are for lima^poazolana mortars, blended poazolanic cements and admixture, to concrete mixes.
2. Walling' materials
1 ■ r>
25' In almost all African countries :walling material manufacturers of one- kind or
uaofcher exist. Burnt clay bricks and concrete fccllow blocks are two of the most commonly used building materials produced at an industrial level. In some countries brickmaking-is.an ancient art, the method of production of which has persisted to modern times. In other countries there is no tradition if burnt clay bricks, and instead concrete hallow blocks are extensively used, using at times imported cement.
Bricks frequently, though not invariably, appear to be the cheapest alternative for walling as compared to concrete cement blocks, stone or wood. The team recom mends the use of bricks in some countries where cement is imported and where stone . is not a'viable alternative. Good clay for brick productio'n is available in almost all African countries and can be a good rural preject, specially where fuel is n*t a serious problem. If existing small brick projects are given technical assistance
2/ For statistical data-conoerning cement consumption and.production in, Africa
see Annex I,
8/ Ibid.
by way of simple implements or advice on improving their qujtlity, they cjan {"be go>d
alternatives to "big urban "brick factories as a source of supply to non-urban areas
Small brick, projects hsf^e a transport costi-advantage over tj^-g ones. j;Bi£modern mechaniiafc'brick factories offer less employment and are dijsMvantag^uif; in terms
of iniilBlE-l&oat. Theifeadvak-tage ia on fifcefl economy, whio&can be cr^cialif^r so
countrileravt
some
26- li'tpubstitute fj>r thai^conventional'j.wall materials, it^bilisedi so^.1 -blocks have WeJ^'Jlven sume r!pcogni-tion. Given proper adaptation to local conditions, stabilfcldVsoil blocks' can be cheaper than cement blocks (see table 2).: Another
new walling material that has been tested are asphadofre bricks made from a mixture of clay and bunker oil. Because of a lack of data, the team was not able to
compare the cost of asphadobe with that of burnt clay or cement blocks; cost seems to be the important factor ajs. far as substitutes for walling materials are concerned,
I-'- V >'■:■■ $'
Tabled h
Cost comparison of 1. square metre of wall made from stabilized soil blocks and' cement blocks in an urban and rural? environment . I
■r' Loiie (Togo)
Stabilized blocks Cement blocks
Kouloumi (Tog*)
StaM3,l2ed-blopk:s . Cement "blocks Blocks
Mortar Plaster Labour
jiJ230
^384
& 20
; 262
494 360 '270 i-61
288 253
; 22
80
\^ V J42ST
I '380 285 : 117
Total 896 643 1211
Souroe: A. Doe-Bruce, "La terre stabilises: technique: de mise en oeuvre'f Bulletin d*information [4u Centre de la construction et du logement a Cacavelli,
B.P. :17629j Lome. No.5 ^anvisr-fevrior -mars "1976) 9 p.1+1 et i+2. r
■Note; CFAP 239 -ibUS ^' ' i - \
Wood and v/ood-based panels
walling material no,J. very widely use^-iin urban, areas, ey©nc;in forest-rich countries. In.^ountrios where good-quality wpod is exported, local wood prices follow the international market often rising ttffyond the. reach of-many
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Tablei importsofsejLec|edmaterials" (valueinthousandsoffSdollars)("<":» Imports 3-971 36.1products ,shapes,'■ sheets,rails,
ExportsKetimports;. 119211972'197319711972.2311 gop6^08930^21472y?4 ptiodlglass, s,minorglass forelectric ckandwatch utexcluding ewareand ehold clayproducts efraotory ildingbricks, les,ceramic Lglasedand ■amiosetts
LL198SI05068721■2092486110686C 660883848:Q8659779A605228 andplaster 66s88661 ■nishesand. iludes laterials, trtist!s spareddriers 808187?6f\2A16736 —,107746912087061871636 Totalky..;•i8^2^53 J:YearbookofInternationalTrade5t».tiatioB.i197*5,vol>II(UnitedNationspublication,
"&o- S.764XVII.1O, Vol. II).! ;I , ; ■
IB
Africanimportsofcalcot-e-Imaterials(Cont'd) pJThesefiguresshouldbetakenasroughguidesonlybecausetheshareofothersectorsintheuse ofthesematerailsinnotpreciselyknown,astheyarenotclassifiedbyenduses. •h/Ifweassumethatonly70percentofiron*andsteel,paints,varnishes,laequerandglass isimportedforuse"as'buildingmaterialso*
Page 12
29- Sawn wood is the most popular form of wood
2=s;irs*- "
both
4. Iron and steel
seofions su^lL^ted C
sheets. Galvanized aheeWor Only a few countries, mostlv i
steel from ore. AtL 0 tills Lt
all African countrieahavo some l
d d f
the
and door frames, 6 s
rieat L I
has ooen said aboSt the L d'to^elop
»? f maln share of fla^ sheets.
%' ^ inte^ated P1^^ Producing
f, S ^ re-rollin« "".1b. Almost
workshops which fabricate steel windows
^ /! ^ bf
:>f total
of steel consumption in Africa, tor development in this area.
? i
before, that mUch=
in 1975 in 1975, Table 5 shows one old mag-nitude of the scope
Tabl
Rails
Bars? rods and sections Plates and sheets
Tubes
Total
Projected steal consumption .thousands of tonnes, North Africa
1970 198~ West Africa Central Africa East Africa
100 150 1 000 2 250 600 1 800 300 670
1970 1980 1970 1980~
HO i5o 30 Jo"
390 990 130 310
300 250 150 400
80
2221
820 690
2C a/
, "The iron and steel industry in Africa" (e/CN.14/as/iII/23) , p#5 a/ Seamless only.
wood and-wod-ba-ed-panel See annex II, table 2.
Page 13
5* Roofing materials i ' ■
- f
31. The most commonly used pooling; materials in the modejrn sector are galvanize^
corrugated iron sheets, followed by;corrugated asbestos sheets and aluminium sheets, ihe use of clay is infrequent, but concrete is often used! in mult^-sto-ey buildings
V- real break-through has been made in replacing these fife conventional roofing
materials, even though some research is going on in:this %xek,['The problem with these materials particularly corrugated iron and aluminium sheets is their high foreign exchange content. Corrugated- iron sheet is the most popular roofing unit and is widely used in many countries. The sheets are all imported, though in some countries there are galvanizing and corrugating units. The value added in the galvanizing and corrugating operation is very lows and therefore does not affectthe high foreign exchange content., " . . ,»
.32. Roofing is also a big problem for the traditional sector. Jin countries where cud is used as roofing, maintenance is always a problem, and in "some !countries many
houses collapse during the rainy .season, u/In other countries where thatch is used, maintenance and scarcity of thatch are common problems. ■6' Stess^ aanitary ware, electrical fittings and accessories and finishes 33. In the_ field of electrical^ttings, wires, cables, fixtures, porcelain and other ceramic ware, sheet glassV-.and so on, Africa depends .heavily on foreign sources
and expenditure on imports of these items is substantial. In 1973 imports of.glass alone amounted for over '.US- 60 million (see table 4.' The .problem in this
items SeSmS that °f Sma11 natidnal raarfcs-ts for the local manufacture of these
7- Concluding remarks
***
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COcr1 CD Clc+
O
Table6; Africanproduction.ofrawmaterialsthatcanheused.for."buildingmaterials-, UnitQuantity 117 4068 1274 39571 212 313.866
World" production 4 68 7 492 3 2510
957 413 139 352 391 532
Africanshare ofworld production ? 6;■' 18■■■ 6
5 .' •
12,505 ...Subregionaldistribution ForthWest'CentralEastern AfricaAfricaAfricaAfricaSouthern Africa
UiHH. ui thousandsoftonnes thousandsofcu.m.
.5 2667 122 T8
4 31 ■1
062 24 756 S35
1 3,171 ■752 .!,1 735
15 745 ;wthofWorldIndustry,1973Edition,vol.II(UnitedNations'publication$SalesNo.E.75.XVII4), ndeoods:YearbookofForestProductsf1964*-1975fRome,Fooc'andAgriculture■j6reani8at1.nn.-oftie Nations,1977To',.-".',..
117 e 60 1.694 63 1532
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III. ESSENTIAL EL2NOTK3 FCH;0H2 DEVELC^SMT" OF "HIS LJIiDBW MATERIALS JHDOSTHT
36* The development of the. "building,materials, industry calls, for a combination of
factors whose-relative individual importance is frequently misconstrued or overlooked The.se-factors give rise to certain requirements, the most important of which areoutlined in this section.
A• Need for- a change in attitude or conception : :
1- Knowledge, selection and use of ouilding materials ■'■'-■
37. The various categories of people responsible for building materials usually"
have an extremely hazy notion of what is involved. - ■ ■■' ■- '-
38. The first thing to be taken into consideration is the role, of the various
■ building materials since the attributes demanded from materials depend on-their' respective roles. Are they intended to support a certain amount of weight or to withstand a certain amount of pressure.. Are they to be used to bind other components together, as protection against inclement weather or to provide comfort or beauty?
In each case a different type of material is required. Since, for example, the- lowest components of the masonry required for the type of single-level building encountered almost everywhere in Africa have to withstand pressure no higher than 2 kilograms per square centimetre, there is no point in building them with bricks or materials composed of sand and cement which can withstand pressure of 100 and even 200 kilograms per square centimetre. 'The best proof of this.is- that houses built of bricks manufactured from dried earth (which can withstand pressure of about 20: kilograms per square centimetre) last almost idefinitely in a dry climate.
The fact that they collapse after some time in a wet tropical climate is due less to the ability of the bricks to resist pressure than to their inability to withstand the weather. The ability to support weight should not therefore be considered to be
as essential as it usually is*
39o The example given above provides some indication of the importance which, should
be attached to the weather constraints buildings materials will be called .upon to withstand. Too much importance is attached to this factor where some building materials are concerned, and not enough in the case of others. A flagrant example of this type of abuse may be seen in -the' oil-based materials used as ba^e coats . which are found on the African market and are naturally imported from J&rope orttl^ ^ tii haVe Pr°Ved tG *e verr stronS ^d stable and good
iutensity of
chemi^1^1irLa+hifi>Xly ^Yi™3 ocating, the product of recent discoveries in
chemistry, is sometimes applied to walls for full protection against the weather.
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16
" t
"breathe"driTCkitiS thf a waU is like * »uman being in that it needs to
of the mgredxents is not respected.
s
+K ■th" °hOi0e and WS9 °f taildi"g materials are the t«+ ! " °ne PerSOn- Those ^spcnsible include architects, ,
,; contractors, workmen and traders. '
2" Local materials! Definition
tef "'Ti m"t6ria" iS a "•****>****. designating the .
suitable only for people with little or no incfflne,"ntrated. in rural areas or on the periphery of largestc^s.
t^r^ t9 oorrectea- Actually, it is unusuafto find
be m3ufaSV *^ *1Ch ls ready f« use as it is... All material needs to
be manufactured by man from natural or. synthetic.raw materials by various
^tn; J^ afUa' faOt' •the .WOTd "1°*^ Ascribes any building material
ma^rials through.the. use of either; local or imported hu^it, ri fW**?*1*.* =^V.lime, baked brick and iron are
^ S matfTials ln some countries. What are referred to as: "traditional"
or T» arYlm1y thS Pr°dUCt °f anoes^al know-how, which has undergone iS
^ " f^^do«n. throwgh the years. But is.the word "traditional" necSarily
disparaging? 'There is^o doubt but that traditional materials need improvement
af+^L8^ *° mee\t0^y's needs, and this calls for a positive and dynamic
attitude on the part of everybody, especially those in authority.
Page 17
B. : Heed;for^.sound planning at the national level ■ " '." ■ ■■■
1° Nee,cl for coror^inaiion, between the construction industry and the buiilding
materials industry.,^ .. ■■ ' : . . -'..'.
4^« In the developing countries activities...^relating to building follow a steady pattern of growth at rates, -.which var.^y whereas- in Africa they display a marked tendency to fluctuate. This is largely due to the public sector, which in Africa is usually the most important sector;where building, is concerned* The construction, sometimes in very short order, of infrastructures or"buildihgs not' provided or
programmed for in long-term development plans causes building activity to -'Jheat. up".
This results in a systematic flow of materials from the local market to the building sites in-question and in the often very costly importation of materials whidft. are
• normally available locally. The expansion of building activities in this way is often followed by a crippling recession. The over-all result is that neither import firms'- nor local industries can predict demand with any degree of accuracy. To. . enable local materials industries to work out their own production programmes, it is
—essential first for good planning to be carried out in the building sector at the
national level, then for the State.to exercise real control over building activities -ahd" finally for steps to be taken to co-ordinate the building industry.and the
:buildihg;:'materiais industry. . .
2. Need for sectoral studies
47« If it is to be effective, co-ordination of the building and public works industry
and the building materials industries calls format least partial remedies to the difficulties and drawbaks within both industries as mentioned above. The best way to solve these problems is for .systematic,, sectoral studies of both the building industry and the building^materials industry to be carried out and periodically ...
reviewed at the country .level. If this were done, each country.would always.-have-, fresh data at hand, enabling its experts quickly to detect lacunae and bottlenecks arid'to'advance 'the best solutions. , ■;.-■-. :..■., ;,'■:
u c* Heed for the formulation and. application of oodss and regulations and new
arrangements-in urban .planning>t the.' regional level "~~~"
4°» One of the most severe impediments to the development of the building materials
industry is the almost total absence of codes and regulations applying"tb African countries. After ovpr. 15 years of independence, almost all the countries are still applying provisions laid down by the colonials, usually with their own countries in mind* rlt.is true, that.here an,d there certain changes have "been made, but many of them are minor.-; When asked about' the criteria governing some provisions, government authorities responsible for applying these rules often find it difficult to give satisfactory answers. Moreover, the absence of rules and specifications frequently results in absurdities. In a given African country the tests and,specifications required- in. respect of .one and the same; material 'are those laid down in AFNOR, BS, DIN or ASTM depending on whether the source of funds or the firm responsible for
the job is French, British, ^German or American. It goes without saying that no'
Page 18
? +t0 1OCal °™d^™ ^ .*h« country where the work: is^being done.
LTo^ relations applioaW^"t^-tttbte--pl^Ing-6ategorioally"-p«BcilJ the
use of some materials, especially, traditional..materials, ^ toto, From the :
?hf1^1*7 + of7rod^f**> and-o-r intfa^friban marketing,-the development of the buiM^ng materials industry calls for the formulation of'codes/regulations and other uniformtexts poyering the subregions whose boundaries are determined by-the
presence of similar physical- and sociological conditions. . . ■■ "" ■Do Need to ehoose appropriate technologies" ; ' " l v:
49. Most African building materials industries operate on the basis of technology .applied^ m the highly industrialized countries. It is'true that where "some.
materials, suon.as Window-glass, are concerned, the choice is still rather limited.
However, it -is.equally true that-in the case of other materials, especially the.
most commonly used ones, there 1e > fairly varied range of technologies,. This ie true, for example, of baked bricks, lime and cement. Here again, a failure t0
select the production technology wisely at the outset sometimes leads Vo absurdities.
Leuus, take, for example, the need to import raw materials which meet'■pertain '■ :
cnterza when materials which are equally good but have slightly different priorities
are available locally, the stoppage of a factory for some time bepausa a small fart
which is difficult to procure has been lost or because of the automatic control system has broken down? the use of an expensive form of energy when a cheaper source is available locally and the shelving of a whole facility.and the need to acquire another because the first one turned out to be ill-adapted to the local"raw material.
.-■ ■■ ■ "■.' ■'.■/.■■ ■. . ' .■'.■.■.'■:;. " ■ ■; ■ -:' ' . . » ■ ■■
■S. Heed to make use of local resources " ; '"■' ^"■■;"':-- ■■■■' ' ■ ■ "■■'■-■
50.- The.building materials industry is peculiar in that its products or, at least ^
its ..15asic products, are usually voluminous and heavy. It always"costs a lot to 'ship^tbem-and espeoially 'to import them. It is therefore indispensable to~make
the best of local resources. Here again, a good understanding of these resources is absolutely necessary. The range of building materials is very broadband itshould be possible to produce at least some of them such as baked brick, stabilized
earth and lime^ in .all r.the,.cpun,tries. . ,_„ .. . ; . ... . ^. .,.., . J.,
51. Moreover, once the loca^reBourceis^^
to use them rationally since, although a few raw materials, sources, such as-forests, can be restocked,, provided that certain Precautions are taken, the others are f-in-ite.
*or that reason raw materials,.^ very, good quality must always be reserved1-f-br th^se industries, which\neeji, them most.,. For example-, the lime used in building-and in""' ".-
various stabilization processes,must be manufactured from siliceous or dblomitic -' limestone or even from dolomite.; and the pure limestone used'to. produce cement orCertain categories,of lime/.such as. those required by the sugar,, pharmaceutical and
some other industries,. The same is true-of some sand deposits.which should be'- 'reserve^ for the. use "of the glass industry. What is true of .the: .basis, raw materials
is equally true of energy. Countries .with great forestry potential should use ••charcoal made, from sawdust .or. from,wood from secondary species. Some countries should attempt to us_eri fajm waste and others should attach special importance to their resources in peat and other natural charcoals.
19 ■
52. A determined effort to use locally available na-cural and human resources rationally-.has many advantages, The most., obvious ones from tho point of view of national development arc" savings in foreign .currency, utilization and training
of local manpower and technology development and - at a later stage - improved quality;and .diversified use of products and..eacpansion of the local market.
F, Heed for suhre^ional or regional co-operation
53. While some commodities may he produced and consumed locally, others calX for., subregional or regional co-operation based on factors such as the raw materials
requirement,*the complexity of the-technology requirement factory size, capital,. p ■ requirement 4rid' market availability. Those manufactured or semi-manufactured
materials- which Africa needs greatly and is forced to import include cement,.
iron, wood and window-glass, The need for wood product borders on tte ridiculous: since Africa exports logs which come back later in the form of plywood, pannels and
other wood'products. In recent years an encouraging effort has been made at the subfegional level, which should be promoted. For instance, the Ivory Coast, Ghana and Togo have co-operated in a project entitled "Ciments de 1'Afrxque de l'Ouest (CIMAO)nand Benin and the Niger in the "Ciments d'Gnigbolo" project.
However, much remains to be done. Those countries in Eastern and North Africa . with large- deposits of gypsum should be able to supply cement works in other countries. Countries in Central and West Africa which are richly endowed with wood-should develop their sawmills to the point where they can supply the less privileged parts of the continent- Research into iron-ore and asbestos deposits and the processing of those ores should also be thought of as a priority.
G. Research institutions
54. At present Africa has very few institutions for research into building materials; and most of the failings, difficulties and requirements referred to above, all of which help to make the building sector particularly costly in African countries, can be remedied,.solved or met only through well-organized research into building,materials, systems for producing them and their use.
For this reason, research in'general and research- into, building materials m particular must no longer be considered to be a luxury confined to a fetf well- endowed countries* However, if. research is to earn its letters patent of
nobility and" make an effective contribution to .the building materials industry, specific targets, must be set for it and a well-defined approach adopted.
55. In the first place, there is in fact less need to find the bes!t ways "of usiag the-sc-called "traditional".or "natural" materials than there is first to
identify the properties of materials needed for specific work in specific-
conditions and then to produce materials with those properties. In other words, materials research should begin by identifying the functional needs and should in
that sense be practically .oriented. .. .
56* It should then demonstrate that it is in fact possible to make the best of local resources, whatever their properties and quality, by endeavoring to improve the quality of existing materials and to develop new ones.
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Page 20
57. It should also aim at devising new production methods using a combination of traditional know-how and the tools of modern sciencec
58, It should also develop the building materials and components industry through standardization and studies carried out in pilot units. In this -conneatt-ion^
since most African countries have no technical standards and" specifications in almost any area, materials research might provide an opportunity to begin defining applying■'-standards in other sectors of national life. . .
59* Finally,' since the building.materials industry in general has no basir
infrastructure arid insufficient. financial means to enable it to carry out its . oiw-Te^a^dh-V'the specialized .research institutions should .provide it with the
logistic support it needs to solve its special problems.
60» If^research is to be carried out rationally and efficiently, these objectives must be pursued at Various levels, since research, generally speaking, is a costly
item- *■ '"■■■ ■■■■•■ .. ■■ .
61<, At the'national level each country should have a central research institute, whose establishment would be the responsibility of the State, althou^i universities and industries should also play a part* Although the nature and volume of the work performed would depend on the- means available, it would seem that the most realistic way of meeting the needs of a country would be through the performance of the ., .
following functions!
(i) Testing and analysing locally produced and imported materials;.^
(ii) Being solely responsible for testing .the materials and some of the components.to be used in large- scale projects in the public and private
sectors (whether Ar not the costs are borne by the undertakings concerned)-,
(iii) Collecting, .analysing and interpreting data on local weather conditions so ■ as to.be able to. pass on information to all those who deal with problems relating .to building, and public works in the country;
(iv) Obtaining or formulating background documents'containing information on.
the propertiesj roles use, choice, etc., of materials for-the benefit of government authorities, architects, engineers, physical planners,
contractors, workmen,, traders and others; .
(v) Making-a useful contribution to the study of the country's natural resources,
■ especially by 'analysing samples and preparing data sheets and simple cards .-
on each resource?
(vi)-Developing new materials and systems to meet specific functional needs.
-., Thia would include suoh items as coatings and foundations adapted to
difficult sites 5 ' ■ ■ ■■
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(vii) In so. far as- is possible, carrying, out technological- research aimed
especially at the production of materials in small- or medium-capacity units on the "basis of local -resources$ ■■■.-■"
(viii) Helping /government agencies^ to prepare plans for the development of ■
local "building materials industries 5 :
(ix) Co-operating with.;.o.ther .national • agencies and with international
institutions.in- formulating:* tandards, modular co-ordination projects and the like for tfce countries;in the subregion or region.
62. These functions cannot be performed all at once long-term programming will
be required. Moreover, since.the potential of the individual African countries xs in general-ratner limited,;it is of the utmost importance to see that waste, in the form-of-an' unnecessary.overlapping of'activities, for example, is avoided, With this in-mirtd, it is suggested that the national research institutes- mightbe erected on the foundations of the experimental laboratories operated'in" most
countries by the Ministry of Public Works, the Highways Authority and the Housing Ministry. For the same reason, the national institutes should have a documentation service which is well, enough organized to prevent them from embarking, on ~ research which has already been successfully'completed in other countries,
63. At the subregional or regional level, the main stress should be on-no- :
ordination .and: efficiency to be .achieved bys ... ; ■ -.-:■'.'/(iX- The convening of regular meetings of the directors of the national ' ' ' ■
institutes (every year, for. example): so they can exchange views on
■research policy at the .subregional or regional level. Such meetings" '-■
. would also promote exchanges, .of research programmes and research "
workers, the specialization of certain institutes in given field and :
similar goals;
^...-^■-(ii-) The convening of regular mWtings of research personnel working in the same field (every year, for example) so they can exchange,, tfce .
results of their experiments;, and. see what has, been achieved and
guage the degree of progress, made" in their field. Research,, workers. ■'■ ■■
should be given an opportunity' in addition to these periodic collective meetings to meet together individually as' often as possible;
(iii) The establishment of a regional or subregional centre.
^' In "the absence of a central co-ordinating body, it may in practice be very difficult to secure .the necessary too-operations At present the-African countries' are for the most part just as much in the dark concerning the research being
conducted in other African countries, even though those countries may be their immediate .neighbours, as they are concerning the progress being made outside the continent.. Some of the functions^ of. a regional centre might be to!
Page 22
(i) Collect the necessary technical and socio-economic information,
■ translate it if necessary and' convey "it to. the. national institutes;
(ii) Organise meetings, seminars, symposia, "workshops",' etc. 3
(iii) Work i-rith international organizations in planning the training of
specialists and technicians?
(iv) Keep the statistical data_necessary for the development of the
building materials industry in the various member countries up to date. It would also act as an information centre which would keep the various countries appraised of appropriate technologiess whether
■ : ; old_ or new; . .-■'■
(v)., ,Organize the formulation and application; at-the subregional or
e,, ;.-.regional . level, of the ..standards, codes, regulations and other texts
needed.,for.the development of the building materials and building
. ,., industries 5 ■.. ■
Study and implement subregional or regional pilot projects;
(vii) Maintain a list of African experts in specific fields.
6$* However","while thexe is a real need to establish a regional or subregional . centre, there is at present not enough information available on the various subregions and regions to go any further in this paper- in. defining the .structure and functions of such a centre." Negotiations must be held between the various countries and international organizations like. ECi . Nevertheless, to be
realistic th:e centre mu'st be based:, at the subregional or regional level, on an existing centre with a'fairly broad infrastructure and relatively far-reaching
fields of activity. ... -
^ '■ Need to train local contractors 9 middle-grade technicians--and skilled manpower 66, Mention has already,been made of the very minor role which local contractors
play in building and construction in both the public and private sectors,, Three factors are primarily responsible for .this failure on the part of nationals to participate in building activitiess . .:v..
(i) Lack of sufficient technical know-how? ■:. ..■.."
(ii) Lack of managerial know-how; . . . ....
(iii) Lack of financial support (usually due to the first two factors). .
Actually^ local contractors are bften incapable of completing the work assigned to them or of completing it on time because of their inability, for example, to submit tenders correctly or to run their firms efficiently. Because of this, neither foremen nor financial institutions are willing to support them. Obviously, large foreign firms can hardly be counted on to use materials produced locally* Since
