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Visit of Canadian Permafrost Delegation to the People's Republic of
China, 18 July to 8 August 1977
The People's Republic of China has about
22per cent of its
territory underlain by permafrost, ranking it immediately behind Canada
and the Soviet Union. Like the other countries of the northern circum-
polar region, China is confronted by engineering problems in coping with
permafrost during development of its northern and mountainous areas. Since
1975, when a Chinese permafrost delegation visited Canada under the
auspices of a Scientific Exchange Agreement between the two countries,
the Division of Building Research has endeavoured to keep abreast of
Chinese developments in this field through the literature and by estab-
lishing contacts with permafrost workers in China. In the summer of 1977
a Canadian permafrost delegation, led by the Author, a research officer in
the Geotechnical Section, Division of Building Research, National Research
Council of Canada, made
athree-week return visit to China under the
auspices of the Exchange Agreement.
This report describes visits to institutes in Peking where
work on permafrost and related aspects is being carried out. Trips were
made to the Northeast (formerly Manchuria) to visit centres of permafrost
work and permafrost terrain where scientific and engineering studies are
underway. The delegation also went to Lanchow, 1300 km southwest of
Peking near Tibet, and to the Institute of Glaciology and Permafrost, the
largest centre of permafrost research in the country. Much valuable in-
formation was obtained and close links were established with permafrost
workers in China. It is to be hoped that further visits can be arranged.
The author is grateful to the other members of the Canadian delegation for
their helpful comments and suggestions on the final preparation of this
report. Special thanks are due to Mr. Graham McDonald for the use of the
separate report which he submitted.
Ottawa
July 1980
C.B. Crawford,
Director, DBR/NRC
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Introduction
Canadian Permafrost Delegation
1 tinerary
Peking Harbin Taching Chichihar
Forest Resource Railways Lanchow
Permafrost Activities in China Gencral Commcnts
NATlClNAL RESEARCH COllNClL OF CANADA CllVlSlClN OF BlllLEllNG RESEARCH
DBR INTERNAL REPORT NO. 4 6 2
VISIT OF CANADIAN PERMAFROST DELEGATION TO TiIE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA
18 J U L Y TO 8 AUGUST 1977
by R . J . E . Brown
Checked by: E
.
P.
Approved by: L.
W.
G.
Date: J u l y 19 8 0Prepared for: Record P u r p o s e s
INTRODUCTION
The v i s i t t o t h e P e o p l e ' s R e p u b l i c o f China i n J u l y and August 1977 by a Canadian p e r m a f r o s t d e l e g a t i o n was i n r e t u r n f o r a v i s i t t o Canada by a Chinese group i n 1975. B e f o r e 1975 no c o n t a c t had been made w i t h any Chinese p e r m a f r o s t w o r k e r s , and t h e r e was l i t t l e knowledge o f a c t i v i t i e s i n , o r t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f , t h a t c o u n t r y .
Q u i t e u n e x p e c t e d l y a message was r e c e i v e d by t h e Department o f E x t e r n a l A f f a i r s i n March 1975 t h a t a C h i n e s e p e r m a f r o s t d e l e g a t i o n wished t o v i s i t Canada i n J u n e 1975. T h e i r main i n t e r e s t was i n Canadian e x p e r i e n c e w i t h r a i l w a y c o n s t r u c t i o n and o p e r a t i o n s i n p e r m a f r o s t r e g i o n s , t h e p r o - posed d e l e g a t e s b e i n g m o s t l y from t h e M i n i s t r y o f Railways. They a l s o had broad i n t e r e s t s i n a l l p e r m a f r o s t a c t i v i t i e s . A Canadian government i n t e r - d e p a r t m e n t a l t a s k group c o o r d i n a t e d by t h e N a t i o n a l Research C o u n c i l of Canada was q u i c k l y o r g a n i z e d and by J u n e a program had been a r r a n g e d . The Chinese d e l e g a t i o n a r r i v e d i n mid-June and s t a y e d t h r e e weeks. During t h a t t i m e t h e y v i s i t e d c e n t r e s o f p e r m a f r o s t a c t i v i t i e s i n Ottawa, C a l g a r y and Edmonton f o l l o w e d by t r i p s t o n o r t h e r n Manitoba, t h e Mackenzie R i v e r v a l l e y and t h e Yukon T e r r i t o r y t o s e e p e r m a f r o s t c o n d i t i o n s and r e l a t e d c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o - blems.
Following t h i s v i s i t , an i n v i t a t i o n was i s s u e d f o r a Canadian d e l e g a t i o n t o v i s i t China i n 1976 f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f s e e i n g p e r m a f r o s t
c o n d i t i o n s and r e l a t e d e n g i n e e r i n g problems ( F i g u r e s 1 and 2 ) . T h i s o f f e r came t o o l a t e f o r t h a t y e a r b e c a u s e o f o t h e r commitments i n Canada s o t h e t r i p was s c h e d u l e d f o r 1977. The postponement t u r n e d o u t t o be most f o r t u i t o u s f o r two r e a s o n s . F i r s t l y , i f t h e y had gone i n 1976 t h e
d e l e g a t i o n would have been i n Peking a t t h e t i m e o f a v e r y s e v e r e e a r t h - quake i n J u l y o f t h a t y e a r and s e c o n d l y , i n A p r i l 1977 t h e Gang o f Four was overthrown which made t h e g e n e r a l atmosphere somewhat e a s i e r t h a n it
might have been one y e a r e a r l i e r . There i s no d o u b t t h a t t h e r e c e p t i o n accorded t h e d e l e g a t e s a t t h e v a r i o u s i n s t i t u t e s , e t c . , t h a t were v i s i t e d and t h e t e c h n i c a l d i s c u s s i o n s h e l d were l e s s s t r a i n e d t h a n t h e y would have been t h e p r e v i o u s y e a r .
Following t h e Canadian v i s i t , a d e l e g a t i o n of n i n e Chinese a t t e n d e d t h e T h i r d I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference on P e r m a f r o s t i n 1978 i n Edmonton and p r e s e n t e d s e v e r a l t e c h n i c a l p a p e r s . Two o f t h e Chinese remained i n Canada f o r s i x months. Thus, i n t h e s h o r t t i m e span o f o n l y t h r e e y e a r s , good c o n t a c t s were e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h China i n p e r m a f r o s t a c t i v i t i e s .
I t should be n o t e d t h a t a l l p r o p e r Chinese names i n t h i s r e p o r t a r e i n t h e form d i s c a r d e d a t t h e end o f 1978.
MEMBERS OF CANADIAN PERMAFROST DELEGATION
(See Figure
3)Federal Government
(1) Dr. R.
J
.
E. Brown, (delegation leader)
Geotechnical Section,
Division of Building Research,
National Research Council of Canada,
Ottawa, Ontario.
(2)
Dr. J.A. Hunter,
Head, Seismic Methods Section,
Resource Geophysics and Geochemistry Division,
Geological Survey of Canada,
Department of Energy, Mines and Resources,
Ottawa, Ontario.
(3)
Dr. A.S. Judge,
Geothermal Studies,
Division of Seismology and Geothermal Studies,
Earth Physics Branch,
Department of Energy, Mines and Resources,
Ottawa, Ontario.
(4)
Mr. G.D. Reid,
Assistant Director,
Transportation Directorate,
Department of Public Works,
Ottawa, Ontario.
(5) Mr.
Y.A. Soucy,
Chief, Rail Capacity Planning,
Railway Transportation Directorate,
Canadian Surface Transportation Administration,
Transport Canada,
Ottawa, Ontario.
Universities
(6)
Dr. B. Ladanyi,
Director,
Centre d11ng6nierie Nordique (CINEP), Ecole Polytechnique,
Universitg de Montrgal, Montrgal, Qu6bec.
( 7 ) D r . N . R . M o r g e n s t e r n , Department o f C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g , The U n i v e r s i t y o f A l b e r t a , Edmonton, A l b e r t a . I n d u s t r y ( 8 ) D r . J . I . C l a r k , V i c e - P r e s i d e n t - T e c h n i c a l S e r v i c e s ,
R.M.
Hardy and A s s o c i a t e s Company L i m i t e d , C a l g a r y , A l b e r t a . Assigned t o D e l e g a t i o n (9) Mr. G . D . McDonald, F i r s t S e c r e t a r y , Canadian Embassy, Peking.ITINERARY
Sunday 17 July
The eight members of the delegation from Canada met in Tokyo. Three travelled from Canada one week previously to attend the Ninth
International Conference of the International Society of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering. The other five left Ottawa 13 July and arrived in Tokyo 15 July.
Monday 18 July
The delegation left Tokyo at 9:00 a.m. on Japan Air Lines flight 785 with stops at Osaka and Shanghai, and arrived in Peking at 3:00 p.m. We were met by a group of Chinese hosts including Li Yu-sheng, Li Chia and Huang Hsiao-ming who were members of the Chinese permafrost delegation to Canada in 1975, Wang Teh-chuan, Chinese Society of Civil
Engineering, and Li Shu-hsien. The latter was a translator with the Ministry of Railways and was assigned to the delegation for our visit. After dinner, the delegation met with Mr. Wang Teh-chuan, Li Yu-sheng and others to
discuss our itinerary. We stayed at the Peking Hotel during our time in Peking.
Tuesday 19 July
The delegation visited the Chinese Society of Civil Engineering and met the President, Mao Yi-sheng, who was also Principal, Research
Institute, Ministry of Railways. Later in the morning we toured the
Forbidden City (Winter Palace). In the afternoon the Research Institute,
Ministry of Railways, was visited. There was an evening dinner at Peking Duck Restaurant hosted by Mao Yi-sheng, and attended by the Canadian Ambassador, Mr. Arthur Menzies.
Wednesdav 20 Julv
Wang Teh-chuan and other members of the Chinese Society of Civil Engineering took the delegation to the Great Wall and Ming Tombs. The evening was spent at an international soccer game at a 75,000-seat stadium.
Thursday 21 July
The delegation visited the Geological Research Institute in the morning. Lunch was at the Canadian Embassy and was hosted by the Ambassador. We toured an air raid shelter in the afternoon followed by a visit to the Temple of Heaven.
F r i d a y 2 2 J u l y
The Summer P a l a c e was v i s i t e d i n t h e morning and p a r t o f t h e a f t e r n o o n . We l e f t Peking a t 6 : 0 9 p.m. on a n o v e r n i g h t t r a i n t o H a r b i n . S a t u r d a y 23 J u l y
Our a r r i v a l i n Harbin was a t 12:02 p.m. S i g h t s e e i n g i n t h e c i t y d u r i n g t h e a f t e r n o o n i n c l u d e d a b o a t t r i p on t h e S u n g a r i R i v e r t o o b s e r v e f l o o d c o n t r o l measures and a v i s i t t o t h e C h i l d r e n ' s Railway. There was an o p e r a i n t h e e v e n i n g , "Small Sword S o c i e t y " a t t h e t h e a t r e ( l t C u l t u r a l P a l a c e o f t h e Workers .It)
Sunday 24 J u l y
The d e l e g a t i o n v i s i t e d t h e Research I n s t i t u t e o f Low Temperature C o n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e morning. L e c t u r e s were g i v e n i n t h e a f t e r n o o n by C l a r k , Ladanyi and Morgenstern on p e r m a f r o s t e n g i n e e r i n g work i n Canada i n c l u d i n g p i p e l i n e s and s l o p e s t a b i l i t y . The e v e n i n g
d i n n e r was h o s t e d by Liu Wen-chin, P r e s i d e n t , S o c i e t y o f C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g and A r c h i t e c t u r e f o r H e i l u n g k i a n g P r o v i n c e .
Monday 25 J u l y
The Harbin Measuring I n s t r u m e n t and Tool F a c t o r y was v i s i t e d i n t h e morning. A f t e r lunch we l e f t Harbin a t 1 : 4 1 p.m. by t r a i n and
a r r i v e d a t 4 : 0 0 p.m. i n Taching, o n e - h a l f hour behind s c h e d u l e . The i n i t i a l b r i e f i n g on Taching was g i v e n by Chin P a i - c h u n g , Vice D i r e c t o r , C o n s t r u c t i o n Bureau, Taching. The e v e n i n g d i n n e r was h o s t e d by Chang Li-chung, Head, P r o d u c t i o n O f f i c e , Taching. A l o c a l movie was a t t e n d e d i n t h e evening. Tuesdav 26 J u l v
The d e l e g a t i o n s p e n t t h e day t o u r i n g t h e Taching o i l f i e l d i n s t a l l a t i o n s - " I r o n Man Wang" Museum, d r i l l i n g r i g , o i l w e l l , pumping s t a t i o n and a g e o l o g i c a l museum. We a t t e n d e d a n o t h e r l o c a l movie i n t h e e v e n i n g , "The Younger G e n e r a t i o n . "
Wednesdav 27 J u l v
The Frozen S o i l O b s e r v a t i o n S t a t i o n and R e f i n e r y were v i s i t e d i n t h e morning. A b r i e f i n g was g i v e n i n t h e a f t e r n o o n on t h e Taching o i l f i e l d by t h e head o f t h e g e o l o g i c a l d i v i s i o n and a n e n g i n e e r . We l e f t Taching a t 4:00 p.m. on t h e t r a i n and a r r i v e d a t C h i c h i h a r a t 6:00 p.m. An evening banquet was h o s t e d by Yung Wan-tsiang, Vice D i r e c t o r ,
C h i c h i h a r Railway A d m i n i s t r a t i o n . There was a movie a t t h e h o t e l i n t h e e v e n i n g , "Red C h i l d r e n . "
Thursday 28 J u l y
The d e l e g a t i o n v i s i t e d t h e R e f r i g e r a t i n g Experimental S t a t i o n i n t h e morning and t h e C h i c h i h a r R o l l i n g Stock F a c t o r y i n t h e a f t e r n o o n . A f t e r a walking t o u r o f t h e l o c a l " t i g e r " p a r k we l e f t C h i c h i h a r a t 5:22 p.m. by s p e c i a l t r a i n p r o v i d e d by t h e C h i c h i h a r Railway A d m i n i s t r a t i o n bound
f o r t h e f o r e s t r a i l w a y s i n n o r t h e r n H e i l u n g k i a n g P r o v i n c e . F r i d a y 29 J u l y
A l l d a y was s p e n t t r a v e l l i n g on t h e Ya-ke-shi F o r e s t Railway t h r o u g h p e r m a f r o s t r e g i o n s o f t h e N o r t h e a s t w i t h s t o p s and b r i e f i n g s a t p e r m a f r o s t problem s i t e s . A t t h e n o r t h e r n t e r m i n u s o f t h i s f o r e s t r a i l w a y , we v i s i t e d e x p e r i m e n t a l houses i n t h e v i l l a g e o f Mankue.
S a t u r d a v 30 J u l v
The d e l e g a t i o n a g a i n s p e n t t h e day t r a v e l l i n g by t r a i n on t h e Liun-Kiang F o r e s t Railway w i t h s t o p s and b r i e f i n g s on p e r m a f r o s t c o n d i t i o n s and problems on t h e r a i l w a y . A t t h e n o r t h e r n t e r m i n u s o f t h i s f o r e s t
r a i l w a y we v i s i t e d P e r m a f r o s t Experimental S t a t i o n i n v i l l a g e o f C h i n t a o . Sunday 31 J u l y
We r e t u r n e d t o C h i c h i h a r by t r a i n a r r i v i n g a t 3:26 p.m.
and a t t e n d e d a movie a t t h e h o t e l i n t h e e v e n i n g , "Red Flower o f Tien Shan."
Mondav 1 Aueust
There were l e c t u r e s i n t h e morning by Reid and Soucy on p e r m a f r o s t work r e l a t e d t o n o r t h e r n highways and r a i l w a y s i n Canada. We l e f t C h i c h i h a r by t r a i n a t 3:26 p.m.
Tuesday 2 August
The d e l e g a t i o n a r r i v e d i n Peking a t 3 : 2 6 p.m. An e v e n i n g
banquet was h o s t e d by Guo Wei-cheng, Vice M i n i s t e r , M i n i s t r y o f Railways.
Wednesday 3 August
A j e w e l l e r y and embroidery f a c t o r y was v i s i t e d i n t h e morning. We l e f t Peking on CAAC f l i g h t 444 a t 4:10 p.m. and a r r i v e d i n Lanchow a t 8:00 p.m. D r . Morgenstern had t o l e a v e t h e d e l e g a t i o n t o r e t u r n t o Edmonton s o d i d n o t t r a v e l t o Lanchow. An e v e n i n g banquet was h o s t e d by Wu J i e n , D i r e c t o r , S c i e n t i f i c and T e c h n i c a l Bureau f o r Kansu P r o v i n c e . Thursday 4 August
A l l day was s p e n t a t t h e Research I n s t i t u t e o f G l a c i o l o g y , P e r m a f r o s t and D e s e r t R e s e a r c h . A movie was a t t e n d e d a t t h e h o t e l i n t h e e v e n i n g , " V i c t o r y a t Yenan. I t
Friday 5 Auwst
The delegation visited the Paint Research Laboratory in the morning. Lectures were given in the afternoon by Brown, Hunter and Judge on permafrost distribution, geophysical and geothermal work in Canada. Tliere were technical discussions in the evening at the hotel with staff from the Research Institute of Glaciology, Permafrost and Desert Research. Saturday 6 August
All day was spent on a visit to the hydroelectric power station at Liujiahsia on the Yellow River, 8 0 kilometres upstream from Lanchow.
Sunday 7 August
The delegation left Lanchow on CAAC flight 124 at 11:55 a.m. and arrived in Peking at 1:35 p.m. An evening banquet was held at the Tsinghai Restaurant hosted by the Canadian permafrost delegation for Mao Yi-sheng, President, Chinese Society of Civil Engineering and other Chinese involved with our visit.
Monday 8 August
We left Peking at 4:15 p.m. on Japan Air Lines flight 786 and arrived in Tokyo at 9:25 p.m. The delegation had to fly to the United States enroute to Canada because of the Canadian air traffic controllers' strike and arrived at their home centres Tuesday 9 August.
PEKING
V i s i t t o Chinese S o c i e t y o f C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g
I n t h e morning o f i t s f i r s t day i n China t h e Canadian
d e l e g a t i o n v i s i t e d t h e o f f i c e s o f t h e C h i n e s e S o c i e t y o f C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g , o u r h o s t o r g a n i z a t i o n , where we were r e c e i v e d by Mao Y i - s h e n . He was
P r e s i d e n t o f t h e S o c i e t y and a l s o P r i n c i p a l o f t h e Research I n s t i t u t e o f t h e M i n i s t r y o f Railways. He had o c c u p i e d t h e most s e n i o r j o b s i n s c i e n c e and t e c h n o l o g y i n China and Peking f o r t h e l a s t s e v e r a l d e c a d e s and was v e r y much one o f t h e v e n e r a b l e o l d men, 8 1 y e a r s o f a g e , o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c e s t a b l i s h m e n t .
He welcomed u s warmly n o t i n g comparisons between China and Canada w i t h r e s p e c t t o s i z e and p e r m a f r o s t c o n d i t i o n s and p r o b l e m s . He was i n Canada i n 1919 r e t u r n i n g from s t u d i e s i n P i t t s b u r g h and c r o s s e d t h e c o u n t r y by CPR t r a i n t o Vancouver.
M r . Mao was asked by t h e d e l e g a t i o n t o o u t l i n e t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f t h e Chinese S o c i e t y o f C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g . He
s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e r e would be a b e t t e r t i m e i n t h e f u t u r e t o d i s c u s s t h a t and d i d n o t , i n f a c t , t e l l u s a n y t h i n g a b o u t t h e S o c i e t y a t t h a t t i m e . D r . C l a r k gave a b r i e f o u t l i n e o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e e n g i n e e r i n g community i n Canada.
We l a t e r o b t a i n e d t h e i n f o r m a t i o n from Wang Teh-chuan, Head, Department o f F o r e i g n L i a i s o n , C h i n e s e S o c i e t y o f C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g . There a r e 5 0 , 0 0 0 members o f t h e S o c i e t y i n s e v e r a l s e c t i o n s i n c l u d i n g s o i l
mechanics and s t r u c t u r e s . I n China f o u r y e a r s and some p r a c t i c a l work, a r e r e q u i r e d f o r a u n i v e r s i t y d e g r e e . The academic y e a r i s from e a r l y
September t o l a t e J u l y . Elementary s c h o o l b e g i n s a t 7 y e a r s o f a g e and h i g h s c h o o l f i n i s h e s a t 1 7 . Wang informed u s t h a t t h e S o c i e t y s u p p o r t s t h e i d e a o f a s e c r e t a r i a t f o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l p e r m a f r o s t a c t i v i t i e s . The S o c i e t y a g r e e s t h a t a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n would b e b e t t e r u s e d t o f o c u s on s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n and s t a n d a r d s r a t h e r t h a n t r y i n g t o o r g a n i z e a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l j ourna 1. V i s i t t o R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e , M i n i s t r y o f Railways P r i n c i p a l - Mao Yi-sheng F i r s t Vice P r i n c i p a l - L i Pan-ming Vice P r i n c i p a l
We were welcomed by L i Y u - s h e n g , B r i e f i n g s were g i v e n by him and t h r e e o f h i s c o l l e a g u e s .
The Institute was established 1 March 1950, soon after
Liberation (1949). In 1977 it had a staff of 1800, consisting of 200
management personnel, 1050 engineers and technicians, and 550 workers (clerical staff). The number of persons involved with investigations
relating to permafrost was small
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about 20. There were seven researchdepartments:- (1) Railway transportation (2) Vehicle research (3) Railway construction (4) Telecommunications (5) Metallurgical chemistry (6) Information (7) Standards measurements
The main objective of the Institute was to investigate current railway operations and long-term developments and use the experimental results to solve practical problems. Specific areas of inquiry included hauling power of diesel and electric locomotives, automation of class-
ification systems, instrumentation, loading and unloading, weight maintenance and railway construction. Each department had laboratory facilities and there was an Institute library. There was an experimental railway line 9 kilometres in length for mechanical testing of locomotives and 14 cars. Mr. Li stated that the Institute was far behind advanced countries, but he was confident that it would soon catch up.
Li Chia
Li Chia was one of the permafrost engineers at the Institute who was a member of the Chinese permafrost delegation to Canada in 1975. He briefed the Canadian delegation on railway construction in permafrost regions
in China including site investigations, design and research. The main site problems in the region of permafrost -
discontinuous - related to climate and geology. Those of climate were low winter air temperatures, long winters, short summers, high freezing indices and a large variation in temperature. Geological features that were
presenting problems included ground ice, icings, ice wedges, peatlands, solifluction and thermokarst
.
Site selection techniques were developed after 1949 (Liberation) with construction of several railway lines in the Northeast. Permafrost was
divided into 5 categories according to ice content: permafrost with little ice; permafrost with much ice; ice rich permafrost; saturated permafrost; and ice with some soil. There were 4 moisture content limits: 12 per cent - no ice in the permafrost, 18, 25 and 44 per cent - ice with soil. The
permafrost region was divided into 4 districts in relation to railway
construction and operations requirements: continuous permafrost - mean
annual air temperature below -5°C and mean annual ground temperature -1"
to -2.S°C; sporadic permafrost (I)
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mean annual air temperature -3°Cand mean annual ground temperature 0" to -1°C; sporadic permafrost (11) -
mean annual air temperature above -3°C and mean annual ground temperature
0" to -1°C; and seasonal frost
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mean annual air temperature above 1°C and mean annual ground temperature above 0°C.Damage to railway lines was categorized as serious, general and light; methods of treatment varied through special, general, little and none. Categories of frozen ground problems included serious sliding, serious thaw settlement, serious frost heaving, general permafrost effects, and no
permafrost effects.
Embankments were used rather than excavation in areas like peatlands and thermokarst. Near the southern limit of permafrost they were
1 to 2 m high. In the north the minimum height was 1 m. Difficult geological features were avoided if possible, especially on slopes where thaw slides might have occurred. Areas of icings and ground ice were left undisturbed. Large and medium bridges were constructed on thaw zones in rivers.
Some main points of railway design in permafrost regions were raised. These depended on the type of permafrost, type of construction, distribution of detrimental geological conditions, and specific and general design requirements. Li Chia said that for specific locations information was needed on ground ice, icings, thermokarst, steep grades, embankments, deep cuts in high slopes, large and medium sized tunnels, and unstable
permafrost conditions. Data should be collected on the geology, hydrogeology, active layer, permafrost table, thermal and physico-mechanical properties of the permafrost, and its stability. Natural features such as vegetation should be protected. Disturbance to the thermal regime must be minimized. Good drainage and control of moisture content in embankments to below the frost heaving limit should be attained. Culvert design was important. Cuts should not be made into the permafrost and pile foundations should be used where possible. Bridge superstructures and culverts should not be based on static design. Tunnel openings should avoid detrimental geological conditions.
Mr. Chia closed by noting that the Institute had only a short history of permafrost construction experience and that Canada was much more advanced in these activities.
Huang Hsiao-ming -
T h i s r e s e a r c h e r a l s o was a member o f t h e Chinese p e r m a f r o s t d e l e g a t i o n t o Canada i n 1975. He d e s c r i b e d some a s p e c t s o f h i s t h e r m a l modeling w i t h p e r m a f r o s t such a s t h e new regime i n embankments. P r e d i c t e d
changes i n ground t e m p e r a t u r e s , t h e p e r m a f r o s t t a b l e and i n f o r m a t i o n on s o i l t y p e , v e g e t a t i o n and h y d r o g e o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s were r e q u i r e d b a s i c p a r a m e t e r s p r i o r t o c o n s t r u c t i o n . The v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p e r m a f r o s t , changes i n t h e p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and r a t e of thaw were a l s o i m p o r t a n t . Both a v e r a g e and extreme c o n d i t i o n s were c o n s i d e r e d .
Five t y p e s o f s u r f a c e s were c o n s i d e r e d i n r e l a t i o n t o a l b e d o and e n e r g y exchange: n a t u r a l ground s u r f a c e v e g e t a t i v e c o v e r ; " s o l i d
s u r f a c e " ; b l a c k s u r f a c e ; w h i t e s u r f a c e ; and " g e n e r a l " s u r f a c e ( i . e . , yellow c l a y c o v e r ) , S l o p e a s p e c t s
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s o u t h , n o r t h o r f l a t ground - were coupled w i t h s t e e p n e s s <30° ( s l i g h t ) , 30'-53' (medium), >53O ( s t e e p ) . Grounds u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e a m p l i t u d e s were d e r i v e d from m e t e o r o l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n from w e a t h e r s t a t i o n s and t h e i r e f f e c t s on ground t e m p e r a t u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s were t h e n c a l c u l a t e d f o r d e s i g n p u r p o s e s .
I n c u t s t h e p e r m a f r o s t t a b l e w i l l r e c e d e , ground i c e w i l l m e l t r e s u l t i n g i n s e t t l e m e n t and s l i d i n g . I n s u l a t i o n was used a t s p e c i f i c s i t e s t o p r o t e c t t h e p e r m a f r o s t . M a t e r i a l s i n c l u d e l o c a l c l a y o r i n d u s t r i a l i n s u l a t i o n such a s foam p l a s t i c o r " p l a s t i c cement."
I n r o a d and r a i l w a y embankments t h a t have a l r e a d y been b u i l t mathematical models were used t o e s t i m a t e d e p t h o f thaw, f r o s t h e a v i n g , and d e r i v e two-dimensional formula f o r s i m u l a t e d h e a t flow and c o n d u c t i o n . D e n s i t y , m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t , s p e c i f i c h e a t and t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e embankment f i l l m a t e r i a l were d e t e r m i n e d a s w e l l a s d i f f e r e n c e s between n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s and t h e model. I t was d e t e r m i n e d t h a t t h e d e p t h o f thaw o f t h e n a t u r a l m a t e r i a l s s h o u l d be g r e a t e r t h a n i n t h e model and h e a t o u t f l o w should exceed h e a t i n f l o w r e s u l t i n g i n s u b z e r o t e m p e r a t u r e s down t o t h e
d e p t h o f z e r o a m p l i t u d e . I n t h e N o r t h e a s t , f o r example, a t 5 2 O ~ l a t i t u d e , t h e mean a n n u a l a i r t e m p e r a t u r e was -5.4"C, t h e f r e e z i n g i n d e x was 3732
d e g r e e d a y s and thawing i n d e x was 2070 d e g r e e d a y s . The r a t i o o f f r e e z i n g index t o thawing i n d e x t h e r e f o r e was 1 . 8 . The d e p t h o f z e r o a n n u a l a m p l i t u d e was 14 m . The mean a n n u a l ground t e m p e r a t u r e was -1.7OC. The annual d e p t h o f g r e a t e s t thaw was 2 . 3 t o 3 . 0 m . The d e p t h o f p e r e n n i a l l y f r o z e n ground exceeds 6 m which was termed t h e " r e s i d u a l f r o s t c a p a c i t y . "
I n t h e y e a r t h a t an embankment i s c o n s t r u c t e d , t h e h e i g h t a f f e c t s t h e ground h e a t f l o w from i t . I f i t i s t o o h i g h , t h e r e s i d u a l f r o s t
c a p a c i t y i s r e d u c e d . The f o l l o w i n g y e a r , t h e embankment h e i g h t w i l l c o n t r o l t h e e q u i l i b r i u m t e m p e r a t u r e s and ground t e m p e r a t u r e f i e l d . The p e r m a f r o s t t a b l e b e n e a t h t h e embankment w i l l s t a b i l i z e . The method o f c o n s t r u c t i o n and t h e s e a s o n w i l l a f f e c t t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n s .
Heat a n a l y s i s was c a r r i e d o u t on two r o a d embankments - 5 . 4 m and 4 . 6 m h i g h - p l a c e d i n t h e summer from J u l y t o September.
The average temperature of the fill in both cases was 6.5'~. The average temperature at the 3 m height above the base of the fills was 2.0°C and
1.7OC respectively, the higher one having the greater heat reserve. The rate of freezing in the former was 3 cm per day and in the latter 3.4 cm per day; the greater the height, the lower the rate of frost penetration. The freezing rate at the base of the fills was 1.6 and 1.8 cm per day respectively and they were entirely frozen after one winter. The rate of thawing was also greater in the higher fill being 1.53 cm per day vs 1.37 cm
per day. A formula of thaw depth with time produced coefficients of
0.075 and 0.064 respectively (units not given).
These data show that the thermal regime of embankments,
including freezing and thawing, can be determined in relation to variation in heat flow, natural vegetation, hydrogeological conditions and soil moisture conditions. Examples could be seen in the permafrost region of the Northeast.
Ding
Mr. Ding described investigations on frost heaving in relation to foundations. Three types of frost heave forces were being studied: beneath the base of the foundation; tangential-parallel to the side; and perpendicular to the side. The first and second were being observed on prestressed concrete piles in seasonally frozen ground and the third was being observed on retaining walls. Vertical frost heave forces beneath
foundations were very large - 7.87 kg/cm2 with soil moisture content of 22 per cent. The forces decreased with depth. Tangential frost heave forces were less and variable, being for example 0.2 to 1.4 kg/cm2 and they
decreased with shallower foundation depths. Soil type and moisture content influenced tangential adfreezing strength - fine grained soils and high moisture contents producing the highest. Frost heave forces could be
minimized, for example, by using organic "paint" on lateral foundation surfaces.
The Canadian delegation asked whether maps of permafrost distribution in China were prepared at the Research Institute. The reply was that this work was done at the permafrost institute in Lanchow. The question of how many kilometres of railway lines have been built on permafrost and will be in the near future produced the answer of 1000 kilometres in the Northeast with
future construction depending on economic developments mainly forest resources.
In the frost heaving laboratory the delegation was told that maintaining soil moisture at a low level and keeping ground temperature
below 0°C was important in minimizing frost heave. Foamed-in-place insulation and polystyrene boards were used in embankments to preserve the permafrost. Tangential adfreezing on piles was minimized by greasing the piles and surface active agents around piles.
The s t r e n g t h of c o n c r e t e a t low t e m p e r a t u r e s and problems o f f r e e z i n g o f c o n c r e t e were a l s o b e i n g s t u d i e d . Some work was c a r r i e d o u t on s p e c i a l cements f o r t h e N o r t h e a s t . The e f f e c t o f t h e r m a l e m i s s i o n o f s e t t i n g c o n c r e t e on f r o z e n s o i l s was c o n s i d e r e d an i m p o r t a n t problem, b u t was n o t i n v e s t i g a t e d . The h y d r a u l i c e n g i n e e r i n g l a b o r a t o r y was v i s i t e d . B r i d g e f o u n d a t i o n s , w a t e r f l o w u n d e r b r i d g e s , d e s t r u c t i o n o f dams by f l o o d s and r i v e r s c o u r were b e i n g s t u d i e d i n a n i n d o o r l a b o r a t o r y and w i t h o u t d o o r s m a l l s c a l e models. V i s i t t o G e o l o g i c a l R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e , Academy o f S c i e n c e s
We were welcomed by Ho Yuen-lan, V i c e Chairman of t h e
R e v o l u t i o n a r y Committee f o r t h e G e o l o g i c a l Research I n s t i t u t e . I n i t i a l l y t h e I n s t i t u t e s t u d i e d s u r f i c i a l geology and c a r r i e d o u t m i n e r a l s u r v e y s . In 1977 t h e s t a f f exceeded 400 r e s e a r c h and t e c h n i c a l p e r s o n n e l . There were n i n e d i v i s i o n s : S t r u c t u r a l g e o l o g y , N e o t e c t o n i c s , C r u s t a l g e o l o g y , Mathematical geology ( s i m u l a t i o n s ) , E n g i n e e r i n g g e o l o g y , Mineralogy and p e t r o l o g y , Sedimentology and s t r a t i g r a p h y , I s o t o p e g e o l o g y , and Chemical a n a l y s i s . T h e r e was no p e r m a f r o s t work b e i n g done a t t h i s I n s t i t u t e a l t h o u g h t h e y had done g e o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h i n T s i n g h a i and T i b e t where p e r m a f r o s t e x i s t s . The G e o g r a p h i c a l I n s t i t u t e c a r r i e d o u t t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s on perma- f r o s t .
I n r e s p o n s e t o q u e s t i o n s from t h e Canadian d e l e g a t i o n t h e f o l l o w i n g i n f o r m a t i o n was r e c e i v e d . G e o l o g i c a l maps a r e compiled i n t h e G e n e r a l Bureau of Geology which i s s i m i l a r t o a m i n i s t r y . Maps c a n b e p u r c h a s e d i n Hsin Hua b o o k s t o r e . R e s u l t s o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t h e I n s t i t u t e a r e t r a n s m i t t e d t o c o n s t r u c t i o n p r a c t i c e by t e c h n i c i a n s s e n t t o c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o j e c t s on r e q u e s t . The r e l a t i o n o f t h i s I n s t i t u t e t o t h e G e n e r a l Bureau o f Geology i s t h a t t h e former c a r r i e s o u t fundamental s t u d i e s w h i l e t h e l a t t e r d o e s g e o l o g i c a l s u r v e y i n g . Geophysical work done a t t h e Geophysical I n s t i t u t e , i n s u c h a r e a s a s e a r t h q u a k e s and geomagnetism i n c l u d e s a c o u s t i c a l r e s e a r c h , e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t i v i t y , and g e o t h e r m a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . P e r m a f r o s t work i n g e o p h y s i c s i s c a r r i e d o u t a t Lanchow.
S e v e r a l l a b o r a t o r i e s were v i s i t e d . I n t h e P a l y n o l o g y L a b o r a t o r y , Q u a t e r n a r y p o l l e n a n a l y s e s were underway. A t Mount E v e r e s t t h e y found e v i d e n c e o f t r e e s a t 5,100 m e l e v a t i o n d u r i n g t h e Middle P l e i s t o c e n e where d e s e r t
c o n d i t i o n s e x i s t now. The r e g i o n was g l a c i a t e d and h a s e x p e r i e n c e d 1 , 6 0 0 m u p l i f t s i n c e t h a t t i m e . The P h o t o e l a s t i c L a b o r a t o r y was m e a s u r i n g s t r e s s f i e l d s i n r o c k . Models were u s e d t o s i m u l a t e e a r t h q u a k e c o n d i t i o n s . F o r c e s were
induced and t h e development o f s t r e s s e s o b s e r v e d . T h i s h a s c o n s i d e r a b l e e n g i n e e r i n g a p p l i c a t i o n . G e o - a c o u s t i c s and s e i s m i c wave v e l o c i t i e s were b e i n g s t u d i e d i n t h e s e i s m i c l a b o r a t o r y . I t was i r o n i c t o b e informed t h a t t h e p e o p l e d o i n g g e o t h e r m a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s were a b s e n t b e c a u s e t h e y d i d n o t t h i n k w e would be i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e i r work.
In the Laboratory of Microscopic Investigations For Engineering Geology, the chemical composition and microstructure of
clay laye~s was being examined. Stresses and mechanical properties of
weak clays were being evaluated, In the construction of a dam, for example, clay seams occurred in sandstone in two sections - in the upper part they were jointed and in the lower part, fissured. After the dam was completed it was discovered that the upper part was in worse condition than the lower but the physical and mechanical properties were better. Another problem being investigated was the deformation of road pavement and cracking and uplift of building foundations
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as much as 9 cm - in Sinkiang due to salt accumulation in the soil.Hunter and Judge returned to the Geological Research Institute on Tuesday afternoon, 2 August, immediately upon the delegation's return from Chichihar, and met with the geothermal group. The group comprised 10 researchers and technicians and was led by Xiong Lian-ping and Fan Zhi-chang. Although no work had been done in permafrost areas, the group had made extensive measurements in coal mines and deep wells in northeastern China. In addition to discussing equipment for logging drillholes and
observing their divided-bar system, the general problems of heat flow measurement and interpretations were discussed. Judge left some reprints with them; they had not published at the time. Since the visit a volume entitled Collection of Works on Geothermal Studies of the Geothermal Research Division containing 10 research papers has been received by Judge.
Geographical Research Institute
As mentioned previously this Institute carried out some perma- frost investigations. We were supposed to visit there but the Institute was being reorganized and most of the staff was in the field. We were invited to visit during our next trip to China. Several of the research staff were at the Geological Institute to meet us however, and gave a brief- ing on the physical geography of the Tsinghai-Tibet region where much of China's permafrost exists. The presentation was rather confusing so the following account may not be entirely accurate.
This region is bordered by the Himalayas on the south and the Pamir Mountains on the west. The total area is 2.3 million square km
comprising one-quarter of China's territory. It became a plateau during the Quaternary when 3,000 m of uplift took place and is now 4,000 to 5,000 m above sea level. It is the highest and youngest plateau in the world. The physical features changed after uplift with the Himalayas forming a virtual wall. The climate is warm and humid south of the mountains and cold and dry on the plateau.
The terrain of the plateau is very rugged with many mountain ranges, deep river valleys that are the source streams for many of Asia's large rivers, and there are also periglacial features. There are several geomorphological divisions: in the north central region there are mountains in east - west ranges 700 km long and 600 km wide rising generally to 1,000 m
above s e a l e v e l and some t o 6,000
m
with g l a c i e r s . Between t h e mountain r a n g e s a r e some o f t h e d e e p e s t d e p r e s s i o n s i n China 2,600 t o 3,000m
above s e a l e v e l c o n t a i n i n g a l l u v i a l p l a i n s and s a l t marshes. Another d i v i s i o n i s a l a r g e b a s i n with many l a k e s . The l a k e l e v e l s f l u c t u a t e c o n s i d e r a b l y and many have s a l t c o n t e n t s of up t o 20 t o 30 p e r c e n t . Mountain r a n g e s , extending west northwest i n t h e west and e a s t s o u t h e a s t i n t h e e a s t , r i s e t o 6,000 m with many g l a c i e r s exceeding 10 km i n l e n g t h . The g l a c i e r s come down t o t h e 5,000 m e l e v a t i o n . T h i s i s a p e r m a f r o s t r e g i o n w i t h widespread f r o s t weathering, mass wasting and o t h e r p e r i g l a c i a l f e a t u r e s . During t h e Quaternary g l a c i e r s covered f i v e times t h e a r e a t h a t t h e y do now b u t t h e r e i s no evidence of P l e i s t o c e n e g l a c i a t i o n on t h e p l a t e a u .The t h i r d d i v i s i o n i s t h e base o f t h e Himalayas i n t h e southwest. This i s t h e s o u r c e r e g i o n f o r t h e Indus River and i s 3,500 t o 4,000 m
above s e a l e v e l . The remains of t h e l a s t g l a c i a t i o n can b e seen i n t h e s o u t h c e n t r a l r e g i o n o f t h i s watershed a r e a . There a r e many l a k e s and
v a l l e y s , f i v e o f t h e l a k e s having an a r e a exceeding 1,500 s q u a r e k i l o m e t r e s . The f o u r t h d i v i s i o n i s t h e Himalayas, e x t e n d i n g f o r 2,400 km t h e main range of which h a s an average e l e v a t i o n o f 6,000 m with e l e v e n peaks over 8,000 m above s e a l e v e l , i n c l u d i n g Mount E v e r e s t . There a r e many g l a c i e r s w i t h a t o t a l a r e a o f 1,600 s q u a r e k i l o r n e t r e s , t h e lowest a t 6,200 m above s e a l e v e l . The s o u t h e a s t p a r t of t h e T i b e t a n p l a t e a u i s i n f l u e n c e d by t h e monsoon and one g l a c i e r descends below t r e e l i n e a t 2,500 m above s e a l e v e l . Some r i v e r v a l l e y s r e a c h a d e p t h o f 2,000 m i n v e r y rugged t e r r a i n .
P e r i g l a c i a l f e a t u r e s a r e extremely v a r i e d and widespread e s p e c i a l l y i n T i b e t . A t 4,000 t o 5,000 m above s e a l e v e l t h e mean annual a i r temperature i s below 0°C and d u r i n g t w o - t h i r d s of t h e y e a r t h e daytime t e m p e r a t u r e s a r e below 0°C. The high number o f freeze-thaw c y c l e s , good s l o p e and m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t c o n d i t i o n s a r e conducive t o a l a r g e v a r i e t y o f p e r i g l a c i a l phenomena.
P e r i g l a c i a l f e a t u r e s a r e d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r c a t e g o r i e s a c c o r d i n g t o a g e n t of o r i g i n : (1) Weathering and g r a v i t y producing t a l u s , rock
s t r i p e s , e t c . ; ( 2 ) S o l i f l u c t i o n and c r e e p - mudflows, t e r r a c e s , rock g l a c i e r s , e t c . , ( 3 ) F r o s t heaving and s o r t i n g - i c e wedges, s t o n e r i n g s ; and
(4) Thawing o f i c e r i c h s o i l s - thermokarst l a k e s .
There a r e t h r e e main r e g i o n s where p e r i g l a c i a l f e a t u r e s v a r y i n r e s p o n s e t o t e m p e r a t u r e v a r i a t i o n s : (1) In t h e s o u t h e a s t , where t h e r e was l i t t l e g l a c i a t i o n , o c e a n i c monsoon c o n d i t i o n s p r e v a i l . There a r e deep v a l l e y s w i t h s t e e p s l o p e s and no p e r m a f r o s t . The main t y p e s o f f e a t u r e s a r e r e l a t e d t o weathering, g r a v i t y and s o l i f l u c t i o n ; ( 2 ) I n t h e Himalayas
c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s a r e s e m i a r i d with p e r i g l a c i a l f e a t u r e s o c c u r r i n g above 4,000 m above s e a l e v e l . Up t o 5,200 m s o l i f l u c t i o n and mudflows predominate and above, t h e f e a t u r e s a r e mainly r e l a t e d t o weathering and denudation;
( 3 ) I n t h e n o r t h c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s a r e s e m i a r i d . Extensive permafrost o c c u r s i n t h e n o r t h and n o r t h w e s t . S c a t t e r e d p e r m a f r o s t i s l a n d s a r e found i n t h e s o u t h . P e r i g l a c i a l phenomena i n c l u d e f e l s e n m e e r , rock g l a c i e r s , mudflows and f r o s t s o r t i n g .
V i s i t t o A i r Raid S h e l t e r . Peking
Our guide was Kao Shu-hsin, e n g i n e e r , Chinese S o c i e t y o f
C i v i l Engineering. The c i t y i s u n d e r l a i n by many s h e l t e r s , each c o n s t r u c t e d and supervised by a d i s t r i c t . The one we v i s i t e d , which began i n 1969, was s t i l l under c o n s t r u c t i o n f o l l o w i n g t h e a d v i c e o f Chairman Mao who s a i d , "Prepare a g a i n s t war and n a t u r a l c a l a m i t i e s . "
The e n t r a n c e t o t h e s h e l t e r was i n a s t o r e through a s l i d i n g f l o o r panel behind a c o u n t e r . There a r e 45 shops on t h i s s t r e e t employing about 1,800 p e r s o n s , 70 p e r c e n t o f whom a r e women who p r o v i d e t h e l a b o u r f o r c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e s h e l t e r . The work i s done mostly by hand. A t t h a t time t h e r e were over 3,000 m of t u n n e l s c o n t a i n i n g h e a d q u a r t e r s , k i t c h e n s , d i n i n g rooms, s t o r e h o u s e s , a i r f i l t e r s and g e n e r a t o r s , w a t e r , t e l e p h o n e s and r a d i o s . The a i r temperature was maintained a t 18°C. Tunnels were a t t h e 8 and 15 m d e p t h , andwerecovered w i t h s t e e l p l a t e s and a p r e s t r e s s e d c o n c r e t e a r c h . The water t a b l e was a t 15 m .
I t was normal f o r about 80,000 people t o be i n t h e a r e a d u r i n g t h e day w i t h about 10,000 a t any given time. There were 90 e n t r a n c e s and
10,000 persons could descend i n t o t h e s h e l t e r i n 5 t o 6 minutes. They could s t a y f o r 1 o r 2 days. Children and o l d people would be moved t o t h e suburbs. The p e o p l e ' s m i l i t i a i n t h e s h e l t e r s would be prepared t o f i g h t i f n e c e s s a r y . This s h e l t e r , while n o t y e t f i n i s h e d , was a l r e a d y connected with o t h e r s
throughout t h e c i t y ; more were planned.
S p e c i a l t e c h n i c i a n s i n s e v e r a l m i n i s t r i e s were r e s p o n s i b l e
f o r t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e work. The a t t a c k a t t h e Amur River by t h e S o v i e t Union i n 1969 caused t h e i n i t i a t i o n of t h i s p r o j e c t . The amount of time
s p e n t working on it was d i f f i c u l t t o e s t i m a t e because people t o i l e d 1 o r 2 hours a day on t h e t u n n e l a f t e r working i n t h e s t o r e s . F i f t e e n p e r s o n s , f o r example, could excavate a space 1 x 1.5 x 2.2 m i n an e i g h t - h o u r day. The s h e l t e r could withstand an atom bomb d e t o n a t e d i n t h e a i r b u t t h e r e would be g r e a t damage w i t h i n 200 m. There was no damage from t h e 1976 earthquake except some c r a c k i n g .
HARB I N
T r a i n Journey t o N o r t h e a s t
We l e f t Peking f o r t h e N o r t h e a s t by t r a i n F r i d a y evening J u l y 2 2 and r e t u r n e d Tuesday 2 August. We were accompanied by f o u r Chinese from Peking - L i Yu-sheng, Vice P r i n c i p a l , Research I n s t i t u t e , M i n i s t r y o f Railways; Chou Chia-teh and Chen Chi-yen, both e n g i n e e r s , Department o f Foreign L i a i s o n , Chinese S o c i e t y o f C i v i l Engineering; and
L i Shu-hsien, i n t e r p r e t e r , M i n i s t r y o f Railways.
We t r a v e l l e d o v e r n i g h t t o Harbin where we s p e n t two d a y s .
T h i s was followed by two days i n Taching, s i t e o f C h i n a ' s l a r g e s t o i l f i e l d s . Two days l a t e r we journeyed t o C h i c h i h a r . Fromthere we went by s p e c i a l t r a i n on t h e Ya-ke-shi and Liun-kiang f o r e s t r e s o u r c e r a i l w a y s through t h e p e r m a f r o s t r e g i o n of t h e N o r t h e a s t . We r e t u r n e d t o C h i c h i h a r and t h e n back t o Peking.
T r a i n Journey from Peking t o Harbin
The Canadian d e l e g a t i o n l e f t Peking f o r Harbin a t 6:00 p.m. on F r i d a y 2 2 J u l y , a r r i v i n g t h e r e a t noon. During t h e evening on t h e t r a i n we were informed by o u r Chinese e s c o r t s t h a t Teng Hsiao-ping had been r e s t o r e d t o h i s former p o s i t i o n i n t h e government. They were v e r y e x c i t e d and happy about t h i s news and we t a l k e d w i t h them about it f o r some t i m e . The n e x t morning we saw a few s m a l l p a r a d e s i n t h e s m a l l e r v i l l a g e s b u t c e l e b r a t i o n s
i n Harbin were f i n i s h e d by t h e time o f o u r a r r i v a l . There were, however, some banners hung i n t h e c i t y , many i n f r o n t o f o u r h o t e l .
S o c i e t y o f C i v i l Engineering and A r c h i t e c t u r e , Heilungkiang Province
Harbin i s t h e l a r g e s t c i t y i n t h e N o r t h e a s t w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n o f 2,100,000. Our h o s t was Liu Wen-chun, P r e s i d e n t , S o c i e t y o f C i v i l Engineering and A r c h i t e c t u r e o f Heilungkiang Province. He was t h e Vice P r e s i d e n t of t h e Committee on "Fundamental ConstructionI1 o f t h i s p r o v i n c e which i s t h e h i g h e s t a u t h o r i t y f o r house, r o a d , s a n i t a r y , r i v e r and marine c o n s t r u c t i o n and u r b a n p l a n n i n g . This Committee d i d n o t belong t o any u n i v e r s i t y . There was a n a t i o n a l b u i l d i n g code w i t h s p e c i a l s t a n d a r d s f o r each p r o v i n c e . The Low Temperature C o n s t r u c t i o n I n s t i t u t e i n Harbin came under t h i s j u r i s d i c t i o n . There was no c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g t a u g h t i n t h e two u n i v e r s i t i e s i n Harbin, b u t r e s e a r c h was c a r r i e d o u t i n t h i s i n s t i t u t e and i n some f a c t o r i e s .
Staff members under Liu Wen-chun whom we met included:-
Li Chien-yeh, Secretary
Chang Hsu-ching, Vice Secretary
Yen Yu, staff member
Also: Yang Yung-hua, staff member, Foreign Affairs
Office of Revolutionary Committee, Heilungkiang
Province.
Tour of Harbin
Later that afternoon the delegation was taken to view the
famous dikes on the Sungari River. Following this inspection we were taken
on a boat ride which was cut short by a torrential rain. This caused heavy
flooding in the city which necessitated our motorcade making several detours.
We were then treated to a ride on the children's railway
built in a park in 1956. The oval
2km track surrounds a treed area which
was completely inundated by the rain. The train is operated, so we were
told, by children 8 to 12 years old and had travelled 27,000 km, to that
date, without any accidents. Apparently 200 children were then in training
on the railway and 2,500 had been trained since the line was opened.
In the evening the delegation was taken to the main theatre to
see a Chinese opera about the short sword society. A highlight for us was
the welcome given us by the audience of 1,500 who stood and applauded when
we took our seats and again when we left the theatre.
Low Tem~erature
Construction Institute
We visited this Institute 24 July. The following met us:
Chairman of Revolutionary Committee
-San Shou-yi
Vice Chairman of Revolutionary Committee
-
Yu Fu-min
Head, Frozen Soil Laboratory
-Hsiang Yu-pu
The Chairman gave a brief nontechnical, political welcome with
reference to Canadian-Chinese links and Dr. Norman Bethune. He passed us
over to the Vice Chairman who presented technical information about the institute.
It was established in 1966, and at the time of our visit, had a staff of 140
professionals and 80 technicians. Work was being carried out on building
materials, structures (including foundations) in cold conditions
-prevention
of frost damage to shallow foundations, load capability of pile foundations
in permafrost regions, mechanical properties of freezing and frozen soils,
and performance of concrete and additives under freezing conditions.
Work was a l s o b e i n g c a r r i e d o u t on s p e c i f i c b u i l d i n g p r o j e c t s a s w e l l a s fundamental r e s e a r c h . Some e x p e r i m e n t a l b u i l d i n g s were b e i n g s t u d i e d i n t h e i n s t i t u t e and i n f i e l d c o n d i t i o n s . D e c i s i o n s were t o b e made on how t h e r e s u l t s would be p u b l i s h e d .
Low t e m p e r a t u r e m a t e r i a l s t e s t i n g such a s b r i t t l e f r a c t u r e o f s t e e l was c a r r i e d on i n t e m p e r a t u r e s down t o -60°C. I n v e s t i g a t i o n s on welding and impact l o a d i n g were b e i n g done e l s e w h e r e . S p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r b u i l d i n g codes and q u a l i t y c o n t r o l f o r new m a t e r i a l s were b e i n g d e v e l o p e d .
A model p i l e f o u n d a t i o n t e s t was b e i n g c a r r i e d o u t i n f i n e g r a i n e d f r o z e n s o i l w i t h 25 p e r c e n t m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t a t a t e m p e r a t u r e o f -2°C. The s t e e l a l l o y p i l e s were 80 crn long and 8 cm i n d i a m e t e r . T e s t i n g was underway on f r o s t heave f o r c e s and f r e e z i n g from t h e t o p was a p p l i e d a t a r a t e o f 1 mm i n 24 h o u r s . Experiments were n o t b e i n g made on wood p i l e s b e c a u s e t h e r e was n o t enough wood a v a i l a b l e t o u s e i n c o n s t r u c t i o n a s i s done i n Canada.
I n c o l d w e a t h e r c o n s t r u c t i o n , sodium s u l p h a t e was used a s a n a d d i t i v e t o c o n c r e t e which was c o u n t e r t o Canadian p r a c t i c e . Calcium c h l o r i d e was a l s o u s e d . No a i r e n t r a i n m e n t was u s e d . The r a n g e o f compressive
s t r e n g t h was 50 t o 600 Kg p e r cm2 v e r s u s 140 t o 600 Kg p e r cm2 i n Canada. H a r b i n Measuring I n s t r u m e n t and Tool F a c t o r y
The d e l e g a t i o n was r e c e i v e d by Liu Cheng-long, Vice Chairman o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n a r y Committee of t h e f a c t o r y and Wang Chao, D i r e c t o r o f t h e O f f i c e o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n a r y Committee of t h e f a c t o r y . I t produced t h r e e k i n d s of d e v i c e s : ( 1 ) c u t t i n g t o o l s ; ( 2 ) measuring i n s t r u m e n t s ; and
( 3 ) e l e c t r i c a l , o p t i c a l and a c o u s t i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s . C o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e f a c t o r y began i n 1953 and p r o d u c t i o n began i n 1955. There was a s t a f f o f 20 e n g i n e e r s and 200 t e c h n i c i a n s .
During a t o u r o f t h e f a c t o r y we saw t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f d i a l and v e r n i e r m i c r o m e t e r s , c a l i p e r s , many d i f f e r e n t s p e c i a l i z e d b i t s and b l a d e s , t a p s and d i e s , and o p t i c a l d i v i d e r s . T h i r t y o r more d i f f e r e n t s i z e s o f gauges were produced t o measure p h y s i c a l d i s p l a c e m e n t . P r o d u c t i o n v a l u e i n 1976 was more t h a n 10 m i l l i o n yuan and t h e a v e r a g e monthly wage i s 50 yuan. One workshop completed i t s y e a r ' s q u o t a i n 6 s months.
Many o f t h e workshops were more l i k e l a b o r a t o r i e s w i t h d o u b l e d o o r s and d u s t f r e e c o n s t a n t t e m p e r a t u r e c o n d i t i o n s .
One o f t h e most i m p r e s s i v e workshops was engaged i n o p t i c a l work. They were g r i n d i n g l e n s e s f o r m i c r o s c o p e s , t e l e s c o p e s and s u r v e y i n g
i n s t r u m e n t s . I n an a s s o c i a t e d workshop t h e r e were s e v e r a l s o p h i s t i c a t e d machines f o r s i l v e r c o a t i n g l e n s e s . Tool m i c r o s c o p e s were produced t o check t h e q u a l i t y c o n t r o l a c c u r a c y o f g e a r s . The f a c t o r y had begun t o m a n u f a c t u r e many o f i t s own machining t o o l s .
T r a i n Journev from Harbin t o Taching
We l e f t Harbin about 1:30 p.m. and a r r i v e d i n Taching a t
4:00 p.m. on F r i d a y 29 J u l y . The Sung-Liao p l a i n a c r o s s which we t r a v e l l e d , and on which Taching i s l o c a t e d , was q u i t e wet. F i e l d s o f wheat, p o t a t o e s and c o r n were i n e v i d e n c e b u t t h e r e were a l s o l a r g e a l k a l i n e t r a c t s , some used f o r g r a z i n g and hay. A s t h e t r a i n approached Taching many f l a r e s b u r n i n g o f f g a s c o u l d be s e e n . Near t h e s t a t i o n was a l a r g e p e t r o c h e m i c a l complex e s t i m a t e d t o have a c a p a c i t y o f 100,000 b a r r e l s p e r day.
We were met by Chin Pei-chung, Vice D i r e c t o r o f t h e Con- s t r u c t i o n Bureau o f Taching who was o u r main h o s t d u r i n g t h e two-day v i s i t . We were t a k e n t o o u r accommodation - a l o c a l g u e s t house f o r h i g h l e v e l Chinese o r f o r e i g n v i s i t o r s
-
a f t e r which we were b r i e f e d by M r . Chin.TACH I NG
General B r i e f i n g on Taching O i l F i e l d
The Taching O i l F i e l d began p r o d u c i n g i n 1960. I t i s l o c a t e d on t h e Sung-Liao p l a i n between t h e Sung and Liao R i v e r s . I t i s a f l a t p l a i n 150 m above s e a l e v e l and was a g r a s s l a n d b e f o r e o i l was d i s c o v e r e d . The l o w e s t t e m p e r a t u r e i n w i n t e r i s - 4 0 " ~ . G e o l o g i c a l l y t h e p l a i n i s a l a r g e a n c i e n t f r e s h w a t e r l a k e b a s i n c o v e r i n g much o f t h e N o r t h e a s t . G e o l o g i c a l e x p l o r a t i o n began i n 1955 when o i l was d i s c o v e r e d i n t h e t h i r d e x p l o r a t o r y w e l l and p r o d u c t i o n d r i l l i n g began i n 1958.
vtTaching" means "A G r e a t C e l e b r a t i o n t v and has become a showplace and example f o r a l l o f China. From 1960 t o 1977, 40,000 m o f c o r e had been examined and more t h a n 600,000 samples a n a l y z e d f o r o i l and n a t u r a l g a s . Water was i n j e c t e d i n t o s p e c i a l w e l l s p r i o r t o p r o d u c t i o n i n a n a r e a t o m a i n t a i n r e g i o n a l p r e s s u r e . P r o d u c t i v i t y had i n c r e a s e d 28 p e r c e n t each y e a r .
S u r f a c e s t r u c t u r e s had been b u i l t i n c l u d i n g r e f i n e r i e s and p e t r o c h e m i c a l p l a n t s . A p p a r e n t l y t h e y produced more t h a n t w i c e what t h e y d i d b e f o r e t h e C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n . A t t h e t i m e o f o u r v i s i t t h e y made s y n t h e t i c ammonia, n i t r i c ammonia, n y l o n , s y n t h e t i c wool, i n s u l a t i o n and o t h e r p r o d u c t s . N a t u r a l g a s was u s e d t o produce one m i l l i o n t o n s o f s t a n d a r d f e r t i l i z e r a n n u a l l y i n a p l a n t b u i l t i n 1976.
The Taching R e v o l u t i o n a r y Committee was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a n a r e a t h a t i n c l u d e d 60 c e n t r a l v i l l a g e s and 164 s a t e l l i t e s e t t l e m e n t s s p r e a d around t h e c e n t r a l v i l l a g e s . A l l o f t h e workers p a r t i c i p a t e d i n a g r i c u l t u r e o r o t h e r s i d e l i n e o c c u p a t i o n s and a b o u t 20,000 a c r e s were t h e n u n d e r
c u l t i v a t i o n . I n 1976 Taching claimed t o have produced 30,000 t o n s o f g r a i n , 75,000 t o n s o f v e g e t a b l e s and 110,000 p i g s . The 550,000 p e o p l e o f Taching a l s o r a i s e d more t h a n 45,000 cows, h o r s e s and s h e e p and t h e y claimed t o be s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t i n f o o d . During t h e 1 5 y e a r s p r i o r t o o u r v i s i t Taching claimed t o have r e t u r n e d 1 4 . 3 t i m e s t h e government's i n v e s t m e n t i n t h e development o f t h e o i l f i e l d . Much was made o f t h e "Learn From Tachingtt Conference i n A p r i l 1977 and Chairman Hua's v i s i t w i t h h i s d i r e c t i v e t o speed up development o f t h e p e t r o l e u m i n d u s t r y .
I n t h e e v e n i n g a f t e r a banquet we were shown a f a i r l y new
propaganda f i l m a b o u t Taching. Afterwards t h e d e l e g a t i o n asked t o s e e s e i s m i c e x p l o r a t i o n . We were t o l d it was i m p o s s i b l e b e c a u s e i t was b e i n g conducted hundreds o f k i l o m e t r e s away. A p p a r e n t l y o i l d i s c o v e r i e s were b e i n g made f u r t h e r and f u r t h e r away from t h e a r e a u n d e r t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n o f t h e Taching R e v o l u t i o n a r y Committee which was a l s o expanding. 'fie Chinese confirmed t h a t t h e Taching o i l f i e l d was i n f a c t many p o o l s , n o t j u s t one. No i n f o r m a t i o n c o u l d be o b t a i n e d on t h e t y p i c a l d e p t h and t h i c k n e s s o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n f i e l d a l t h o u g h some o f t h e s e q u e s t i o n s were answered i n t h e f i n a l d i s c u s s i o n s .
General Impressions of Taching
As we travelled around Taching it became increasingly clear to the delegation that the living conditions of the workers were extremely dreary, although the Chinese considered it to be a model community. There were a few brick buildings but most of the people lived in mud brick houses,
about 30 m long by 8 m wide which accommodated two to four families. Behind many houses there were oil-filled ponds hollowed out in the mud from which
people carried oil to the houses to use for heating and cooking. Children and animals outside were all coated with the oil. We saw numerous small fire stations. The terrain was barren and seemed to have low fertility. There were many fields that were worked extensively by horses, mules and humans. There had been remarkable afforestation since 1960 with roads and fields marked by rows of trees.
One attraction of Taching was that nearly all workers could have their families with them, unlike many other industrial workers in China. Another was that children could continue to live in the same area, and enter the same factory as their parents. Nevertheless, many new oil fields were being developed and many of the older workers were being sent to them.
The delegation saw more mechanical earth moving equipment at Taching than at any of the other areas visited. At one site ten mechanical scrapers were stripping an area of less than 75 hectares. In addition one pipeline ditching machine capable of excavating a ditch about one-half m wide and 2 m deep was stored at one of the construction sites.
"Iron Man Wone Exhibition Halltt
On
the morning of 26 July we visited this hall which was one ofthe largest buildings in Taching. The exhibits were dedicated to the man who followed Chairman Maols line continuously in becoming the foremost oil field worker in the nation. He outdid himself in establishing national records for drilling and encouraged other workers to greater production. During the Great Leap Forward he promised to drill 1000 m in one month and 10,000 m in one year but he actually drilled 5000 m in one month.
He was posted to Taching in 1959 at the age of 35. In 1960 he set many drilling records with his team. He continued through the 1960's to exhort the workers to greater efforts and also led the struggle against various bad elements who had crept into the Taching leadership and tried to disrupt production. He became ill in 1967 but continued his work at Taching and was known and respected nationally. He died in 1970 of stomach cancer.
The exhibition consisted of many photographs, paintings and written accounts of his efforts in the oilfields, his meetings with workers, publications about him and displays of newspapers announcing his death.
