pa t.:"ti~l' f:~lfiliment '

FIRST TIMEFATHBRS

Depa_r~men tof Me dici ne Me mo ri a l [Jni v;;rsl~Yof.~e.w.foundland

-.,september . ]4186 AND

,THeIR

~ER?*TI~N .

^OF

PARTICIPATI ON.INLABOUR'AND·DELIVERY

BY • '1'"

@Beve rl~~ ·RO~well ,

^{R.N., B.N•.-}

,~A-.l:. ~eS i S·'^{·s u bltTi}'t't e d·."t O th e'Sch...ol·of Graduate St.udies~i n'.,

pa t.:"ti~l' f:~lfiliment '

^{of the}

rE-,qu~~'eme~_~/

^{thecdeg r ee ot}

-: --~~"t~

^{-of-sc teoce-}(Commun i t y Medicine>

-)

":',

__ __ ~-_·St-. John's ,....t:lewfound l and

Per.JII.ie"slonbas ~e'n 9'ranted 'to' t.he Natl0,p.al Librny of Ca n a dil·to alcrof1l1i' t.his~

th e a'h end.to lend'o r 8e11 coples ofth~ fllm.

•

...

, ';'>',:

L'autori.a.tlona'itl!'ac c o rd h··

a"YIJ' 81blloth~que ~atlon ale "

db Canada "ge, .lcrofU.er , ce~t e"th h e'e t.,de pre.ter

.Jde vendre de a ,zellp l aires· u' fil m,... . ••', . - "

.,::!

. ...

^':~.

",a s T,he "pu r pceea of t~is resea~ ch were.to·'Obta.in--an. cv e rvrev of facto rs.tllouqht tq~predlspose a:' man to:

~artic iP'a~e

^inthe

Chiid~earin9 cYcle..··ch~nqes ~etur;inq-

^in.

..'me n.at this time:,

the~r: . ~ercep~~~ns. o~· .th~~r ·-p~r'tlclP\ti-~n

^.

and 'to best'fefr

~he' ~rese~ce ' of t~ese ~fact~r~

-t n -a's am'ple'

.

^{-.. . . - ", ' .} -~.

-.

', ' "

of Newfou nala nd me n. The study.b aSf:!'.Jo'AS.obtained "f r om.a,'

-.revi ew

"~-f ; ~ vai la,ble

^{'li t}era t u r e

~: . :xpect·~~:t ·~f 'at~'e_r 8 :'

All:S~RACT

.'~.

impli~atio'~s " ~f '

the!-r

pa~'~i~ ipati'on ' weie~ o·b~·a i'ned .f~om

^.\..•

wri

tin~S' ~h~eh' pe-~ta!~ed

^{-t o'}

the.'·~hari:910~; 'r~:l~'~ ~ ~i~-tl\'~~~.8·. . ' . , _~

. • . . :u:::~e;::~~d:::~:I:::~~o:e:n:r::~:~~:I:::E;·:::::~:~f'» ~

•

"~~~avi~ur$' deSCri~ed ;l~~"~rli i~eratu~e .~·' S~lec~d

^{;variabi J}

~ ./:~:

.

~~~'~ale d' ~o

^{me n'Il}ba c kq r ounds,

" Phy,t?a~ . a~'di~; :

^{;; t;ona l .}

" £ :t

ch"a nq e s', co·n~erns.^{an d} their"~.repa ra t i on~forfat~erhoo4 . ::

.Im;e~1atepo§:t-partumrE!~ctton~-~·oparticipation1'n,l l!lbQu r .

~n~._.de-~ i':"'iry ~ ~~e' exp1.0r~~

^-:

~~Vl.eW'~~'··li.t~·~~·t·u;e

^.

9U~ge8~ed:~_;"

^.

"t~.at..:~e'_ne ed ~ ~f..~a.th.er:~__a~~ not,~ei.n91~~~~;b ~'h~a l t.~__....

pro f~s s i ona ls_~ ,mainl y'd"ue

.

to-La c kof empi ri c a l^. knowled9~of

.

.. ... ..~,ha~.'ebeeeri.~ed~· ·a~e._ ." r; ".'

The subj"ects

co nsisted

of.16 fira t - t i n1e

fathers

who -; .

w~re pr~s~nt

dui"lng'1.<,?:'bou c'an d/o J;'

de liv~·~;~ .Data:C~ llect'io"h

^.

';"~s· '

^by.subject

int.e~v~ew

^'inearlY'

.lab~U/

^arid'Po:'t -deliVery. .

questionr'laire.~

^"Frequen c:ies.and

',m:a'n s,

of.

da~a

^were

obt.~in·ed··

. ... _,,{~ '~~d~~r" t'~"d~~'~'~";~;"'~h~c;~:~;~lati~~ i~: ^{'relati on '" to} '~~e'

~:.,.:".

ya r lab l es bei~9'~.~ ves ~lt:l' ated.··~F~cto ~.:.·a"na ly:s i -.s

.. ' \ ' ... . j

~i1:~:~':-;:.~,:~.::;~~-:~~.~ :.:;.".~i~~::

^:':-•.".'

~,.~~': .:~

^{. .}

~:.:.~.':.:~:'~j ;;:~?~:~;(.h-.-.:;~-::·~~~ ^{::: :.:.;} t~:,_.~;,:::~,·,:;~~i~~~: ,.:",\ .;:;':: .~,,:~:~:'{fG

"

•

1

p.--e rf~"~ld,'

^'O-n<the

fa th~r s:

percepti o n·s"..'ol...

tb~lr "

part icip~tion,;

^fl'"Te s t s Of"

9 ~gni~'icance

^{wereperfor;ed'}

~ incr .

id;nt'lfi'ed P;i~c tPifl 'CO, l"ft'p_on gnt ~ ^as t~ e. d~ep~enden.t

va-r"ial?les :. I~n ^t.hLe m.ann ,er differences'of_percePt i~~ S^{-o f} prep';:ed/~n'pr~pa'redf-~thers.'a nd bir,th-attend~r~/

non-attenders"were obt ai ned",.

•

~

^'-i,'

.Re~~.l-t~s .~evealed<\.'~h~ ,,!~jori"~ .

^{of these fat,he:r s ha d}

··:"eXP~~ i~~C~d-'-P~hOSSlc1al",chariges·:;~.n.d ~onc~rns,aU~ i ng ttiei.r , wi

jes' :

preg~-anCle9. ",A.mi~oti

ty

r-epo~'ted p'hY9lc~l--_changes'"

.j "',.- '","". ' " . - . '.' "" .' ':'' " '.'

,P.x:ena t a l .classes had,be'en atten.dedbym09~ofthe,me.n,and,<t'. .

~ v'~det~:. '~f." ~cti~it ie9 \ :0 ':a~9~~~t ' th;i~;-~ aoit'ifY, ti:/

^.

{ h~i~ ·' ~i:V.~S, 9~'~!~g la~~~~ wer~ r·~~or~ed . ·p~_~pa;a~i,on ' f~_r

/: " ::0: _~:: ° ::,°':"1 ~::~:-:::? ";Srt:go:: ^{: "o:::n} s:,hf~_m:::;~:::~"

~'~~'_:'::;~~::i~-·~.~

^eaa

M

this.projee:.t a,nd'deser';E;l"·r'ecognit ion·for doing.' so. I .arn. ._~

especlal:1y ~ppr~ciat:iveof.t he·e ff o r t s and Irrt.er eet 9£ my

"tfles is _. _superv-~~hr~

.

'Dr.

:cibin Orr. Her

e~cour·age.ment

~^wa;

.

^{'a t}

.:.bot h.theperson~l'

and

aca~emic:le\'e~s and,.sh"~:;rovided·much

..

^'

.. ..

^{. '. . . \}

." .

~_s.up.~r t·a n~~~.id a._~ C'e; 'r....r.O~l~, ~lSO.Lf.ketot~a.rrkthe~ot~er 'm e m ~ e r s cr,m~:th'es ~s commlH',ee, Or.·~o_ss NO,rman'and.

Dr:~: .J~m~~· ·s~v;our.-,fO~ " tfle;~ su;~'~s~~ons, ~'n~" J.n.~er·~~t~.

~:w~s~,,t.oexp-~.~ss_ q~e:.,app~eci:~ti~~",to·.?Olle·a,?Ue_~·,~l1d.. 6rt"ends'~ k:MemIH 1a.l·\~ n iver.s1t~,of'.Ne wf ou 'nd l and S9hool,~f'

·t.l~i'~i. ng:~-··~~~~.i~ll~ .

^M.

'15: - _MC~~~~

.

who -e~.cou'''~ged

^:m/,t'p'

~~ i~'

~~~d~a~'e ' st,udie'~ '

^and"Or•.C"

Wbi't~ w;o:, e~c6uraged

^'ine.to_,__

cpmp~et.; the'pr~~~~~e'cequl r ement.e,

: fa~ilY: especla~: y'm'y mother, E,~ai~e, Shaun,·,'Carman e nd'..Mar~ played.an impor~an~t" sup'pot-tiye ~?le, ~s did

! , ~rS h ' .~·o· .tha.nk

^{'t h e}

.n':l;~ es.

^{of.th e}

~~se

^{nccme a.t-}

Clare's.~ercy Hosp~taland^vthe Grace..Ge,neral,Hos p i t a l

for :'th~,~ 'r,' ~X~.~\le·n

^t.·-c·?'? p;; a·t. ion w',!t:h'

da,~~

^\

c~llectio'~.'

Howev~r; t"he,mos t'th~n'ks ~90.to't"rle.f o r t y.,.t woc~uple's who.

~.

.

^{. '} ',. '. . .- ^' .

.B'-gre~.,t o haveme~hareav,ei:y"spe(;l~l\event with them••

My e~cou~te~. ~Jth ~h.em ':~tenqth~n~/Y ~~ilef i~-- --

^..

..~~a.s~~~r~ng_,.~.f hm~~i.e~... ~"

I .

'. '

.

(

.

.'

',I

'i-~

.'.'~.

6"

30 24 26'

36 24' 19~

i

o

11

13

!-NT RODUCT IC?N ABST RAC T

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS TABLE,

OF-)CO~T~~TS

1.IS T,

. t' 1'~Bi:;ES

^.

LI S~O F FIGURES CHAPTBR1. ~

...

,ytrOdUC'bi Onr"

j ' . .

R~~lanale_farStudyl,ngPaternal ,.

\pa r t ici pa ti on"Ln Childbearing'

\ ^'

' .

^,,['\ ^' '

.~:~\c~P.t.U~l~F_ram~r~r~k

LI T ERAT URERE VI E W'

\ . " I'; ,

':Cha,~9{,n.~;_ RO,le ?f~~.h: ,:F'at~ .

^{- .}

. TraditionaJ. Role . Cont~mporar "Role ",

,, ; ' ..... . . 1

Pat.ernalParticipation in'Ch!ldbearing:' 'selec t eC!-\·.Tr;end ~,

l in

-~b6tetri.ca lca_~e

Tr a n s iti o nto~hood' " ^...

lde~'t'(f'icaJion

^'wit'h

p~rsons

Fun.,~tf~n~t91.0.the'oRale 36

Social,EnvVonme nt 37

TheM.ajor'~oleMode;l· · 39

',:' I'nf~uen;cedf theWife 41

Imaqinal.i:>r-±nCJI>ie nt.Rehea rsal ...:

/" ., a nd \

p ract~~e

^\

" ~ ~ .

^{_\ 42 ' ': .:.}

.':::~

f '. ,,' ",._Emotio~~i\, eactions'- .- '...43 .-.;

• .

' '''~~~~~~ri~ ;~ft~i~:ctan.t, F~thers

^•

:-~-'

^.

:',:~

/

'.1 prepa rat i on Ac t iv H i e s of -:j

-... Expectant",\Fa the rs . . , .-53; .:',;'}

-'. . .Re:~~n~,:~'i;e_r:a~~ic.iPationin~ab~ur 58 '..'~~

, ' ( . ,. "'suroma<y .j 6~ :~

~;;;;t;if'·h·;;:1Y:;;;~;;':i,:/;'::j\i::i·'~';" ';:i:(;~N" 1!\;;;k .J ;~&};):,a':i);\:,.,~.';i; ~::; " 'L·" ; "\:" "",',~;:JJ~

?~~~~'~:~.':W>;'!: ~,"" :~" : ': ~:: ' : ";'" '."!·~r ^{"0 : " ; ',:} ':~"" ~""~f~c~ '~"" :: ';"~'?'~i:~

. I ';;

•TA~LEOFCOwr'ENTS :~~,

! ,";

"

77 80

" ao

.,66

6 7

~

.

.67

,

6' '71

71, 72

74 75

7.'"

\\

"'Emot·ional.

Chanq~~

Social'Changes Physi~l'Cha ng e s -c cnce r ne_. ,' .

preparation '!-ortHe Suppo rtRol~ • 98 prepa,raHon .for-t l:le Fatherhood:Ro~elO-J

.RESlJLT~

^AND

DISC~SSION t ·

~ha{~citeristi.cs_,9£.th~population Responsestotactors Thought t~'be

Associated·wi t h.Identification"with', tihe Fa~b,erh.ood~o~e

Rl'!~pOn;es ^{to .Factors}'ThOU~ht^{'t o -be} . Assoc!ated¥..with Rehearsal for'

~r a t h e r h ood...c..._-..-~:'__-:--.~,- rnterv lew Schedule . . P.OS.t-d~liVeryQue~t~?n~aire

Data,Co~lection S~atisHcCll Analyses Reliabilityandyalid i ty

.,.p0pUla U on

'., . , \ . j

Ethic,al Considerations Setting

.Oefinition~

Ident).fication with the Fatherhood:Role p.

Rehearsal and Practice for the

pe~~;~~~~~~fR~~: ,'Lab~ur all>

^I

Delivery.areeeeses , '• .-(' Percept;ion ofPar~ic.:ip'a!:ion-Ln

I .

r.eccue•and Delivery. , .percep;ion of,;the~eonate

Re~earch instr~me~ts_{. ~ .~}

- J

.~

.CH~PTER'3. :M~THMltiLOG~

oesJ.in

. ...

" .' ", 1 \

'

Labpur and 'Delivery E~ei'iel1ces

Facto rAnalysis ofPercep t.Lcna. c~r.relationAmong Faptors Analysesof Signlfican'ce

~hie:~~are^{Tests. .}

Summary

112 11.

115 121 121 123 .1 25 129

CHAPTER 5.

LIMITATION~,

CONCLllS'IONSANDIMPLlql.TION·S

·'156

-.158

"1-69_ 174 ," 132 132"

~33 134 . 13 8' 139 lU ,142 145

D.

r;imitations

,A.

B.

C.

The Study .

ItTf:\e :ropls / , Co nc l us i o ns

i

:

ImPlic~tions ' I

practici EdU~tihn

L.

^Re,se/ara,

R~FER~CEr.rsr

FolPPENDICES / .'

!-etterec

p~ticipants

Int e r vi e w .schedule .

.

g~:;~i~~9~~~~~ses to Pos t-Oe livery.

Reliabi .tyRe8ul~ ~ .

. '

96

·9 9

-'t

. 97

IO~

118'

no

127 104

lOS

1.28·

174 '11,3 Page

112'.

(;;4 .'

.

~

..

LI S 'IIOF TABLES .Dea c ri pt i~n

Chi.Sq ua z:.e Results

;at:~l:;s^Resu1ts

o f

prepar'ed/Unprepa~d Cha ra c t eris ticsof the pnpuLatLon 87 Re spon s estoFacto rs Associa t ed w,it h

'the:F.atw,er hoodRl?le. 90

Summar yof Re spo nseaRegarding Emo tio na l

Cha n ges · '9~

Summar yof Resp on s e sRegard i n g Social

.Cha ng e s •.

.

...

, .

Summary.afRe por t ed Phys ic'al Changes in.~regnan_cy

Summar y.of Reported -ccncerne of .Expectant.Fa thers- ,

: s6nunary 'of

'~eported ~Ac-tiVi

tie s

in j/pr ~pa r a_t;i on.for theSUPP?ct1\0'1e

Summar y

o f

ConcernsRegardiog -Sup po',;teeie

SUl!\II\aryof Repor t e d Activ:ities11) preparati on.fo r the Fathe rh ood Rol e

~ithi~

,s u'b4 ec ts^l

compJ.d~on

^of

.Anti ci ~at~rySociaUz¥: i o n SUllU(fry,

or

^{Labour .andDeBve~y}

Experiences .

Major'Variables in l,)er c e ption:

Va rima x Rotated 'Fac t o r .st,cucture

%a t-r i X _ . '

Fac.tor·Correlat i on Mat r ix 10

13 12 11

14 l~,

f16 TTest. Results-crF'athers W'ho.Di d / Did Not Attend De: ivery 11

.I

Reliability·Resu~ts Ta ble

,',

-.-\

"';-

LIST OF FIGURES

"Fact or SInfl ue nci ng",i"Man'sPerce pt'ion-"

'(f'rr ansttron toF.therLho~d •

r

. /

.10<.

( ... .

. .... .

r .

!f

,J.

"

.. " I

0~'

_-,-...

-

,. f~f!lilY.-me mb e r s ex p ec t 0'£ him i7

.. ..

11· CHAPTER1•

.".

· Y"I.!~!

• •<

·

'M os-t Jc ul.tu re·g have sp etiJ.fic·roles for fath e rs

~-

. .

--

. through o ut pr€grian oy, iabour and deli very (Ne wt o n ah a Newt&n. 197:-2 - From_ .the1940's t.hrough to the'early'198 0's this rol e ',h a~ b!2c o me,vague..for No rth Amer ic c.r>..iTle.n (H e n d~r 9 0 n~ 1'980. Part. I. LeMa,s·t~~s,_pp.120- 122. 1977).

This is·t.hOl,lgh t to-be c"elated'toth~^ch an g i n g'fun c t i on sof -. fam/lY roles in-a,soc i e t y uride'rgoing 'dramat, i c ec onomic'a nd

"\ ' •. . ,. , _ . r

•. .

,.t.eCh~O.1~9 ._

^tc•de,V!i!! .opme\:.

(~Offm.n

^{.•._,t..9 7..}

-i~ : i.op~t.a

^and

~~rr ,

.,.9 11 0 )...SOCialsci:ntis~a've'attributed major changes"to indus tr. ializati on"-'whtchnee 'r'es ~l t ed ^in-urbaniz~ tion" ^a

h

igp.'de;ree.of

f~mlly ~~obf

^{l ity,-}

'~n

^-

~ncr~a'se i~ 'the ~~mb~r.

' ~sf wo'm'en.~.p~·;Ii,Ui.~·9

^{h'ig h e r}

~~~cati~n.h igheJ; emPlOy~en~

^{rate s':}

" for \.fomen',·smaller.family si z e and longer life ex pe c t a n c y

·' ( Hot~.rilan ,

^197,71

' ~:pata., ~~d Ncir;,~ 198"(), Jime.ni'~ ,an~ N.~~~O~-;-

^....

197~). Impetu'"lnee.be e n.given tost ud 'ies.ofallaspects of -""

·....; aniUYU.fe'

~:t:

^__the,ra p i d'l y ri:il'ing statist'ics in diV )-ce

.- ^" .~' .

~_·;at~s.~.nd ^{f:mj1 Y:violence. . ..}

. "As a/"am i~ Y.mem~e~. ,the fa.thers',pe~c~p.tions'of..~iS

role are influenced by wh at society ccne Lders his rO'l,e 'to

'. .' .'. " '.

.. '

^{\. "}

^.

ee , wh a t he',has learned as a chil:tl abouth.i.s

.

role and what

,-

.\

pre<,1na ncy an d bi r th ing ."

" .

....,

... .

^{.'\ _: .} , 12

.T h8"' f ae h er 'sapecLaLfaadrol e In' the fam i-l ywa s bette r qefined a century4g0. bec.ause the rot esof the female and- tne.male ~er"f~.more c'lea rlydeLfneat.ed, Only recentl:r: has f.atherhood taken on new me a ni ng regarding',role erractment.

and nt s influence-in p eychoe-o c La I mat'ters Is"now being ,e xamired by,

SCJe~:i.S:~ IntE7~.esf:e~ ~~~~~,~'l!"'l;~'e,; ~ . ~,~lf" ~ : .

4> •:he c$lpa~i:Y^'t4.r'..f~~~,~e-l'+t o~~"'i S pr!~a.r^..ilt.bi Q~91 c,'

• re s t i n g chie6.1y· on' the effl.~acy ~1" rep'r?'dJ,c~ '"

n,

~UnCtionlng .

^Th,e

'~Ull

^..

i~P~ct Of.,'t~t he~70.0.d. . how~ver ~

^..

tra~scends^a

ri-:

^{PhYSfill ca:pac it y}~ndJn c"ludes a rang e .•

of e cct vLcte e^vcne e

ma\e

"eecher : wh a t he Is. 'rne-

t ' .

.'

d~velcrpment of.faU~.ering

^be h: vi o u r a

i~

^{no tstatic. It is}

~

^{• '}

'p r 6 c e a s tha.,t spans the ll.fe of each in'tl.vidual who haa the 'p o t e n t i a l.-to becanleafather'( ~ iernan'and scorov eno ; 197~71. •

This·stu.dYdealt wtt h

, ~n:

^at

~'he

^time.

^of incep~on

^of

. '

'-

"the fa'the rhood e ete. It wa s. und eete k e n to '.lather,

dj',scr,iptive in f a r m a t i o~ abou t a 9ro~p~9f men w~o.

partiG'ipat~;:1 in't he ~'abouranddelivery ~f.thefr chi l d.

The'at u~y ^{focusse d an} factdt"s that e ppe er to inf l uence .~.rep~a t~pi'l ^for f~erhood an~o~ patern~ l~~cep.ti"on,~f hi s par .t ~ c i p at i on in the,bi rth process an d hi s immed ia te

.: . . . I · .

ir:ttroductlo n to his'new born . I.t-wa s fel ttlfata.st~suc h

a,s

',t~iS wo~lc:I

^,be.,ofinto/-"est

~o

^,thrae

car~g!v~u a~ 'd ~~iCY'

make r s 'w h o areco n c e rn e d ,'wf th Eriehealt hor; fa mili e s duri n g.

)

.

.. "

..<

,.

."Ionorder to place the.s t udy of.expectant father.L.in 13

the con tex t of promotion'of fami ,lY he a l t h, .the 1iter.~tllr e rev iew wi ll Include brie f his torical oservtewe of chlanges in·t h e fathe r',s

.rol~

ⁱⁿ

North(Americ~n fami lie~ ' and i~

.patern~} partici p atio n'in..child be a ri ngduring thel~st'^h"alf.

centu ry .

ltati ona )..e for StudyingPaternal Parti:"ipalion in Ch·~ldbe8ring...

As 11teia t 1J ~ e;cn.f ~ th-e r involv~e n t in.childb i r t h .:~eganji o.a.p,pear,'jt__Plac~.~.mu.~~empha s.i,s.on.theeff ec t Of.

'nis partici pa ti pn onthemother. Other st ud i esfpcussedon

;~:--f~h'er~int\n t

relationsh"ip and

~.is par~i~ipation '

ⁱⁿ

~ nu;t~ r rng .actiy-i ~ies .

^{An.area tha t is'}re.ce i vill9 cu r rent;

~

atten't'lon, but 1~ stil l,U:-;;'der f"nves ti g a teq ,' invo l ves .the man's,per~op a ioexpe~i<encesw'~hpreqn ~nc:y, lab our,deli ve ry a.n,d.th -e ?4 r l. Y...~,ueroperoium. 'K;n ow l e dg e of tbe

i nterr~lat~onah~ p O~. th~se fa~ tors

^is

Co~.sidered.

^by

°ma~~ t~

',b.e ex t r e me ly important.in ass e ssi ngand promotInq he althy family' l i fe e eyree,~ An overvt ev .o f the'fi nd i ngsof the s e

"'~:;"a r{ous ~reas Q~ 8tU~y i l luStrate.the need·i or .f ur t heOr

stu.dy-of-=--a1 l the family.r ot.es fath ers now pla y in 'c u l t ur e ...

Mounting evidence indicates tha t a w6 ma n ~ho is we ll .sup~o'rted by'her.mal~.put-netdu ringpregnancy and birth exp-eriences a Shorte;-and

If~s .

co'mplicated lab,pur

a~d

~e:i ' " ": is,'1ik~ l, y to " " ire less:~n-a1ges ~a~~d" " ~ave

"e-n ~as.ier"a dju s e nent- du!" ing the P,ost-par,tum period' (B'e n n e t tr 1981; t:hiota, Goolk~nand Ladewig, 1976; · En'kin;

Db~mer

and Emmett, 1971; Fischer ,

Hutt~1,

^Hit c he l 1'

' . '

. .

':'~ . fother~ par~ici';at~

ⁱⁿ '''<etaking.

'act ivi~ie"

^and

c~rry .out

' ~';"_;S.~~h

^{fu.nctione as wel l. as}

the~m~ther ,

^{bu.t tha t,the,mo t he r}

is's t i ll th";. primary care ta ke r (Boettc he r , 197'9; Co~dell',

par~ean? Sa wi n , 1980;.Mani~n~ \977;. Pa r ke aJtd SawIn, 19,7.6,'- 1979; P'eterson,~ Meh l 'a nd Le i d e rm an ,'19 79 , Rendina and "

Oicketsch ied , 19 76 ),. The' mifj o r i t y of the,f a t tler -i nf ant i,nt!i!race-ion time wa s'reported to be'spent in physically .""

stimu lat i r.gand unc c e v e nc t cn a t games (La mband Steven'so~ , 197 8). P~ ych o a n al yt i c r ev.Lewere of the fatne'dng role , Benedek (1 970', p_. .76 ); Lamb'and t.amb, (19 76)'a nd O'OonCigue_. and.Meye·r, 1972: Hennebor n and Cogan, 1975 : Kap1a/1 and BI..ac k ma n, .196,9; aocre, 197{; Shere~BkYan~''{~ow, 1973':

·

Thoms a nd Weide nb a c h !.19;9) •

.. Studies.o f father-infan t re1ation~hips..sU9gested tha t

(19 1 8)'c o n clude<!that pete r neLvp ertLcLpetLcn In Infa~~y

~ontributed t~ providi n~

^{a.t'ealit·ybas e fo.r},t he ch i Ld

an~

relief fn lmthe.eer ee.e ee inh e ra; n.t In m~tl1e--c.( Ch,lld aepa r-at.Loncand Indiv~d:ua tion. Of'.pa r ticula r int ei" es t-"to this s~udy'.wer ~ th.e f.i nd ing ~of Corde llet.~.~. (19 80),

,

..

~.

15 I

M4n100- (1 9 7 7) and Peterson et~:al. '-1979). ~Allco n cluded t-h al the fath~r-'s pacticipatidn In the ?~. r t h and his attitude.toward it constituted a-.',veryimpor tantvaria b,le in _p r edi c t i ng a father's inv ol ve me n t WitR his newbo rn. On the

vb a s'[s of findings's uch"as these ,-Antle (197 B ~ ~ypo~hesi:!:ed

tha't there maybe a:c,:l.3 t i o ns h i pbetween'a tMn:~...~;action ec a preq n anc y and.t h e

begi nnirl~\

^{devliopmen; of his}

.

^{', '}

.

id e,nt i t y"a s a'fathe r .

- I •, " ' . " ~-, ".

Llterat~:,ere.la ~ ed't o,th.\~atherhimself." ' a

-«

i~tY , 9.£ .,f OCi . · A'

:,number.~f ' ~.uurors

^':

OUtline~

ⁱns ta nc e s.whe0n,. th,e basis ,of'..earJy)ife,.eltipedef.lce!l!,',so...me fathers ahouLd .n ot·a t t e nd,t h e la b o u c'.a n d::d e l i v e r y'. The reasonsglv"en varied .

~ol'ey

^{'Jr._arlltJames (197;6),..}

Je~s-ne'~ ~· W~i·gar.t" ' ',in~

.FOY'·

(l~;O)"

^and'

~acour'~i~r'~,' (1~-j2)

^"dted'

exa~Ples'o·f

P~YCh'Ol~i~al _{. '}

_'.. ^problems-

in _s~~e

men":

.

'

T h;Y . .:\

fHt

. , ~~~se ma~i- '.

^.

~estations·we r-e'instig,t~qby.d e e p l yrootedch~racteristics whIch surfacedduring-t he lab our anddet ive 'ryprocess" The'

note'd "Bri,t i,S h-.

Ch i,ldb i r th·"/ed~u_cator

^and

auth.Q~ Sh-~iia

•Kit-zi ng e r {~977," PP.22~~'2 31 s~gge.S,ted'~ha~'c u.l tu,r a 1"

"conditi oni ng preclud i ngdemonstrativenurtur.ing bebevtour e mayceuee

r~le

^{diu,orance "in'}'s ome men.

B 1~n~fie~d '

^{,(1911 1}

and Ta nzerand Block

'(1972,

pp. 1 B4- lSS) described'i ns t anc e s

. " - ,.',"\. .

.

, -

. . .

^{, .'}

^{. .}

in whLcht the hU'sband"clear lyshou ld no t'a t t e nd aa thewife

d i.~

^..not

, wi.~h

^his

pre~en~e.

^{,Mos t} d.oc.umentatio"nof'ne g a t i ve,

resp ons es.'t o,.att~ndl ng"c hi Ldblrth':

\

. .

'

.

. \

~

. . ^-.

16 based on small nUIAl?ersof subjec.t" in't o t a l, 'but must be considere~in the 9rowin"9tide of fatherspart~cip~tin9

in.t he C'hil.d'o~arin99roc~ss.

The majority of data"r e g.a r d i n ? m.~s responses ro their participation in la bo ur and delivery wa a on the'

, • " • I' . _

whole, very'positive, a nd the e nccu ree eaen e- of a11_

expect ant fa,the!s to

b~ :active ="artici~·ants .a:~l?ears

^{to !!Ie}

increasing. This would seem to be pre.m4tur~ in..1i,ght·of

the·r.e\fl~iV~l~ few·.S_~Ud~es : conduct~d

^{and the}

'~-iri~f~gs

^'of

untoward--responses in·S O'[(I;': •May (19 82al c~rnmented.,^{on.'f 'h e}

"

~,ssump'~l~n~ ~o~,

^bein'g

m~~ '

^by-.many.'

~e~~th , p'rOfe8'siO~~1~'

' tha~

^{.• ;1 fath"'.}

w.~t

^{to •.}

nd· ·s~oU1d h~, .~tive, pa~tlcip~nt.~

fn-the'prccee see, .Sh~ -';~utioned'~

11-,'.I ?ucovered.h~a l t hprofeSS1.onalsso~ime8had an ~age

of

whofa~tiers.shou.l4^{be. Thos.emenwith} det.ecned sty les were f~dnd wanti-nq: ~his.raises th.e., question as,. .~to whether thesevalue,

. .

judgements can Lead to pote nt iall y!napp ropda te,caore^tt (p.3 221",

fa nr11y.

17..

.'

-

^. ' .

.

.I n.s~mmarYI ther-e:are,inp r e asi ng n'um:ber so~,.:f a l:.he r s

..

:hO~ .~ r.e . "~ ow .par'ti ci pa ti-~q;, , i.~ · ·t~·,e _dh i l~~ e;" ri~q. p~ase

^of

...tam~.l.Y:_}~fe;·~~t"th.e~e;.i~ :in~~~f!Cient..a~~1 in'some,..;:ases,· corrl:.radi ct.ory . evidence-.t ha t uoi,ver sa],.·partiC!ipat.h>Q,would

< : ^{b~nefit ~~_i :}

^{'·I t.'fa}

^{'k~~W~ ,}

^th8.t",th·er,'lS'.

r: ~~e~ 'd:g·r~e

,_?f

father in vo lv~en t._in~u_rturi~9,act;.~vi':ties,thanwast~e

.pr'eV i OU~(8.0;i a l norm,"~he s.uggest loh h~S',aaec been made

tha~t?e.re.Jl\ay be a ~el~ti~nShipKe ~weenJ n:ol~e~en t" in.

pregna,?cy.an? }ater;partic;ipationin'these ~c,t .lvl tie's•.

!.Ho'wev~~,^{:lf t t'le is,a}1tua i l Y known'.of ~att.ern3^,of pat'ernaI,

" ,

. ...

^'

...

^{, '} :":-". '; :

. .

" .' '." ' . "" ,

a,ttit~d~s.,and benevIcuee·m a )o:. i,n ~, ne ~d s 'as~ e ssme n t s iritu~t(v'e,.:i nco mple t e' and, h~phazard., .,Appropriate ant.ic,ipatorY'gu'idance

al'!~': the~~peutiQ int"erv~nt'~on ~an,'~~y

., ',

be'~ p'~~~ id~tl

^t.o

.'CO.uPl:~8

^when

.,~~~aith . pro~e.~siona.ls ca~.

rec og'nJ:i e,t,he needs'o~the fath.'er.as'well, a$the mot.her.

-, _{:~n::::r:: ':Yr} at;::: I:":"::C::::':: t: : ::t::g::": :::"

a6 ~e~sm.ent.

^of

attit~~es a~~ feeli~g~ ,i;l~fut Chfldbe~ri~9 .0.f _

bot;h paren ts b~e lnCO~POCl!lted-in,l^{.a l l phlase s} Of~)st.etriCal

~a r e , espec\~llY...lab our and .d el~i v ery and immed ia t e post-pactum. For· approp~i'ate sc r een i ng.fo r this co~lex '. p'l"ob1!lm;'more must bek.nown abcut; fathers @.n d they mustbe ',i n c l ud ed: in eva~uat i onof the:overall he a lthstat us-ofthe

. '

Th

.

o's,e^. varia b les

.

carrie d out orl'exp ect ant father s.

3.

fathe rs .

.-

:Th e pr imary put po s e o!-th js·~~tud ywas to obta i n

--..,..ttver~^{Le w of' thos e}.f~ctors ^{t-houg}\t·to} pr e d i sp os e' a

m ;r

to

~.4l:~rtiCipa:te i~

tho/

Child b'e ;t:I ng.cyc l e-~nd ^torelat~.tn'ps~ ' fa;tors to his reac~i.ons to his percep ti on of hts'pac\t i c l- patbo .- To aCh i e v e't M s, itwa s felt that the.iteera e c ee e-e vte....

~i 9_ht

^{begin to iden tif y}

-~ cn~racteristic. rp~ttern·

^of

men's.re s pon ~es

to

Chi; d bearilig from 't he ,bo 4yo f stu.d~es.:

ia

4:· to explore'd i f f er ElnCe Sin perceptionof partisipation' in

~abo~i:'" ~~d

de'llver.r of

fa.ther~

^·who

~tt-ended

de l!ve J:: Yaridt'hoae who.did not:

i"den tftied.as-be.i~g- c.omm~nl~'pre s e ntc!J"Uldbete ste d in~h?

N ,:w f () un.di·a n~_ p~p:~l;..a:t-iO'""n .\ a,~-d: pat~ ~ nal per~.e.Pt~?Q of.

·part'ic ip.at~o n,.Jl'abour .a nd",delive r y. by ~eWfOU i'l~!~~t'1,men c~ uld be exa~ined. ,The spec i f ic researchobject iv~)s we re ._

·1 as fol lows:·

1.

'.t~ des(cr~~e ~l1e

^{.,genera l}

dem~~raphi~ charactet'1st~c;

^bf

fir s 1:.w me fathers-who,.pa~t ic ipated ^{in the ir} wiv~

. .

...

^{. .} - -- -- - '

Lebour s and t.he deliveryof-ebe ir newbo.r nJ:;.

2. to exp lore the deqr e e to,WhiC.h'thes~ me n par,tici pa ted

. . I .

in : he'pr eqn anc y_, incl ~~,inqho w-t hey pr e p~red for .la'bo.ur end- deLi ver y,

to,.explo~e diff~:!'ences inpe r ce pe Icneof pa r ti cip ation

~. l~~our

.a nd del·iv.ery of

prepa·r ~

^and utipr ep,ar,eci

19 Th. followi'ng 11te" tu;e 'e,y.i ew extr acte d ,bro,d .:.,....

spectru~of "I nt orme t Icn from 'n ur si ng "medicine, psycho.logy a~d~.5 0cJ ol09Y ' ^Aco'~'ce~tua l m'pd~ l d ev e.Lcped from Role Theo~y- ser ~edas a qul'de fo.r iden tifica tionand,r:atego~~. iz~ti onof pate,r n a i beh~viours ina~ Qveral.lschema,

~

.

.The.conc~P t u.a I'-ba.sh ~i this s~udy"i s Role,-The or y..

Taylo ~:'defined^{"an yone'; ol e}

.

^as.'a' ^pattez:n,- . ^{wh i c h}

.

^'can:be

. ^.

regar d ed a·s..the consis t an t. behav iour ?f.a.drigletype.of

.

-

.

^{~ , .}

actor ',:,(1n.,N ye ~ 19 7 ~ ,.p.5). From observed,pa t t e rn s of

'-be~a:y iou r th~ '

^{act'or"lear'n's t::he}-'n·or ms.tOf

th~ ' i~le.

^{- 'Hardy}

, -: h'a't t ;e'

'ay' i~_

^{'i s.not\,i mPI Y}

w1;h'SUCh norm.s, b.ll is.

~trpngiy l_nf~uen~ed ~y

illt e rn al H a fi on'o f sarn-e. Thi s can resul t in-ei9her:....

" • '. 'c ' '•

.approach to',RoleTheoty imp.,l.i e s lea rning'. re ~ i proc,a.l

changeand .growth.

"

. ' ..' , ' ,

poaLt.Lve-or.negati vesa.nctionin 9Whi:~~canbe in tern'ally.or.

exte r na l l.Y imposed,•.~ctu ai'or symbo l ic. TheLnte recf Lo neI approa c h' ·'t,o'R'ole Theory'as. propounded'by Ge'o rge Me'ad in'-

. ... " r"",. , .... ,' '- 193~''-;str essed a ~eciproc;al tn:t errelat\o n sh i 'po~r.:o1e':s in whi ch'each actor reqU:late'~be navtcu eanti'.~e~c~i~ns^to'Wh~<.

.re'exp~cted f_{. .. I}~.O~' th~"oc he r ind i vi d ual._{. .} (N~eand Ge c a s i~ _~,

'" Nye.',:1976. p.l'. ~urr: L;i.9,h":Day and,C9nSt anti ne,.197~j. ~

LambeTt"and L,am b ~ rt, ,1981) •.,Thu s the int er a c tion a l

. . ....

1::'In his pa p er' "I nd iv i dua l ao a e a'" , Cot-tr e li>r-1SA...2l transi tion', He d:!In; d

thi s ,a~:

Age.a nd sex

defined as:

N •••thepr-oce s s of movingLna~dout~fcotes in a e ocLaL'system..I tmay involve the-addition-or ter mi nat io nof a'rol e

wi ~hout ~ny

^Change·In'

^{o f}

^her

, 'I , ' ,

i .. "

ro l es;dr i tcau l?.be the,t e r mi\a tio nof one or ", • more

<:,~~

^{., "d <he :} nc omml.<a nt

begi~ning

of ano the ;".•' .!\ 'in Burr!,'1972"..p.407).~ In.th' case of becoming,a'fath~r for. {he,fi r's t time:-- ··_

~her~

^is-the

a~dition o~

^a'

r'Ole ::W ith~\~t , i~ i's.,a~su~ed,·.

^any::

:

cha:'nge.·"i·~'. o~'~er

"r bles.--

.

C~ttrell

attempted to

iden,~1.fY i~ctors.:.tha~

ⁱn fl ue nc e ":'"

role transitio n. .He^cp r opos ed ·t h a t! experiences. such"as

•

emo ti~nallY intima~e '

^{contac t.which'}

!~110W·S identifi~at,io~'-

^_.

.with·persons fu~ction in9 in.t .he 'r o l e , and imaginai or

" ' " L · .

inc i p i e n t reneers eI and practlc

i^6-" fa c i l ~ t a t e Toole

adjustment;. Merton'e l a bora t e"d o n this proposition and 'termedth~pr~ces"s 'anti ci pat o r y sqc ialiZltio~ ':wh i.ch

21 .,: .t hepr~cess of'le a r ning-thenormsof a role before beingin a social situation.whe r e it is

. .

. .

appxopr iateto-aC'tual ~ ybehave in the eeae, • An t i c i pa t o r y 800"1a11eee Ioncanbe viewedas a continuous- va ri a h l e that varies.'i n'·amount"f r om being'eceene to h(l'{i.ngrelativelyhIgh amounts

. !

'of't r a i n i ngn (in Burr, 1.972,p.4 0B).

,1. Th?rnt'on , .and_Nardi)'(l975l·.e ~ p l a.i n e d"t h at ~he'

/

'

,~ .d

^-.ev.elb.

~m.e;'t'l ^{. p;?" .} ~s

^{'Of...ant.'ici}

^{p . .}

^ator,f. S; ci a l iz.• tiOn.

allo .~,

-' theelCamln.a.t'ion 0 ariations in-

the

acquisition:-0'£

::/

~; ·~~f·f.~~e~t! , ~ypes ~ ole~.· ~nd

^of

-~~t.

^sene

ty~e",~f· ·'rOl.e ' b;

:I '

d.ff_f~r~en.tper _s', . T~~.S ~p'proaCh.pays lit:ne.a_~~ent~on.t o'j

0 /

r ewe'r d-e c ce e- a tors. It eaeuues that theya l u e s'.a.t e . ",a·s s i g n e.d in

co n ~ t a n t1y changing'a n d te,nta'Uv e. StiCh va l u es a~:t o r - i m p oa ~ ~ and may se'i v e.more.as.a basi; for

. \ . -

,

s_elf:"e~aluaWon t~~P-^as in~ndent deteri'niner_~

0 1

^act.Lon '.~

(Burr.e t.-i L, 1979, p.49)._ The se pr o p osit'i o ns's qgges t to -

~~iS

^{writ e r}

, ~h~t ~ ~atn~r's :'perc~p~i?~ o~ ~ i~ ~~q~i·Sit iOil.

,/ o t'the.~a t,he r·r o l e wil l,be high:Y-lnt1.u:.n~ed by hLe' a~t1cip'&tor:/sociali2.a~ion'~ ortherol~:...Il)' ..l.. .'

Be'hav ~~;~~ral ~c"~entlsts^{hav e} appl~~e~ ^{aspects of R,ole} 'Theorytomany studiesof·pa!_~':'th.ood, bu t~~f7J!lajorityha ve

b.~e·~ bas e~-.

^{on.eve-ets.a fte r} a'c qu i s .t-.t i on

~f

^•.

th~

^r'c.Le;

A,nticip:a to:'ry 8oc'iall za t'ion.ofmeo.fo r 'f ~ t h'e r ho_od h~s' attention unt il tb~

(

_{lastdeca d e.}

mod el on which

As th e-r e did 'not epp e e r to be:a spe~ific to

.

'ba se th i s

st~dY', comrno~

c:'h a r ac t er'i s;i c s'^. repor~e~._to^be t~~.ryed.ⁱⁿ expect~n t ^fa.thecs in avail a ble ...

stU.dies, were 1~,90d z e d accord ing to those .Eec co r s proposed by'Cqtffirt'l (19 4 2)as bein g infllren tial

in.

rol~e.,,

I .

transi t i o n . The r eaultLnq ..sch~mata th~,t. pr ov Lded th e ope r at.Lon a Imode l~forthis study is'~lu s t ra t ed.Ln

Fi g ure'I. . V'

•

, "

2l

FIGURE I.'

Fa~or!l Influe~cin- g

^{a Man' s} pe r c ept i o n of Tran s i tl on to Fatherhood.

His Ne wb or n 1. Ba byas. a

separate human't> e i ng 2. Hims';!l.! asa

father E.motionalchange~

concer:n~ ... . - providerro le'• . - healthof wife

arid baby, .' . .:la bour,and del! very - impending.f~th;:hood 4. Preparation ecttvteres - plan ningof pregnancy - his corein planni ng - supportrole - fathe r lJoad role

- ,

REHEARSAL ANDPRACTI~E

FORTHEFATHERHOOI?ROLE 1.

.J>ERCEP TIONOF

Hi sPartiGJpat~~n I'. tevo Ivement

revet 2. Knowledge

level . Mate' s,influence.~

•-' di s c u s s i on af desired famI-Lysi ze IDENTIFICAT IONWITH THE

.F AT HERHO OD ROLE ....

r ... .

1. . Motivation for .

:a~~t~~~~ly/marr

^ieJ;

fami·~yee n e e red 2. Physical changes :"".,self centered

! \ -

Couvade Syndr.ome 2. Infl u e n ce

of

^{hi sown} 3•.

father~ , \

'~~T:t1~~~~r;1~~t~~i~~~;r :

Labour, De livery 1. .Positive/

Nega t ive Pr oc e s s e s 2. Expec t ations·

vs Rea l.ity

.". .

:,.

~'~

..

24 CHAPT ERI~.

LITERATUR~E\f IEW

There is l.itt )e lit e r a t u J;e on the specific topicqf

cana d ia(fa th~rs d~rin9 '~he Childbea:~n9 c~cie.

^{'Mos t ? f}

the inf o r ma t. i on reported In-'this r't'view' is' 'de ri ved frq'm

,

..

^,-

AmE!rican bOO~5andjou rnals. How'e v e r, since the"p.r i mar y purpo~e~of^{this literat ure-}rev Lev is t.c pe ovIde a 13as'i'!l"for ide n.tif y i ng practices and percept.ions of mene n'terJ ng fatherhood,-it

wou.i~ .seem

reasonab le

.

to^. useu.s,

Utera~~re.

,h,-both'·c o u.n t r i.e ~··sh are simil~r lifestYl~sand...arj...

infl':lenc~d ^by'c:~~on ^media..sys:ems.^{# '}It};,re'cpgnh e d tha~

~t.h e c oat of health c~reserv~ces to cons umere, ~nd thug~ ' .

the' avai1abilitt o~...he ~ lth.~ a r e se rv ic e s , in the,two' , countries is very di'fferent. , and that this.di t: ferenee'may be reflecttd'i n some of t"hefindin gs. Mos t pu b lished

dat11~

wer e

Ob·~;\.1d f'o~ "the': .~tte"di"9 p,e""~'l

^{c1."e;.•the}

findings ,· he r e f.o r e , may be a,reflec tlon of "traitsof me~

who ebooe e som~de-g ree of

.

ac.t ive^{/ ' ".}inv~lverftent.

The.Ctfang ingRole ofFa th er'

fred!ti onalRole

Th e'major 1m,aqe of fatherhood in th e traditi'on al ....perep e ct lvecLe.ehe alo of and dist~nt ^{fa ther. The} fol loWi-nq

. ,

.deecj-Lp tLo nex emp} i fie d how th;f~the rrolewas viewed.

as father has-been lo oke d the

"..

.'1'

/.

.b·r~adwinner.·In' ereee past so mu ch ~f his ti me end ener~y^{walll ulIIed in} t.~i·s ^role t~a-t~.^{at home, Ii-e wa-:'} thOU"?h.t:,[ a8lfac ~turn and ster n,albei tkind . He'wa s ' res pe ::ted butfeared ~Y^{"hi:"childrenwh?} ~eve r le a r ned to know

.

hin:' v.ery^. weil.^- He ac ce p t

.

ed U^\.e^. fa'ct

thathe earnedthemone y and mothercAoC~d for thehome

_."!ld•ra is e d t~~ chi1d r~n·.-' . ~ {Eng Ush. 19 54 inH! .n e s r19 71 , PPo;79-180l r.e Is wO. r n. lob s e r v' ing- that p)l yc h oanal y~ ts. ~a.~ no dir e ct. ca~(n q' ^{r'd ie'fo'r} f~'ther 8 ^",TIh J1tf a~tl'l ^{and young} ., chi l d r en....He n , whil~8ymbOlical1y'imp ortant"to-chi ld"re n:.a s·

- """. . . '. . Il ', ,"

clo8e:to- hom~mo~ela of powerand" aut~.?·r.ity"we r e supposed

"' tC:

'h~ve"r r e e re,to'd~·...i.th t.he act ual pa~enUn9.oz their.

YO U~9' (aenson, 1968, p.6 S ; Bo~lby, 1951.in Fein ~ 1918 ,.

. ' .' . .• • .. .. r

Benedek.~ 19~70, p.•n," Howe~ls;:~l!72,..P.1281. I

soc io16QX' Parsons'.5""4 Ba le. 1195"5) defined tl]'~

•.rol~·o f men in families 4S 'i n s t ru_ nt al '. In this, Ine?

we r e see~.a8 responsible,for t;he family', . r~lat ionSh ip.

.w it h th e outside world• • Wo me n, on tb,:,otber hand, fi l l e d the:exp r e SS i\'e ; r~l'e a"';~ we~e ^{the l?rima,;}y"QiVer;l of ~ove

an.d<;a re at'ho me"('ln F ein , 1978, p.123) .

'T h i s'vIewoffatlJ~:in9" gen .Qu l l y.co.n~orm".d to social

. .

~eJe a. l s and re a'Ht i ••·.~f~the late,:'1~4~~'11,an d'~h~.,19 5 0's. AelativE\ly few'women were,in the p~ id la b.our forceon a r.e 9 ~~ar,'ba 8 i s .an d" of e.hese:wh o we r e, o'nl y a sma l l

percentage "

ae mochera with s'mall e orⁱa e e n, The husb a n d-br e a.dwinner/wife-h'omem~ker ^{nu cl e ar} family was th~ ~, ncir m, both in the'sta tis t ic~ s.e na e and in t.he social valuesof the·t i me s · (Fein, 1978, p.124).

C~ntempo~aryRole .

:h"e coupLed er rect.of urbanization and so~ial change i.nduce~^{byWorldOip.r II'1:esulted in},a new definitionot sex ro les~- Gallaber (1976) definedt.h e new male role8,::J"n o n tr- adLtLon e L or indi~ldual. 'Fhi-!; r9J.e is,o ne in'~h lcti the.

mal'e figu: e relinquished some 'of his ~ut~ori,ta'rian qualitie~ ~o,the fema l e fl'iJure;··t.h\ls ca us i n g the fertl1eto

a d'~~ t

^{he r role to,}

incor'~~.~ate ·

so-_c'all:d

~a,scun-n.~

.cha rac ter ist i c ~. ^{In"t u rn,"t he} ~atern"'a.l~ole^{took on those} quai~tiesof.a e v e , wa'rroth'a'nd··comp;~~lon·~h ich.are'n ow included.in.the ter m·...fat he r line s s".

A1...t~oU9h^{'Bil l e r.'(19 7 5 ),Kaufman 11970,. PP.12-19)·and} Rypma (1976) attem.pted-t o ratio nalhe .th e presence O,f a b LoLeqLc a L}nst J n c t f'or'pa t e r ni ty , their conclu.siona were re ach e d by inferance and,the state of.f'tt. t h ~ r h o od ha s~b e e n looked o~ as a ecete r ob liga tion wi t h no b.!ological or

.

.

>instInctiver,:,ots.·'>,~OW l bY 1,7969).obse'r v ed, .~ha t.th e father was "o f no direct imp.;>rtance to the young ch i ld: but"'.is '~O f-in,direct' .v alu e as an economic,suppC!.r t an d in'h i s

emotionalsu p po rt_o f themother"~(inGOllober. 197 6 , p.lS.)•

. . .

^~.

27

-\

Josselyn (1956) wa a oneof the n rs t torec o g niz e the nu.rt uran t poten t i al. in men. She cl a i me d that

~fathe rliness" had. the same emo t io na l cOfflPo~ant's as 'm<D t h e r.lin e s s ''b u t th a t cultura(cbetec Le s r~ st .r i c: t ed the de v e lo pment of ca rin g capa ci ties in me n.. Hi n e s <1 9 7 ll stated'that it was not cu l t ura l l y a<:ceptable for a ina nto be'openly er rec crceece an d Lov Ln q, -th at he mus t show physi ca l co u r a g e, Iiou'qhnes s. aggres si on andco mpet.Itivene- sa, exclude-em.ot ional express.ion and that -he wa s expected tell·a s s ull\Q.!II.strongprovider role.

.

' -

...-,,;;-_.Much

'of

the,.e a r l y d,?cumenta'tiono'fchanges_in.impleme-

ntation of role's 'wi t h in'th.~ fam-ily,.focus sed on wo~en••

. .

^{- .}

Hoffman (1977) and Lopata and'Non' (1980) described the

. .

shi f t--pr lmar'ily'~s th~t-of the mot~~rrole occupying ie.s s and ehewa g e-e a r n er roleoc cupy!ngmore of,a.woman'sad u l t li!e . In the Unlteds eat.ee,the·percentage of mothers with .. school-aged childrenand hus'band~ present,who are ~mpioyed outsidethe ho me passed the 50.'mar~.in 1972. Empl oyment rates for moth~rs.of peeecnccaeee almost tri~led be eveen 1~-48 ~nd197.2. (Hoffman,1977;..Jimene~and aewt.cn, 19 '19 ).

Not·only-a r e mothe~s ~fyoung,'·children emp'loyed, but'th e study by Jime~ell:and·Newto n (19 7 9) su g g e s t. e d that-ma·n y women maintafn f,u\ l wo r k in g dut Lee.until the on s e t of la ·bo u1--'a-na resume al l activities wi t h i n'a few we e k s po s t n a t all y.

..

,28 c he nqe e, in turn, affected the tr e d rttone I breadwinner/protector roles of ~he'f_at.h~r. Menappeared~p be assist!nq ~n the nu r eurLnq ac~iviti,es in.Ch il d ~ ear ln9 fo~merly.c o n s i d e r e d thedomain' of the woman 'tHoffman , 1977) but the

typ"es

o( acti~ities'in which theyengagedor their attltudes towa-rd tQem has only r~centJ-Ycome under~~udY.

One of the llIost prol i f i ceer Ly authorson fatherJ n behaviours, Henry Biller, suggested that ma n y fathers avoided becoming in vo l ve d ~ith't hei ryoung cbfLdr-en due to ',th~ir in s ec u r i t'i ~ s in'carryi ng e.ut eKp~es91vefunctions

(Bi1 1e~ , 1974.!P.163'1. . " . •

Af t e ~ a comprehensive li te r al.u r e r~v·J.ew fath ~r s l

. ' . .

~a.mil ton- {i~77, P~. ~43-S ? )con te n ded that"

as

~ppo~ed.t o bei'n g un Lnvc Lved,.fa the r ' S.nur..tu rant.activi ti ~S "'~he family we r e underestima·ted_,'f and_{_}tunde r Lnveat Iqe t ed_{" •} , sevexet other a~thors comrn~(ltedon·th~ la c k o~ em~r ical dat.a ani • fathers. LeMas ters,(197 7, p.12 11 ci t e d four major studies' an 'parents ' inwh i c h hundredsof

mot~ers

^{were i}nter vie we d _;- but ~at one re c n e r, T.he stud y ent i~led 'F a t.h er Participa,tion

, . .

in Inf an c y' by Pe d e r s OI)^{. .} and Robson (1969) ac t ual l,! ackno wledged th e resear.cl'lers· emba rra~sment at .ha v i ng obtained al l 'of't he i r data frommqther 8.~ 8en s~1n C1 9 68".p.3l , Lam b'a rid Frodi (i980 i an.d Ruasel;l" '1980) al so re por t e d,thi s 'mo the r bia's' in'famil y e'euates, It wo uld appear the n that th e prob le m1Il";~ not be la ck of p;;J.te r nal .involvemen t ,l5u t lack'oftnvestiga.t.~on of the.·a ctual

..29 nature of father irwo1vement.·Als o, Uttle resea~ch'has beenc~ried'^{out on the ImpjLcationa of} varying degrees 'of p~ternalparticipation to thefa mil y as <\whole and to the individualmember's .lnthe family CH'owells ,19701197 2 ) .

In an effort to exami ne the-activities of American men in the ir 'paternal du t i e s, Mackey and Day (1 978) cond ucted

.

.

^{) .}

ext.ensive cross-cultura l obs e r v a t i o na l s t.udy between

"197 4 and 19 ~ 7,. Al-thou1jh th e y"pl aced no qu ali tati ve standar,dson'th'e'

in~n '

^e'

behav'~ours ,

^{th e y'conclJuded.}

tha~

Amer}c~nme n~eemedt'o be providi ngcontact,experi.enc~wi t h' theI r

. .

ch ildr en^'.comparable'_t om~,e nfromIrela nd : Spain,' .

' ..

1 Ja pan .

^"'.

and Me xic o':\,'Of special i~t"eres't ^{wer e} the··.findin9s that

'~e~£can me~ ' associ~tea"~ith

^{chii a'ren.in}

l~rg~

^number;

~hen

.

th~ ~~~i'et~l

^{norms'allow'ed t}h·ein.access to"the'

cnil~~en

^and',

"t l)at,·Am~ric an..me n int e r a cted wi th.chll d r,e n at le v~ s co~sonant'.wit.h adult...female and chUd d yad s, Ba ~ ed on .th~ⁱr'findi.ngs ,' Mackey and D~Y"~halle'nged..· the idea that

...Amer i c.an·c.hild r \are partic u la rl ydeprIved of nu.r turin~

beh a v iour s from· t hE!1 r fathers. \ -

St'udies,

r'epor'~'ed

!:iy 'O' Lea ry

a~d

^{DoOoq hue (1}97 8 ) and'

. '

^{'/" .}

Ii:ver s oll (19791 indi ca t ed't hat positiye va tueerere placed on'tl:'Le '~male ~urturi ng role'by conte~poraty'me n.~nd:wo!Ren.

Both studies,we r e c;nduct~d~~:co lle ge studen~s /lnd cou~d.

be'cons i der ed an',Lndicat.Lcn of,the vie.ws.of the'c\.ir ren ~·

·.gen~·ntio~~f f~the,~s . acwev er, it'mus~,lI1s obe.c o ns ider ed

,".:i~~ ;:'" '. t··, ,"

. ^{, ,}

.r

^']0

The mounting-nuec ar a of divorc ed "re e nere seeking custody of: 't'hei'r own'ch f l d r e n , hcwe v.er , sug·g e.s ts th e acce p t a n ceofan expa nded"c o nc e p t i o n of tile masculinerole to inC l : de e'xpr es afva as we)l as

'instr~menta l f~nc'tlo~s : '

(EntwistleandDoer I'nq, 1991,p.19) .

'J

"

.

( ,^,

Paternal partlc.ipatioRr in-"ChildbE!aring: - Sflect.ed,Tr end s in ObstetricalCare

. .. . . '

Up to 'the early,par:f. of the'twent.ie.t.h c.ent~ry·m~st

'~or t h.Ame ri c a n vomeo deJ..!vert!d,t h e J:r;babies.at h,~ml::

.attended .Qymid~ives. Father .wa~_~sual1y.a r o und to as'sist

and 't o,enacein't he

parent~I, W~l.~om~

^{.t o·the'newbor.,!}

~~mbe~

of the fa~ilY'taeckecn ,

1955 ) .'

Pri?r'l:<o192,0, medical sup ervis ion'of pregnancy had hardly b"egu...n , ~ith r~r'e'\.,;

exception~ ^?bs te t ri c al care beganwith

the

onse t

of

lab our,.-. and ended a few_da ys latll,:" '( Z i ege~ and'Von Slarcom, 1972, p.79Sl. "'I t could be

assuin~d;

ther.efore, that"'ehe"father was an involvedpa r t i c i pa nt d.urlngth e childbeat:ingeyete,

with.l'rnprov e me tl t·of<!s~ptictechnique, accompanLadtby

the

sUbseq\l. ·~nt. ' decreas~

^{in m'ortaliity}

'ra~e~ .

^of'h'o s p i t a l iz e d blrt he ,

~here

^{was a.great}

move

,f r o m home.•

c1e"liv~r~~s

^to

' \ hospital ized .d e l i vt!=rie a: Concurren tly., the va l ue:of

Oll:'~~in9 anten~tal care ·~f.'

wome n h a'd

b~en .re~og~ized .

^After

1930 the

ac~~t:.ance o~

^{lI!edi.cal epecrett}e e. .a n d the' , 's u r g e

o~, m~d.i.c~l" JnoW:~d~e produce~

^{4 mcveeeneo,}

.:

0 ,

·. \ "

31 Wh,ich placed graat emphas.2:..:> Qn the scient ifi.cnetu r e of med r c l n e-z As i~ frequent ly ~~e cas~ In $cien-t.ii~c dLaco v e ry the' tet:.ljo,!ical.e e cec e e of c h l Ldb Lrt.h ,",:l:!ce

. ' ' .

emphasized a!'M:Jmatern!

t!'.

carewas devetccecwi~the C.hief .~. intention being the r ed uctLon of' perinatal morbid ity and

mortality (Jensen &,Bobak ,19 8 4,p.S.29l.

The

imp~ta'ti~n

^of·....

tw~ li9ht

a Leep" fromBur-ope about 192'0

promo t~d

the idea of"comf o r t a ble

bir~h .

^.The·

methQci~

^.

did'no t do

aw~y

^{wit h the}

. P~i~ .~f

'l a bo u r"and'birt h"

~ut

prOduce d:

~-,

^{ligh t aLe e p kfke stateip themother}

~nd.rend~~ed

• •' 0" '.00. . '0 0 ' ." •

t

her. passive . ·As a result', w~,~omemor y

o f

pa Lnin lab.c:l.ui:',or

_a'~ '~ i ; th .:

^{.Th e:}

In cr~a's~d .u.s e, · ol· .thi~·,_meth9d~_ ·

coupLed w~t1i,~he, .~e.veiop~en~>a~d·N'S~~:new-a na.e s t he t.l c. agents chanqed~C hi ld bi~th from.a Physiologic~nd social ey~~t ~:ll=curri':.9"^inthe'f:i'miiiar'''e~vii~mment^of,the,-h&te, to Ji'm!'!d "ic al' -sur'gi c_al situa~t.i o n i~ ~he cent.ext;:0 £.Ma j o r surge r y .iMos t of the obstetr ical,'~'n1ts ^{i-,nus e} tod~ ^were cr.e

o

ate d.^'0

tO oP~OVid~ ~~nJf~.ro ;"9~en "ore o

^ceiv.lng+.

a~aestheS.ia: '~~ ,.

^-

'bi rt tr ,.wi th a d.es fgri·b.a s~ed ~n_the "Surgical"eyeeeu,

: Ho's~~t a 1S a cti ~?1 Y

^.•fo : t e i E;4'"t h e'idea

t~at

^",they

w~re

.ple a sa nt,.eere and,c o mfort ab l e pl ac'e~ in whi ch-t o give· ,

.

,~

' .

^{' . ,-: -'".}

. .,"

^'

.

b~r t1l.(Jen s ~n.'& Bobak, 1984, p.5 29-39 >.

Soc i aL,f a ctors '~ls o 1"~fluen c e4'the shi£.t 'i!o

: . ' , ., ... )

.. .

^.

,h ~~p ital i zed.hirth,S• urb~n~ zati on ha d sepa,fa ted, .f amili e s

s_o'th~t ^{,the re}w.q,r,~ ,.f&~er:^{'-ne,t;w·or ks.,0 £} wom~_n rela t : ve s.and

"

docto r"s right to.irlSist

.~

ho sp I talize d bir.ths became a cc epta b Le, based on the evidence that mor b i ,d.tJ:.y and mortality x:a t ; s ~ere decre~s i nq'^{as the numb·e r...of hospi ta l}

. .

confinemen.ts inC:r~ar.ed(Jackson, 1955 ).' Home,d eli ve ri e s c.o nt tnue d to decilne and by thr--196 0 .-g , 94.6\ Of4~6- 11' J:

d.e ll~erles

^{10 Canada to";,k place in'}

~Pi tals

^(Royal

~OlTUni~S1 0n o~th

5.ervices ,. 1 96 4 , p.76).

( ChildbIrth wa s

n o '

longer an'.~J(P1ien,ce sh~~ed by pe r ent.e •.

~ H~sp !.ta·l rUl:es ·i ~~ i~t.e&

^the

. i so~at ~ on .,Of

^. mater~'itypa..tie nt s·to prevent.~~dcon t .ro -l-..infeAtions ~ ·.Tn~s',

f

,p a r e n t s we r evsepa r ated d·u,ing lab o u r'-'a n't!delUfe.ry,~a nd--::"'-":";

.

. ^{.. .. . .,}

^{. ' - ' ,"}

mothers.and' _infan t~'we r e se~ar.~te~a'7 birt h. ~_n:, nt: we:~ '

p~aced

_{. .}Ln.,net bor-n nur se r ie s_I

!,

where routineca r e

wa~ovided . ... .

'.by'nurses. Fathe rs.we r e not pe r mi t t ed clos e contact,with,"

their babies un til'discha r ge fr?m the hospi t a l (Cli ffor d andDavi s o n : 195 41 .

V

_{M~j d r}

.

_criticisms' . f..-._{9f thi s.dgi}.' .d s yet em of maternity ""

~are ap~d i ~' ~he

^earlyfprf-,Iee , primar ilyin

prote~t~~f

tJ:1e "'i~e rsona l, in..p~roP.ociate-:nd.rnc c n e Lderee'e". .~an.~[em:n t ^{of -mo the r s , ba.bles} andl~ the.r s ^{du'ring the}

postpart um'p e r i od (Ol,C:o nn e l l , 1969). So me authoritie s

m~i~tain~a-

^{: h at}

t~e

^{-,st d c t}

.~Pital

't'e-g imen 'wa s ,act ua l ly

"~on d.uciv e to..s.tr es s and't e nde d to th~art natur al,.f amUy relations hips'and.fe e ling s'of pare'lltll:; author1ty "(~a't.~son

i

' " . ^{- \}

.33 Concurrently, an.a pQ;:o a c h to management of Lapourand daliver'y ~h~~:-::..!.P.Udi-;;t ed ^the use of anaes~hesia was beaOUlJ--n-g ---ic1iO,wn,. An English'pbysLo La n, Or; G;antley Dick-Read. theorized that pain in childbirth was sociallY . .c o.nd l.t i o ne d

a~d

^caused,by

a

Jear-ten9ion-,pain.cycle. .The _~ ~.44· pUb}.:icatio~of his,classicbOO.kt' Ch i ld bir t hItitho~t Fear ' described techniques to break this cycle,'allowing the'mo t he r to

'b~

^:n

ac~i.ve

participant'

ftr

the"birthprocaea through'prenatal prepa~at:o n. (fnH?rowit.z andHorowi~z"

19 67,'p.'196).• ",.r:.

".'Pr o md ti on

~£ "~th(S', -~ natura~'

^approaCh'.to Ch'iidtdrth :~J:)e came'wi'lie s pread (Atlee, 1963 , Buxtdn,-1'9 6 3: Doe r i ng'a n d

.

^{~, -" ' . :'}

..

~~tw lsle ,.1&75; Mo rri s, 196.0,"Thoms: and,weidoenbach, 1~54)•.

s~ver~l

^types

~f

educati'O'nal

prog~ammes

^{developed,:a ll.of}

wh i c h required that the'mo t her be constantly coachedand' supported:by anatte'ndant.',Ha n!ibe qa n- eo seethe father as

" 0' · , ; ' " • " ,"

thel09 ~ ca lpe .racrr to f i l l"thiS'"·J;'~le,.'i fheoa nd his'w~feso desir ed . (Bradl e y, 196 2, E!lge1; 1963, e eeeb, 196 6 1, H?rowitz and

Horowi,~,z,

1967;

' ~iller'; 196' .

Thr o ughou t the195,'0¹⁵and'1960·s_g'ro p soOf healthcare. p,ro;~ssion&ls'a~dintere'sted",ccneumer'sformed crqe nLaatifona .'·'~o pr·omot~...'p re p a~ed'chi1~birth. They tncreaeed the publil?',s,kno wled ge.of _t he·,be ne f i.t.$ of.necu.raL birthOing ee chn Lquee a nd.f~8 te,;,ed the acceptance of bi rth as a, normal" rai';;;'..

t~an -;ath~~09~C

^{eve nt}

~ Exp~c'tant , paie~ts

;.~were enC'~ur~ ged-'t.o be co ine more kn6wled geab le about and'

r •

,a~countabl~f'or ,thei,r.participa t ion Bo ba k, 191t4, p.5311. The s e groups also acted as a lobb yi n g for-ce t·o_ 'pressure h c s pLtaLa and policy make r s at all.Lev eLa of'

he a lth care to cha n ge th e tr adi t i onal pr ac tices df o b st.etr Lbal, care to wh a t;was consi de red and t.ermed a 'fami l y-c e n t er e d approach '. They edvo ceted fath e r ' s

'i\

att_end~nce ^{durinq la bour and delive ry , infant s roomi ng in} witp'om~the rs , more active pr o motio n of.and"s u ppo r t-f·o r

.

br e a s t f e ed i p g

-

^{. -}mothe rs and sib li ng^{' ..}visitatio n^' :d urin g. the"

,..:. , , - .

'mo~ her 'spos~-~artu~hospitaiiZa t~o":~(Cl.aman , 196~-Ci;'0mbe , 196 !f;'-Engel,'196 3;'Fi nba r r, 196 7, Goet sch , i'966' Hilli a rd,

' .

^"

^.

1967 ;Miller, 196 6 , S-is t e rMa ri e Ste jla , 196 0 ) .",

.A~l ~.f_ th~S~ ' dh~~geS

^are

conside,re~

^to

~e imp?~tant

^.tn

the p r ornot Lon-~f psycho J,."oq .Lca l he~l t h of be g i nn i ng

' . . ^...

,fain i l i ~ s. ~ev e r., as thi's ~tudy is'Eo cua ad on father 's p a rtLc LpatiLcn in chi ld.bea ripg , sU bseque~t ^{trends will} address findin gs .relat eaonly·to pa t e r na l Inva lvement,

-- .

^.

". '

-' -

No wide s pr ead opposit i6n to the fath e r ' s pr e senc e t,:n the l.abour

r oWn~

^COUld'

~e

^{found ; Engel (196}3 ) reported

. . » . .

th a t th e hu s'b ands wer e coneIde red a "n u i s a nce",(p.2 6U until it

" w~s

^{realiz ed}

:t'ha~

^the

:sup~Qr_t 't~e~j

^were

gi~ing

th e i r w_v.!..~ deczea a ed the amo u n t of an al gesia an d anae's esia,gi v en to.t~e Ijlbou~i n9'.~ther$'"resultJ ri9 ⁱⁿ fewe r nar c ot iz ed ne c neee es. -Open.reeteeence ·toallowing

I . •

fa e r s i~ the d e Lkeer y .ro o ms, ho wev e r, ca nt i n.u e d thro u',h o u t the 1960 's. rncr ee sed ~isk of.infec ti ons,

~"f