The People's Democratic Republic of Algeria Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research
University of Mohammed Seddik Ben Yahya, Jijel Faculty of Letters and Languages
Department of English
A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment for the Requirements of The Master Degree in English Didactics
Submitted by: Supervised by:
- Dalal MEZOUED Malika NOURI - Soumia LEBDAI
Board of Examiners:
Chairperson: Sarra LAKKAT Mohammed Seddik Ben YahiaUniversity Examiner: Messouada ARZIM Mohammed Seddik Ben Yahia University Supervisor: Malika NOURI Mohammed Seddik Ben Yahia University
Academic year: 2018/2019
Exploring the Use of Educational Games as a Strategy to Teach Grammar for Young Learners
The Case of Second Year Pupils at Zazoua Ahmed Middle School, Jijel
Exploring the Use of Educational Games as a Strategy to Teach Grammar for Young Learners
Lebdai Soumia Mezoued Dalal
Mohammed Seddik Ben Yahia University_Jijel
Dedication
I dedicate this dissertation first to my favourite two people in the world, my parents whom I hope I made proud.
To my biggest supporters, my sisters and brother. I most importantly wish that I set the right example to my little brother Amine. To the smallest member of the family, my
nephew Ahmed Ayoub, for bringing much joy to my life.
To my soul mate “Dalal”, for being my best friend and also my amazing partner in this research.
And finally, to all my friends for giving me support and encouragement. They are the special people in our lives, to whom we are eternally grateful
beyond measure.
Soumia
Dedication
In the Name of God, Most Gracious, Most Merciful
All the Praise is due to God alone, the Sustainers of all the worlds
I dedicate this modest work, with all my love and respect, to the most important persons in my life: my parents Salah and Nassima, who have always supported and
wished the best for me and whom I hope I made proud.
I would like to send sincere thanks to my brothers and sisters, for their endless patience, care and affection.
To one of my biggest supporters, my sister in law, Samira, for all the heartfelt encouragement.
A special dedication to my beautiful nieces, Aridj and Ghofran, for the great joy they have brought into my life.
My deepest gratitude goes to my partner and amazing friend, Soumia Lebdai, for having my back throughout this eventful academic experience. .
At last, my sincerest thanks go to all my friends for their ceaseless moral support and countless well-wishes.
Dalal
Acknowledgements
First, all praise be to the most graceful and the compassionate the Almighty Allah who supplied us with the strength, guidance and courage to accomplish this modest work.
We would like to express our profound appreciation and sincere gratitude to our supervisor Mrs. NOURI Malika for being kind enough to accept directing this work and for her unflatering guidance, precious comments and her patience throughout the stages of this research. We owe her a special debt for giving us her time and sharing her knowledge and experience to better this work.
We would also like to extend our thanks to Mrs. ARZIM Messouda and Mrs.
LAKKAT Sarra for devoting their time and effort to read and evaluate this work. Their insightful comments during the viva will certainly be of a great assistance to enrich our work.
We owe particular thanks and gratitude to Mrs. CHIOUKH Chadia for her kindness and for offering help in time of great need.
We gratefully thank Mr. BOUZENOUN Abdeljalil for his contribution to our work with valuable documents and useful references.
Our warm thanks are also expressed to Mr BOUKABOUS Salaheddine for his support and selfless help with the power point and the video needed to present this research.
An open-hearted gratitude, respect and sincere appreciation needs to be addressed to Mrs. SEKFALI Rania for her collaboration and kindness when dealing with the practical part.
Special thanks go to all the staff members of Zazoua Ahmed middle school for welcoming our presence among them.
We would not forget, of course, to express our whole heartedly thanks to second year
pupils at Zazoua Ahmed middle school. Their contribution and collaboration to this research
have been very fruitful.
Abstract
Despite the central role that grammar plays in the language teaching/learning process, it is often considered as difficult, uninteresting and boring. The aim of the study in hand is to explore the potential impact of educational games on enhancing the grammar learning of second-year students at Zazoua Ahmed middle school –Jijel. It is hypothesised that if a teacher uses educational games, the students’ grammar learning will be enhanced. In order to test the research hypothesis and achieve its aims, a mixed methodology was adopted,
including an experiment, classroom observation and an interview. The sample of the study consisted of 62 pupils enrolled at Zazoua Ahmed middle school, belonging to two classes;
experimental and control groups. In addition to two teachers of English teaching in the same school with whom the semi-interview was conducted. The results of the data analysis
revealed that there was a significant statistical difference between both groups in favor of the experimental group who received the treatment which proved that the use of educational games enhances students’ grammar learning. Moreover, the findings showed that educational games increase students’ motivation, interaction, and collaboration inside the language classroom, and provides a positive classroom atmosphere which engages the students to participate. Furthermore, the findings showed that the implementation of educational games requires suitable classes, sufficient time and proper equipment in order to achieve fruitful outcomes.
Keywords: Educational Games, Grammar Teaching, Grammar Learning.
List of Abbreviations ALM: Audio Lingual Method
CBA: Competency Based Approach CLL: Community Language Learning CLT: Communicative Language Teaching DM: Direct Method
EFL: English as a Foreign Language
ELT: English Language Teaching
ESL: English as a Second Language
ETL: English Teaching and Learning
FLT: Foreign Language Teaching
GTM: Grammar Translation Method
List of Tables
Table 1: Experiment Timetable………...71
Table 2: Grammar Lessons Schedule……….….74
Table 3: Control Group scores in the Pre-test and Post-Test Activities………...….100
Table 4: Experimental Group Scores in the Pre-test and Post-Test Activities………..102
Table 5: Control and Experimental Groups’ Pre-test Total Scores and Means………...….106
Table 6: Unpaired t-test Results of the Pre-Test Total Scores (Control and Experimental Groups)……….…..107
Table 7: Results and Mean of Control Group’s Pre-Test vs. Post-Test………....109
Table 8: Results and Means of the Experimental Group’s Pre-Test Vs. Post-Test………..111
Table 9: Paired t-test Results of the Experimental Group Total Scores (Pre and Post-Test)……….114
Table 10: Unpaired t-test of the Control Group and Experimental Group Post-Test
Total Scores………...116
List of Figures
Figure 1: Control and Experimental Groups Pre-Test Results……….107
Figure 2: Control Group Pre-Test and Post-Test Results……….110
Figure 3: Experimental Group Pre-Test and Post-Test Results………112
Figure 4: Control and Experimental Groups Post-test Results……….115
Dedication………...i
Acknowledgements……….….iii
Abstract………...iv
List of Abbreviations………v
List of Tables………...vi
List of Figure………...vii
Table of Contents……….………..viii
Table of Contents General Introduction Introduction………1
1. Background of the Study…...2
2. Statement of the Problem ………...4
3. Research Questions and Hypotheses………5
4. Research Aims………...6
5. Methodology………...6
6. Structure of the Dissertation………...7
7. Operational Definitions of Research Variables and Key Concepts ………8
Chapter One: Grammar Teaching and Learning Introduction………10
1.1 The Scope of the Grammatical Study of Language...10
1.2 Definitions of Grammar...11
1.3 Types of Grammar...13
1.4 Approaches to Grammar Teaching...15
1.4.1 The Inductive Approach...16
1.4.2 The Deductive Approach...17
1.5 The Status of Grammar in the Major Teaching Methods and Approaches...20
1.5.1 The Grammar Translation Method...20
1.5.2 The Direct Method...22
1.5.3 The Audio Lingual Method...23
1.5.4 Communicative Language Teaching...24
1.5.5 The Competency Based Approach...25
1.6 The Importance of Grammar Teaching and Learning...27
1.7 Strategies for Grammar Teaching………...30
1.9 Common Problems in Grammar Teaching and Learning...35
Conclusion………...……….38
Chapter Two: Educational Games and Grammar Learning Introduction………...39
2.1 The Use of Games in EFL/ESL Classes………...39
2.2 Definitions of Games……….41
2.3 Classification and Types of Games………..……..43
2.4 Advantages of Using Games ……….………46
2.4.1 Motivating Learners………..47
2.4.2 Promoting Interaction………48
2.4.3 Lowering Anxiety………..48
2.4.4 Bringing Real World Context into the Classroom………...……….49
2.4.5 Constructing a Cooperative Learning Environment………50
2.5 The Use of Games in Grammar Teaching and Learning………...…….50
2.6 The Importance of Teaching Grammar through Games for Young Learners………52
2.7 Criteria for Games Selection ……….54
2.8 Criteria for Games Application………..…………57
2.8.1 The Role of the Teacher ………..……….57
2.8.2 The Role of the Learner ………...……….58
2.9 Examples of Common Grammar Games ………..59
Conclusion ………..………….62
Chapter Three: Field Work Introduction...63
3.1 Section One: Research Design and Methodology...63
3.1.1 Research Design...63
3.1.2 Data Collection Methods...64
3.1.3 Description and Administration of the Research Instruments...68
3.1.3.1 Quasi-Experimental Procedures...68
3.1.3.1.1 Tests...71
3.1.3.1.2 Description of the Lessons...73
3.1.3.2 Classroom Observation Checklist...80
3.1.3.3 Teachers Semi-Instructured Interview...81
3.2 Section Two: Data Analysis and Interpretation...84
3.2.1 Analysis of the Teachers’ interview...84
3.2.2 Classroom Observation Analysis...96
3.2.3 Analysis of the Test Scores...98
3.2.3.1 The Control Group Performance on the Three Types of Activities in The Test...100
3.2.3.2 The Experimental Group Performance on the Three Types of Activities in
the Test...102
3.2.3.3 Comparing the Control and Experimental Groups’ Total Scores in the Pre-
Test...103
3.2.3.4 Comparison of the Control Group’s Pre-Test and Post-Test Results...108
3.2.3.5 Comparison of the Experimental Group’s pre-Test and Post-Test Results...110
3.2.3.6 Comparison of the Control and Experimental Groups’ Total Scores in the Post-Test...115
3.2.3.7 Interpretation of the Experiment Results...117
3.2.4 General Discussion of the Overall Findings...118
Conclusion...119
General Conclusion 1. Putting it Altogether……….…..121
2. Pedagogical Recommendations ……….122
3. Limitations of the Study………..………..123
4. Suggestions for Further Research………..124 References
Appendices
Résumé
Introduction
1. Background of the Study 2. Statement of the Problem
3. Research Questions and Hypotheses 4. Research Aims
5. Methodology
6. Structure of the Dissertation
7. Operational Definitions of Research Variables and key Concepts
Exploring the Use of Educational Games as a Strategy to Teach Grammar for Young Learners
Learning English as a second or foreign language (ESL/EFL) requires the learners to understand the basic components of this language. Grammar stands as a core component of the English language, it is considered as a significant part that cannot be neglected in the teaching/learning process. The mastery of grammar means an accurate understanding of the language structures; hence, it gives insights about how language works and how it can be used efficiently in day- to-day life. Additionally, grammar is a means to achieve
communicative purposes ,that is, without grammar proficiency, accuracy in speech and writing cannot be achieved.
As a matter of fact, teachers of English are usually confronted with a range of
problems that mainly arise from the teaching/ learning situations. A major problem is related to grammar teaching and learning. Grammar is regarded as a challenging aspect of language, one of which is not easy to learn without the assistance of a teacher and at the same time, difficult for teaching in a comprehensible and interesting way. This led learners to perceive grammar learning as tedious, uninteresting and demotivating. Thus, teachers are required to seek ways in order to overcome these challenges and to find strategies so as to catch the learners’ attention, as well as to make them react positively towards this important aspect of language. Educational games are one of the teaching strategies that are more likely to add variety to grammar teaching and learning. They are fun, motivating and natural activities that make grammar learning meaningful, and allow the students to experience the language and control their own learning, especially if it is the case of young learners.
Young learners are known to be one of the difficult categories of learners to teach,
compared to adolescents or adults. This is mainly due to the fact that they get distracted
quickly. Accordingly, the use of educational games to teach young learners grammar is a
helpful strategy to cater to their lively nature as playing is a natural part of their lives.
Therefore, the inclusion of educational games during class time does not only make grammar learning interesting and fun but also helps to achieve the intended educational outcomes.
1. Background of the Study
Educational games are considered to be one of the effective strategies that can be used by EFL/ESL teachers in order to add diversity to the process of teaching generally and to sustain interest and attention among the learners more specifically. There have been various studies that were concerned with the use of games in EFL/ESL contexts. For instance, the use of games has been studied to test their effect and role on the learning of English language (Ojeda,2004; Harb, 2007; Chirandon, Laohawiriyanon and Rakthon, 2010; Mubaslat, 2011;
Fitzgerald, 2015; Peters, 2015). These studies found that the use of games in English
language teaching (ELT) classes has a positive effect in enhancing the learners' achievements and performance in the language as well as in fostering their motivation.
Senol (2007) conducted a study about teaching vocabulary to Secondary school students through the use of games. He divided the learners into an experimental group and a control group and used four games to teach 80 words. His findings showed that the use of games to teach vocabulary was more effective than teaching through traditional ways.
Further, the subjects in the experimental group learned a significant number of words due to the use of games and they were more successful in recalling the target words than other students in the control group. Another study was done by Hawkins (2016) aimed at exploring the effectiveness of games in the teaching of ESL at a college level. The results obtained showed that games provide a change in the classroom routine, reduce the effective filter, make learning more relaxed and enjoyable and increase motivation to learn.
The use of educational games to teach grammar was investigated in different studies
by many researchers. Musilova (2010) conducted a study entitled “Grammar Games in ELT”.
In this study, the researcher used a game called “The Lost Treasure” to teach five grammar lessons to two groups of fifth-grade pupils. The findings of the study revealed that teaching grammar through games is a successful and an effective approach, and both pupils and teachers were satisfied with the game and that, they would appreciate similar activities in their lessons of English. Ishtawi (2011) conducted another study to investigate the effect of using games on the learning of English grammar for the twelfth-grade students at Gaza governmental schools. He adopted an experimental approach. The study consisted of 80 students who were divided into two equivalent groups; control and experimental groups. The researcher used a variety of data gathering tools; a checklist of grammar lessons, an
achievement test, five different games and five formative evaluation quizzes. The results proved that the use games as an educational strategy was more effective than in teaching the English language, especially grammar. Additionally, educational games provided a better learning environment in which the students felt relaxed, comfortable and motivated.
Another study was carried out by Yolageldili and Arikan (2011) to explore the
effectiveness of using games in teaching grammar to young learners from the viewpoints of
Turkish EFL teachers working in primary schools. The researchers used a questionnaire to
collect data about the study and they concluded that Turkish EFL teachers recognized the
pedagogical value of using games in their classrooms, and agreed that the use of games to
teach grammar is beneficial especially for young learners. An experimental study was
conducted by Pathan and Aldersi (2014) to test the use of games in primary schools for
effective grammar teaching. 50 students were selected as a sample for this study from two
primary schools in Sebha (Libya). The results revealed that the use of games for teaching
games in Sebha was quite effective. It was concluded that games helped in changing the
negative perceptions in the Libyan EFL learners toward English in general and grammar in
particular. Moreover, games helped making the learning of English grammar interesting and fun and also helped in increasing learners' motivation inside the classroom.
The last study reviewed here was carried out by Cam and Thu Tran (2017) which was mainly an evaluation of using games in teaching English grammar for the first year English majored students at Dong Nai technology university (Vietnam). The study was conducted using three data collection instruments, namely: a questionnaire, an observation and a semi- structured interview. The findings indicated that using games helps create enjoyment, motivation and reduce stress in learning grammar. In addition, the data collected from the interview indicated that 84% of the students had positive attitudes towards English grammar games and the other 16% had difficulties when playing the games for the first time. That is, the study showed that the use of games can better learners' grammar acquisition.
2. Statement of the Problem
Mastering grammar is an essential step of the successful mastery of any foreign language; because, as it is well argued, only when the grammar rules are applied correctly, sentences can make sense. However, in spite of its salient significance and all the
considerable attempts made recently for adapting and promoting the Algerian language curriculum and textbooks (embodied generally in the incorporation of real world connections into the lessons content, i.e., teaching English in context), learning English grammar is still perceived by many EFL students to be so boring and uninteresting. And this is particularly the case of young learners.
Consequently, due to boredom issues, young learners in the Algerian middle schools developed a negative attitude towards grammar learning which in turn has affected not only their learning process inside the classroom in terms of attention, concentration, participation, interaction, communication, and so on, but also their grammar proficiency in terms of
comprehension, acquisition, retention, production, and others. As a result, students feel that
grammar is a difficult task to be dealt with; and even if they succeed in understanding the grammar rules and forms, many learners fail to apply them correctly and appropriately in different tasks.
The major reason behind this problem can be mainly due to the traditional method still adopted by most teachers to deliver their grammar lessons and not the grammar as a subject in itself. The teachers usually prefer this method in which “students are sitting in rows listening to a teacher who stands in front of them” (Harmer, 2005, p. 144) because they probably think that if they change their teaching method and techniques this will cost them more time and extra efforts in return.
From this rostrum, in order to make grammar learning more motivational and interesting and, hence, to enhance their overall grammar proficiency level, teachers are required to be more creative and to look for alternative teaching techniques. They also need to consider the young age factor of their students when choosing these strategies and
activities to suit a variety of young pupils with different learning styles and multiple mental abilities.
Therefore, given the importance of grammar in building the student‘s overall English language mastery, it is necessary to explore and search for new ways to provide more
enjoyable and meaningful grammar exposure and practice to the learners inside the classroom.
3. Research Questions and Hypotheses
This exploratory research attempts to answer the following questions:
Could the use of educational games as a teaching strategy help students to enhance their grammar learning?
To what extent do games activities improve young pupils’ grammar learning and
performance?
Could educational games help improve the young learners’ attitudes towards grammar learning?
What are the main factors impeding the implementation of games in EFL classes in the Algerian context?
Hence, the study in hand will support one of the following hypotheses and refute the other:
The Null hypothesis H0: there is no relation between the two variables;
educational games and the enhancement of young learners’ grammar learning.
The Alternative Hypothesis H1: there is a positive correlation between the use of educational games and young learners‘grammar learning i.e., if the teacher uses educational games, the student’s grammar learning will be improved.
4. Research Aims
The primary aim of our research is to explore the potential impact of educational games on enhancing the grammar learning and performance of second-year students at Zazoua Ahmed middle school-Jijel. This research also aims at:
- Showing how the students’ attitudes toward grammar learning might potentially change after their experience and also how the use of games is being currently treated by teachers, if at all.
- Sensitizing EFL teachers, in general, to use innovative and creative methods and strategies and up-to-date technological tools in teaching grammar.
5. Methodology
The choice of the research instruments for the study in hand is based on the nature of
the research. Thus, a mixed methodology consisting of quantitative and qualitative methods
to data collection and analysis was adopted. The instruments used for collecting data for this
study are:
An experimental design where a pre-test and a post-test to measure the pupils'
achievements in grammar learning were conducted with second-year pupils at Zazoua Ahmed Middle school, aiming to test the validity of the hypothesis formulated for the research.
A classroom observation through the use of a checklist was carried out with the same pupils to support the data collected and to get a general insight into what happens in the typical grammar sessions as well as during the implementation of the games.
A semi-structured interview was conducted with two teachers of English at Zazoua Ahmed middle school in order to obtain in depth data about their opinions concerning the use of educational games to teach grammar.
6. Structure of the Dissertation
The study in hand is basically divided into three major chapters. The first two chapters are devoted to discuss the theoretical part, whereas the third chapter represents the practical part. The first chapter is entitled “Grammar Teaching and Learning”. It starts with an overview of the scope of the grammatical study of language. After that, it provides several definitions of the term grammar, and presents different types of grammar. The chapter also deals with the status of grammar in major teaching methods and approaches. It sheds lights on the importance of grammar teaching and learning. Moreover, some of the common grammar teaching and learning problems as well as some strategies to teach grammar are provided in this chapter.
The second chapter is entitled ‘‘Educational Games and Grammar Learning”. It
presents an overview about the use of games in ESL/EFL Classes. It provides definitions as
well as classifications and types of games. Furthermore, It highlights the advantages of using
games in the language classroom. This Chapter further discusses the importance of teaching
grammar through games in general and in particular for teaching young learners, and explains
the criteria for selecting and applying games in the language classroom. Finally, the chapter provides some examples of common grammar games.
The third and the last chapter, entitled ‘‘Field Work’’ consists of two sections. The first section presents the research design and methodology, including a description of the data collection instruments used in the study as well the research setting, sampling and population.
The second section represents the analysis of the data gathered from the research instruments followed by a discussion of the findings.
7. Operational Definitions of Research Variables and Key Concepts
Grammar learning
This research study is interested in measuring and evaluating both the students’ learning process inside the classroom while grammar lessons are being conducted, in addition to its final product, i.e., grammar proficiency (mastery).
Grammar learning process
The process of learning grammar will be assessed mainly based on the learners’ behaviours and reactions captured during the grammar sessions, which are mainly related to motivation issues.
Motivation
The proportion of students, who follow, participate and interact effectively during grammar instruction compared to the rest of the sample.
Grammar proficiency or mastery (learning product)
The learner’s competence (grammar knowledge) and performance (grammar use) level after receiving a course of instruction at school.
Target lessons
The grammar lessons to be taught in the intervention period.
Educational games
They are those games intentionally and specifically designed for the purpose of teaching;
to teach students about a specific subject or to teach them a skill. They can be used to help learners understand concepts, encourage and motivate them to take part in their learning process, and develop their productive skills as they play games and have fun. This present research is concerned exclusively with games designed only for English teaching and learning (ETL) purposes.
Young learners
English is taught in Algeria as a foreign language. Learners start studying English in the first year in middle school for four years and later on for three years in secondary school.
During the first two years, students deal with the alphabet, reading, listening, spelling, and
elementary writing. Also, they deal with some basic grammatical terminology, categories,
and relations such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions, etc. In
high school, students go more deeply with English and practice the four skills: reading,
speaking, listening, and writing. Accordingly, this research sheds light on the younger cohort
of students (beginners) who have just started learning grammar in middle schools.
Chapter One: Grammar Teaching and Learning
Introduction
1.1 The Scope of the Grammatical Study of Language 1.2 Definitions of Grammar
1.3 Types of Grammar
1.4 Approaches to Grammar Teaching 1.4.1 The Inductive Approach 1.4.2 The Deductive Approach
1.5 The Status of Grammar in the Major Teaching Methods and Approaches 1.5.1 The Grammar Translation Method
1.5.2 The Direct Method
1.5.3 The Audio Lingual Method
1.5.4 Communicative Language Teaching 1.5.5 The Competency Based Approach
1.6 The Importance of Grammar Teaching and Learning 1.7 Strategies For Grammar Teaching.
1.9 Common Problems in Grammar Teaching and Learning.
Conclusion
Chapter One: Grammar Teaching and Learning Introduction
Grammar has always played a paramount role in second and foreign language teaching and learning. Indeed, it has spawned considerable debates surrounding language learning processes. These debates have mostly been constructed around central questions as whether to teach grammar or not, how, and when to teach it. Thus, this chapter is designed to give an overview of these issues. Accordingly, it presents the scope of the grammatical study and also provides some grammar definitions, states its central role in language teaching, presents its place in the language teaching methods, and discusses two of the most common ways of grammar teaching (inductive and deductive) with their pros and cons. Moreover, it addresses some of the challenges teachers may face when teaching grammar. Finally, it attributes major attention to some grammar teaching strategies.
1.1 The scope of the Grammatical Study of Language
Language is the shared knowledge of sounds, words, meanings and grammatical rules that people use to send and receive messages. Every language throughout the world has its grammar, and to understand the nature of language, we must understand the nature of its internalised system of rules. Grammar, in the traditional sense, is the branch of linguistics dealing with the form and the structure of words (Morphology), and their interrelations in sentences (Syntax). Accordingly, knowledge of morphology and syntax “enables you to combine sounds to form words, words to form phrases, and phrases to form sentences”
(Fromkin, Rodman & Hyams, 2014, p. 5). Hence, grammar was traditionally perceived as a set of rules, mainly the rules of Morphology and Syntax.
However, in the more modern linguistic sense, grammar is not confined merely to the syntactical and morphological study of words and sentences. In fact, the scope of the
grammatical study of language has been enlarged to encompass the entire interrelated system
of structures namely: sounds, words, meanings, and sentences within a language. Yu (2005, p. 10) confirmed this perspective view of grammar stating that grammar may also include a full description of the whole grammatical meaning and use. That is, grammar is also
concerned with Phonology and is often, complemented by Phonetics, Semantics, and Pragmatics. For instance, knowing that the simple present tense is formed by adding an ‘s’
when the subject is a singular noun or a third person pronoun, is a rule of
English morphology, whereas knowing that ‘s’ may be pronounced as /s/, /z/, or /iz/,
depending on the context environment, is a rule of English phonology. Similarly Fromkin et al. (2014) emphasised that although the relationship between the form (speech sounds) of words and the meaning (concept) it represents is purely arbitrary, yet there is a limited set of possible rules that govern the sound system of a language that reveals more than what sounds patterns are English and non- English. But it specifies also which sounds may start a word, end a word, and follow each other (phonology and phonetics). And in this case,
different order of sounds’ strings in words, and different order of words in sentences result in different meanings (semantics and pragmatics).
In sum, linguists use the term grammar to refer to a “subconscious linguistic system of a particular type. Consisting of several components (phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics)” (O’grady & Dobrovolsky, 1997, p. 10). Thus, Grammar deals not only with rules of form but also with meaning and use.
1.2 Definitions of Grammar
The term ‘grammar’ comes from the Greek expression ‘grammatike tekhne’ meaning
‘the art of letters’. The term can be defined in many ways. Grammar as a part of the language
study (as English grammar, German grammar, etc.); mental grammar, which refers to the
internalized grammar of native speakers i.e., “the knowledge of rules and principles that
underlies their ability to speak and understand their language. It is an unconscious
knowledge” (Greenbaum, 1996, p. 26); or it can be also a handbook, e.g. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (Quirk et al., 1985); however, it is the first type which is the usual denotation of the term.
Grammar as a linguistic field of study may have several possible definitions. To many scholars, grammar is commonly linked to the morphological and syntactical rules and
principles of a language. For instance, in dictionaries, we find that the term ‘grammar’ is defined as “the set of rules that describe the structure of a language and control the way that sentences are formed” (Macmillan, 2002, p. 618). Similarly Hornby (2000) in The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines grammar as: “the study and practice of the rules by which words change their forms and are combined into sentences” (p. 586). Furthermore, in Oxford dictionary, grammar also means, “the whole system and structure of a language or of languages in general, usually taken as consisting of syntax and morphology” (2008, p.
187). Accordingly, grammar can be defined as a set of rules which describe how to combine words in order to form sentences.
A similar definition of grammar has been given by Bruder and Paulston (1976, p. 13) who describe it as “the possible forms and arrangements of words in phrases and sentences.”
Similarly, Crystal (1995) states that “grammar is the study of sentence structure, especially with reference to syntax and morphology” (p. 453). Holding the same view, Thornbury (2004, p. 1) asserted that grammar is “the study of what forms or structures are possible in a language”. Therefore, the concept of grammar can be defined in different ways. A widely stated definition refers to it as a set of the most general conception about grammar is a set of structural rules governing the composition of words, phrases, and clauses in any given language.
On the other hand, Radford (1997, p. 340) affirms that grammar does not only provide
a description of how words are connected together, but it includes also knowing how to
interpret these combinations to understand meanings. Similarly, Other scholars such as Freeman (2001, p. 252) highlights that the grammatical structures are not only a form
(morphology, phonetics, and syntax), however, they can also convey meaning (semantics) in use (pragmatics). Widdowson (1990), on his part, adopted a similar definition to the concept of grammar. He regards it as the mechanism by which words and phrases are linked together to accomplish certain meaning. Widdowson reports that grammar acts as a mediator between speech and its context (pp. 81-98).
Therefore, it can be concluded that grammar generally represents the set of rules and principles that governs the formulation of language constructions, mainly its morphology and syntax. Thus, grammar might be conceived as the vehicle by which language learners can arrive to express their spoken and written thoughts correctly and appropriately.
1.3 Types of Grammar
There is a variety of ways of describing and analyzing the language forms and Meanings. In fact, grammars might vary based on their scope and coverage. Sometimes grammar is restricted only to syntax, however, it may also involve some descriptions of one or more other language aspects such as morphology, phonetics, semantics, pragmatics, and so on. In what follows are some examples of the most common grammar types:
Descriptive: this kind of grammar is based on the idea that language is permanently changing over time. It can be described simply as an objective, nonjudgmental description of the grammatical constructions of a language (Huddleston & Pullum, 2002). Therefore, Descriptive Grammar contains theories which explain in a scientific way how language works without assuming correctness.
Prescriptive (Traditional): this kind of grammar does not describe language as it is
actually used by its native speakers. By contrast, Prescriptive grammarians lay down the law
and rules of how language should work. According to linguists Depraetere and Langford, “A
prescriptive grammar is one that gives hard and fast rules about what is right (or
grammatical) and what is wrong (or ungrammatical), often with advice about what not to say but with little explanation” ( 2012, p. 2).
Formal: according to Lock (1996), Formal Grammar is “a set of rules which specify all the possible grammatical structures of the language” (p.1). Formal grammar refers to the set of rules which describe how to form language strings which are possible according to the language syntax. It doesn’t describe their meanings or their uses in different contexts. Hence, formal grammarians do not pay so much attention to meaning and context as they do to forms and structures.
Functional: it studies the grammatical descriptions and processes that consider the purposes to which language is put and the contexts in which language occurs to allow both speakers and writers to communicate effectively through correct use of grammar. Butler,
González, and Doval-Suárez (2005, p. 4) notes that “there is a strong consensus amongfunctionalists that the linguistic system is not self-contained, and so autonomous from external factors, but is shaped by them”. Accordingly, functional grammarians deal with language in use. They regard words and sentences not as individual and independent forms, but as part of a whole, getting meaning from their surroundings (either from the rest of the language – semantics, or from the context in which they occur – pragmatics).
Mental: it can be defined as the generative grammar stored in the brain that
allows a speaker to produce language that other speakers can understand, order ability to
recognise whether a sentence is correct or not without necessarily being able to give a reason
( does not need any specific instruction). This idea is supported by Chomsky when he said
that "All humans are born with the capacity for constructing a Mental Grammar, given
linguistic experience; this capacity for language is called the Language Faculty” (Culicover &
Nowak, 2003, p. 5) Hence, a grammar formulated by a linguist is an idealized description of this ‘Mental Grammar’ (Culicover & Nowak, 2003).
Pedagogical: according to Odlin (1994, p. 1), the term pedagogical grammar denotes
“the types of grammatical analysis and instruction designed for second language Students”. Wang (2003, p. 64) concludes that the term is commonly used to denote
(1) pedagogical process, i.e. the explicit treatment of elements of the target language systems a (part of) language teaching methodology; (2) pedagogical content (reference sources of one kind or another that present information about the target language system); and (3)
combinations of process and content. Finally, Pedagogical Grammar can be used to refer to the textbooks “chiefly intended for class use under the guidance of a teacher”
(Greenbaun, 1996, p. 23).
Theoretical: it is “concerned with making completely explicit the formalisms
of grammar, and in providing scientific arguments or explanations in favour of one account of grammar rather than another, in terms of a general theory of human language” (Renouf &
Kehoe, 2003, p. 394). The difference between a theoretical grammar and a pedagogical grammar is one important distinction to bear in mind; a pedagogical grammar typically provides paradigms of regular constructions, lists of prominent exceptions to these
constructions, and descriptive commentary at various levels of detail and generality about the form and meaning of expressions in a language (Chomsky, 1986, p. 6). By contrast,
a theoretical grammar, Chomsky adds, is a scientific theory: it seeks to provide a complete theoretical characterization of the speaker-hearer's knowledge of his/her language, where this knowledge is interpreted to refer to a particular set of mental states and structures.
1.4 Approaches to Grammar Teaching
Grammar teaching in the language classroom has constituted an important and
debated issue for the last fifty years. The way grammar has been considered has had a direct
influence on pedagogical grammars. In teaching grammar to EFL students , two main approaches have been followed: the inductive and the deductive approach.
1.4.1 the inductive approach.
Following an inductive approach, the teacher does not reveal the grammar rule or Structure. Instead, s/he leads the students to discover them on their own. The teacher, in this approach, should provide the students with sufficient and comprehensible input so they can recognize and determine the rules.
According to Thornbury (1999), “the inductive approach is a rule-discovery path. This implies manipulating a number of examples before knowing the target rule and from this exposure expecting the learners to find out some rules depending on themselves” (p. 49).
Hence, the Inductive approach is in fact an experimental approach, whereby the students are given the data and then try to draw their own conclusions from the data. The students recognize how the concept is used and guess, and verbalize the rule (Stern, 1992).
The question raised by many language specialists whether teaching grammar rules may frustrate or enhance learners’ language acquisition led to hot debates about the
effectiveness of the inductive approach. Chomsky (2002) states that the inductive approach assists in raising the learners’ consciousness about the English grammatical structures and makes them aware of it. Similarly, Wajnryb (1992, p. 85), comments that induction
represents the opposing way to deductive grammar teaching. In this approach, teachers focus
on teaching communication rather than some separated rules. Consequently, learners use
language to induce its properties by themselves. In such a way, and according to many
theorists, both teachers and learners become more engaged in the process of language
teaching and learning. Additionally, compared to the deductive approach, the inductive
approach also constitutes a more innovative way of teaching language grammar “where the
new grammatical structures or rules are presented to the students in a real language context”
(Goner, Phillips, & Walters, 1995, p. 135). Widodo (2006, p. 129) summarises the advantages and disadvantages of inductive teaching as follows:
Advantages
The approach involves learners’ pattern-recognition and problem-solving abilities which represent an interesting challenge to particular learners.
If the problem–solving activity is done collaboratively, learners get an opportunity for extra language practice.
It encourages the teacher to design data or materials taught carefully and systematically.
Disadvantages
The concepts given implicitly may lead the learners to have the wrong concepts of the rule taught.
The approach can place emphasis on teachers in planning a lesson.
The approach may frustrate the learners with personal learning styles or with bad past learning experiences (or both) who would prefer simply to be told the rules.
In short, in the inductive approach learners are encouraged to be dynamic and get involved in the grammatical tasks with the aim of making them explore the rules themselves.
Eventually, the inductive approach is likely to be used in classes where learners use their observations and their interpretations to make certain generalities about different concepts.
1.4.2 the deductive approach.
A deductive approach represents a more traditional approach of teaching in which the teacher explains all the rules and their meanings to learners. It is a way of teaching which derives from deductive reasoning and goes from general to specific. In the deductive approach, rules, patterns, and principles are presented first and these are followed by
examples. Therefore, the teacher should supply the language rule in a systematic and logical
manner (presentation), often through the use of grammatical terminology. Successively,
learners are exposed to examples showing the meaning and use of the new grammatical structures, and then asked to make similar structures (practice). At the end, students are
required to use the new learnt rules and structures to create their own sentences (production).
Thornbury (1999, p. 29) states that in the deductive or ‘rule-driven’ approach, the teachers introduce some rules as a prior step, and then set up a complete presentation to these rules in a way that learners can understand and pick them up. As a subsequent step, teachers conclude their lesson by practical tasks to check their learners understanding of the
grammatical constructions. Moreover, Harmer (2007) adds that these “Explanation and practice sequences are usually PPP-like” (p. 203). Also, Widodo (2006, p. 127) discusses the grammar teaching approaches pointing out that in a deductive approach grammar rules are explicitly presented to students and are followed by practice applying the rules and works from the more general to the more specific.
Such an approach to grammar teaching is argued to be highly effective, because it helps learners arrive at the language through the rule. It also presents ample opportunities for teachers to plan the lessons properly and to rightly predict the problems learners might face.
Some language educators have argued that foreign languages are best learned deductively.
Advantages
Thornbury (1999) states that the deductive approach has many advantages. It offers the learner a clear explanation of the grammatical structure and its use, hence, it speeding up the learning process. Compared to the inductive approach, traditionalists have usually favoured the deductive approach, because it both saves time and allows more practice of the intended grammatical structure.
Furthermore, Widodo (2006) mentioned the following advantages of the deductive
approach:
The deductive approach goes straightforwardly to the point and can, therefore, be time-saving.
A number of rule aspects (for example, form) can be more simply and clearly explained than elicited from examples.
A number of direct practice/application examples are immediately given.
The deductive approach respects the intelligence and maturity of many adult learners in particular and acknowledges the role of cognitive processes in language
acquisition.
It confirms many learners’ expectations about classroom learning particularly for those who have an analytical style (p. 127).
Disadvantages
As it is the case for the inductive approach, the deductive one has also disadvantages.
According to Widodo, these are the following:
Beginning the lesson with a grammar presentation may be off-putting for some learners, especially younger ones.
Younger learners may not be able to understand the concepts or encounter the grammar terminology given.
Grammar explanation encourages a teacher-fronted, transmission-style classroom, so it will hinder learner involvement and interaction immediately.
The explanation is seldom as memorable as other forms of presentation (for example, demonstration).
