INFORMATION TO USERS

INFORMATION TO USERS

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JOONonIlZedl . . . ..u.AItI« JoG ...l~l346USA )111761-4700 1O(l{521~

From Indifference to Incmunent:

An examination of RCMPraponsestoNazismand Fascism inean.da From 1934to194L

by Michelle McBride

A thesis submitted to me ScbooIofGraduateSwdies

in partial fulfilmentofme requiremenaforthedqne of

Departmentof Histoty Memorial UniversityofNewfoundland

May1997

St. John's Newfoundland

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formats.

The author retains ownership of the

copyrigbt

in

this

thesis. Neither

the thesis nor

substantial

extracts

from it may

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reproduced

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L'auteuraaccordeuneIicc:ncenOD

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00auttaDeDtreproduits sansSOIl

-

0-612-23157-7

Canada

-

This study eumincsthephenomenon of Fascism inCanadaduringthe Depressionand how theauthorities. primarilytheRoyal CanadianMounted Police.

chose10 deal with iL ThelOpicofCanadianFascismhasbeenlargely

i&nortd

in favour ofthemorefashionable topicofCommunism. Fascismwas ocvec a large scale movement inCanada;itdid. however, effect portions of theGermanand Ila1ian oommunities aswellasindividualFruehandEzl&ltsb<:ao.IiaDs.

TheCDn\'enlional view oftheRCMPSecuritySetvicequesthattheKeMP ignoredFascist movement! until external. events caused. them 10 lakeinternalactions.

I would challenge this-argument, marshaling evidencetIw:theReMP

was

indeed watching Fascist organizations fromtheirinception. althoughchoosing not10 view them as aseriousthreat. TheReMPbepniIlvestiptincFascist movements in Canadaintheearly19JO'sbutdidDO(viewthemIII much of athreat. seeina them as

1atJeIy

disorpnized and, ifDOtIS poemial allies in their

rllht

apinstCommunists, atleau astheIeaeroftwoevils.&bocb !heReMPand theFascists

were

anti-CommuniscJ.theReMPviewed Fascisa with ramer abcnevoIe:m: eye.The RCMPwas more ideoIocically 10theri&heandthiseffccccdbow theReMPviewed bothFascistsandCommunists.

Oncewar broke out theean.dianGovernmentdec::ided10actapinstIfOUPSit badCOftSLstendysaidwerenotdarJaerou;s. For yearstheGovernment,viatheReMP

andother government depanmenls. turned a blind eye to foreign interference by the Consuls in both dieGermanand Italian communities. cboosiflltoviewevents in the immigrantcommW'lities as mauen forthe communities todecide.By viewing Fascism as alim~threaI andbya1mw-il'llfenipcoerc:ioo.tooccur inCanadait can be_Suedthat the Canadiansovemmentfailedtodefenditsowncitizens.

iii

Ackngw1cdgmenq

The interesting story ofhow theReMPregarded Fascist organiuJ:ions. and indeedtIwCanada hostedseveralFascistorpnizationsdurincthedepression.has corne about only

throu&h

the<:oosiderable assiscanceIhave received overthepasttwo yean fromtwOmen: myhusbandDan McLennanandmy~,Dr.GresorY Kealey.Without their combinedsupportthisprojectW'OI,lldneverhavereacbcd completion. My husbandhas been involved in my woekfromthe beginnina, helping out fromre:searchina: to editina:. and without him this woek would never have been undertaken. Grq:Kealeyhasbeen my mcmorand my friendfortheput

cwo

yean and itis due EO bim that thisthesis hasrakenonitscurrent shape. Indeed I never would have made thernoYCfromVicklria 10MemorialUniversity if it hadn't been for GreaKealey.

My interest in the historyofthe RCMP

was

piqueddurina:my undergraduate dca:ree at UVIC by my supervisors,larryHannantandEricSl&er.bach ofwhom encouraged me to study the RCMP wbenvetyfewpeople

were

inr.erestedintheoopic.

Thanb must also be cNen toseveca.Iocbenwhohavea:enerously shared their ownre:scm:hwicb meandpoilltled~

soun::es

thatImichtDOthave comeupwith on my

own..

Included onchat list must be Linda Kealey and FrancaIacovettaboth of whom advised me on how to wrile the history of female imernees. Franca[acovetta has been instrumental in foscerina: my interest in female internees, offerina: advice on

sources, writing and editing. Withoutherchapler five would be a much different prod....

Arty erronthat remain.of

c::oune.

are myown.

TABLEOfCONTENTS

Inttoduetion

Chapter1 -canadianfascism inthe19305

" " - ' 2 -TheRCMP,

IdooIooY

and0<pnaaD00

Chaprer3 -ThePoliticsofInranmem:

Chapter 4 -TheCurious Case of female [nterneeS

ChapterS -Conclustoo

Biblio&raPhy

Appendices

Appeooilt I PersooalHiscory File Appendilt U IncemeaQuestionnaire AppeooiK m l.-emces0Ma Sheet AppendixIV Female InterneelDataSheet

iv

vii

88

126

187

235

2"

258 259 277 319

-

This thesisiscolUmcd with theattitudes andactions of theRoyalCanadian Mounted~iceSecurity Service (RCMP 55)IOWaf'dCanIda's farrightJl'OUPSfrom 1934 10 1941. Specifically, it willconsiderbowthe RCMPviewedand reacted 10 Fascist orpnizations.Therantcbapcerdeals with theecommic.political andcultural conditions prevalentinCanIdadurincthe Depression. Italsoeu.mi.ne:stheeumnr:

literatureonthe RCMPandonFascism inCanada.Thenextchapter provides an overview ofthe variousFascist orpniDtions. includina theirIocaDomandsources of support.Chapter3 offers an overview ofthesttUCnlt&l basis oftheRCMP andthe attitudesprevalent amona itsleadenhip. The founhchapter outlinestheeffccts of World War 1I on Fascistorganizations, concenttaline 011 the politics of inremrnent.

Chapter

.s

examiDeS in more detailtheinlemnlentof aspecificcrouP. wol'I'Ien inlemeel. Finally.c:hIpter6c:onsidcnthenannofthe fascistlbreac., thereaction of the governmentbodlpriorto an:ldurinC Wor1d W.II.andwbelber itsactions

were

justified.

Fascist

IfOUPSinCanada

were an

anti-democratic.aDti-orpniztdlabour.

anti.paciflSt. anti·Masonic, anti-liberal. antk:ommunist. and anti-&mitic.Despilethe fact thatFascismwufound inseveraldistinctethnic~.includinathe German-Canadian. halo-Canadian. Frencb-Qnldian.andEnaJistl-Canadian

communities, mey shared much me same idealogy. Monofthesegroupshailed a great leaderasmeirsaviour,either Hider, Muuolini,or a kx:aIleader.All of me groups imponed internationallileraNre and propapnda. mainlyfromGermany. At different point in time, almost all the arolJPSused me swastika u their emblem. The differentiatina:factor between theseIJOUPS wasme Fascistcountryeachgroup pledgedallegiance10.

Thesoun:es uponwhicbdlis dais isbued

incl.

the recordsofthe DcputmentofEncrnaIAffairsand!heRCMP.and thepIlpaSofNormanRobemon, MackeftZieKina.ErnestLapoiIUand0.0. SUlklll.In addition.dlisthesis relies uponscholarly srudies in the fieldsofFascism. theRCMPand internmenthisfOrY.

The mainRCMP sources are sc:cwityand inr.elliaencertpOIU,lettersand memorandums nowin theCSIS atChives. publishedreportSsuch astheRCMPAnrJlUli RqJOftt.theRCMPGDzm~and theRCMPQIIart~rly.ISwell as RCMPand governmentdocumentshousedin the NationalArchivesofCanada(NAC). MOSt NACdocurnefttsare larJely intact,unliketheir CSISCOWdapar1Swhicbunfonunatdy have been heavilyddeted.

Altbouah Fascism.was •politicalallemative supponed by many,croupsin the 19305ithasrteeivedlilde aaencionfromCamdian historians. This ladtof inveuiplion may be due cothebelief thatCanadadW:lnothave • Fascist movement.

oratlcutoneof little consequence. While Fascism inCanIda obviously didnot have the membersttip or thesupportofitsEuropeanc:ou.nterpIl(S.ithadanaffecton

viii

some oftheGerman,llalian,En,lish and French-Canlldiancommunities.

Canadian historians have laraelyignoredthetopicof Fascism,andeventhose whohave elWl'lined it have taken a piecemeallppC'OKh. For insrance, ethnic historians have chosen ID kxJk 11 iDdivMfuaJgroups,aeneral1y eitherGermanor ltali&ns, wtIileodIershavechoIen10focuson !heanti-SemitismofCanada'sFascist orpniDtions.AbriefO'm'Viewwilldemonstme !he problemsinthe litcmure.

Threesons ofliteraturewillbeconsidcm1:thesecurity and ilUClliaence(RCMP) literature;internmenthistory; and the historyof Canadian Fascismincluding lIalian, German, Frenchand English-ean.dian varieties,

As is often !he cae in security andinldlipncehistory,thereare many problemswiththe evidcrx::e.Theseraneefromproblemsofpinina: access10the infonnation ID dealingwilhthecensors' deJetionl. Some of theseproblems can be handled throtJahtheAa:esstoInformationAct,butthisis, unfonunately,ar:best,a slow, tedious process. Even when the documents arereleasedtherecan be problems usina: evidence writtenand collectedby theReMP. Onehas torecoanize the bias inherent in anyaovunmeJItdocwnemJ,especiallydKIIe produced byan aeencysuch.

as

theRCMP.

ean.liansecurityaDdinteUiJence literaDIre, unli:lnu.nately,has notparaUelled thatof Brilairtwhererecent researdIhisfocusedonthereJ.uiodsbipbetween MIS and BritishFascists. Work by John HopeandNichola Hileyhasdemonstmedthatthere was a

dcaree

of collusion between MaxwellKniaht, oneofMIS'sprominentacencs,

and British Fascists.! Hope arJU!eSthat thefactthatKnightmetmbarrierstDjoining MIS while a member of the Fascisti indicates that MIS dad

me:

view the Fascists as a hostileforce,butratherthat MlS felt theyeachhada common enemy,the'Bolshevik menace.'JTo date no hislOrians have considered links between the RCMP SS and the farfiaht. Most wrilCtS in the fleklofsecurity and intelligence inCanadahave shownfvI1'KlI'einteRSt in theleftthan the

rilbt.

TheRCMP literaturecmsistseuentia1ly of threetypeS:ma:rmaIwritten by retiredoru-RCMP offic:en,jouma.Iists, andbyKademics. The literamrC by u*RCMP offJOtrS, forexampleformer Commiuioner Cliff HarvisOD.'s1M HOl'SmwrI,.Iossesoverhisyean in !be SecurityService.JItpays some attention co his time investiptil1l Fascist orpniDcions butprefers10 discuss the oraani.zatiol'l5 themselves rather than theshapethe RCMP investiptiol'l5cooIc:. For instanee, Harvisonclaimsthatby 1938 the RCMP hadpenetrated GermanNaz:i, lIalian Fascist and French and Enalisb-Canadian Fascistorpnizatiom10Ibcpoint ofkoowi"l mcmbersh~5WisticsandideIltifyinakeyleaders. Unfortunalely. HarvisonG:lesnot:

explain how theRCMPDewthesedeWls,whetheritwasby

readu.

~or 'JohnG, Hope, ·SW'\'Cillalx:e or Collusion? Maxwell

Kniaht.

MISand theBritish Fascisti,·ltltftUlDtUtJItdN«iotttU.SeaIrily,9," (October 1994), 651-675. John Hope,"Fascism, theSc:curUyService andtheCuriousCIRenofMaxwellKniabt and JamesMcGuirkHuabes,·Lobster,22 (1991),1-5.Nicholas Hiley, °Fs and81,·

l.ondotaReview0/Boo.b, 9 (Much 1995l, 24-25.

2Hope,·Surveillance," 654.

!C.W.Harvison, 1M Hol'Snrvn(Toromo:McOelland

am.

Srcwan, 1%7).

byhavi"linfilcmeddie parties. Interestingly.thlvisonstaresdw by L936die perception of an increasingthreat frombuddina;Nazi. Fascistand CanadianFascist organizationsled 10theincreasedsttengtbofIoc:alspecialbranchesacrossCanada.·

According 10 other researchersthiswasnot thecue astheRCMP

was

not concerned withFascism until a!artr date.Vernon Kemp. author ofWithow Fmr, FIlVOIU" or A./f«:tioft.anda fonnerAssiswKCommissioner oftheRCMP.goesintosomedetail ontheworkingsof an RCMPOeulchmem:andits dealinp withFascism. He concenrrara.however.more onthe.ruundin&upofincerneesandtheRCMP's

received aaencionfromtheRCMP••third••...more sin.iscer,IfOUPwaslivenlike treatment.TheCommunistPanyhadbeentheobject: ofinvestigationfromthe earliest days of its hislDC'Yand theMounted Policeknewitsaimsandobjectives intimately...·JThis

was

theclosest Kemp cametoadmittingdwtheRCMP employed secretqentstoinvestiplesubversiveorpnizations.

In the 1970's. tteaanellloftheRCMPfocusedmoreuponmudt-takinaandon acbronokl&icaIoverviewoftheRCMP^{&I •}whole.~onindividuals.

events.and dao:s.lbis liIitraJuteontheRCMP iDc:ludedboth popularhistoriesand joumaIistic:aa:outItS.iachldilll

worts

byl..omcandCaroline Brown. Jeff Sallot,

4Harvison.1M HonntIDI. 86.

IVernon A.M. Kemp,Witholu Fem.FawNIT, orAff«ti<Ht;Thiny.Five Ymnwith theRf1Y(dCanodioItMOIPfJ«IPoIia(foronto:Lonamans, GreenandCompany.

1958).206.

RobertDion. EdwardMannand JohnLee.JohnSawwky. and la1ef Graeme MOI.lI1l.

Many of theseboob werebornout ofthe climateofRCMPwrongdoinc andthe federal MacDonald Commission, whichwasnwxIaIl:dtoinvestipte RCMPtactics.

A primeearly example of thiswastheBrowns' book.All UNUIIhoriur/ Historyofth~

RCMP,which focused on several cases ofRCMPwronadoinl.includinathe Fred Quilt case andthe Muskego Affair bodl of which dealt withRCMP/rwive relationships. TheBrownsauempcedtodernonscwe •RCMPpattern of miKonduet fromits ninew:ndK:enruryfoundinc untilthepn:sem.. Theimpetu.sfortheBrown's bookwasthe1973 celebrationoftheRCMPcencennial and the lackofcritical information onthe RCMP. SaJlot'sNobodyS4idNois&notberkeyexampleof mock-raking which focused on the dinyDicb ofthe RCMP securityservice inthe 1970's, e:speciaily Operation Ham, theRCMP',atttmpt to stealPartiQuebecois tape&.tSawatsky'stwo books,MnI ill 1MSItodt1wsandFor Servius Rmtkrtdboth examinetheRCMP SecurityServic:e.¹Ajournalist.SawaaJcy'sinrcrestinUte

break-in in1975-6.SawaukyiscriticalofcertainRCMPaetivitics. buthisrabid anti-eommunismmamhim sympuhetict:)me Force'sreprasionofCommunisa;.

tJeff

Saliot.

NobodyStJidNo:1MR«Jl SIoryQbof#tHow tM MOIIltlWA1wGysG6 TheirMtlII(ToronIO: James Lorimer, (979).R.obatCion.Crilllt!$oftMS«m Police (Montral:BlackRole,1982).

1JOOn Sawatsky,Menill1MS1IDdows:TheShodi,.,TrvlhabofII1M RCMP S«lUiry Service(Toromo: Doubkdaya: Company, Inc., (980)andFor Servicu Retwkrwl(Toronto: Doubleday a:Company,Inc., (982).

xii

While interesling:,lheSawuskyboobread mortlikespydtriUm manserious studies.Veryfewoftheseboobincludean examinationattheRCMP inme 1930's ortheRCMPandFascism. Theonebookto delve intolhelOpicisMount's Canada's Enemiu: SpiesandSpying in 1M Peaceobk Kbl8dom.·Mounl'sbook offen aSuperfICialglimpseatsevenlperiodsin CanIda's history, from spying during!heSpanish-AmericanandBoer WantotheClA in Canada durina:the1960'$.

Thechapler on Fascism in

Canada. •

NaziGermanConsularPosesas Sourcesof Information, 1933--1939,·islarplyarehashofsec:ondarysourcesandCOIUins lilde

new

information. Mowx's ICCOLIntis useful, bowevcr, u il cooc::enttaIa on lhe infomwion theGerman Consuls senttoGermany,inswd ofthemore c:ommonly examinedtopic:ofhowtheGermanConsuls influencedthelocal communities.

Theprimary problemwithmany oftheseaccouftlSisthesensational manner in whichthey were written.Almost aUoftheseboob wereproducedduring an atmOSphereinwhichRCMP wrongdoing wasbeing exposed. Inaddition,they concentratealmostcxclUSMly on meperiodafter194$ and seem fascinatatwith spies andspying.

While .::ademic lituMure

on

!beRCMPSecwityServiceisrelativelyspanc, Iherchasbeen some serious academicVo'OC'krqardingtheilllUDalIhreats toSWe Security andthe affectthese threatshadonthe

&rowth

oftheRCMP security and

'GrzmcS.Mount,CaIIada's EltDnies: SpiesGIldSpyUt,ill1MPeoctobU KUlgdom(Toronto: DundumPress, 1993).

xiii

intelligence service. As Wesley Warlc so aptlyphrasedit. theprocessof a:etting information favours narrowly focussedsndies rather than~overviews.' Thus adesperateneedfora synthesis onCaradiansecurity and i_Uieencehisrofyremains.

Ofthe workdone.twoaumorsSWIllout as audloritiesin the feW"GregKealeyand RegWhicalctr. Kealey and Whicalcet·scontnbutions CO security aDd inlelliaence hisloryincludetheir series on theR.C,M.P.S«llrityBIllhtins.including TheWar Serid, 1919-1941.'" Unfortunately, Kealey and Whitalta'concencrue on me RCMP

Security Service's fascioation, some wou.Id say obsession, with Communism. In his introduction 1017ltWar Series,Whitakerscatesdwwhile"dleweiaht of

swe

repression did fall most heavily on!hosejudpd 10 be sympatberic co Canada's enemies. yet 10theRCMPand10 manyprominent civilianoffteialsin bothOnawa and theprovincial Clpitals, itwas obviousmat.Communismwasthe pennanent and enduring enemy within.-\I

Communists in Canada, an explanationofotherRCMPdocuments is prudent 10

'Wesley Wark,-SecurityballiaeDceinea..da.I864-L945:TheHistoryofa 'Nationallnsecurity Stale'. -inKeithNeilsonand.B.J.C.McKert:bcr.eels.,GoSf11 1MLmtd:Milit4ry l1ftdli,au iIt Hisloty(Wesqat.CO:Praqu.1992), 1S6.

IO(jrqKealeyand.

Rea

Whitaker,ab.•1M R.C,M.P.S«Iuiry 8MJktiJu:17ltWar serin.19]9..1941 (St. John's:Commiaee on CanadiulLabourHislOr)', 1989). This concenlrltionon communistsisalsofound inKealeyand Whitaker's ocherbooIcsin theseries,

IlKeaieyand. Whitaker.7'ItW4I"SniLs,19]9..1941,l~ll.

xiv

determine whether that trendisindicative of the RCMP's actual work. Through my thesisIhope to show that, theReMP

was

always paranoid aboutCommunists.

viewina them at agreata'thrtat tban Fascisu, since Fascism-guaranteedatIea.sta modifiedformofcapitalism."'Thisdoesnotmeanthat theyiancndthedualto secwitythatFascismrepresented.With released RCMPfileson Fascists and Nazis numberina in the thousands of PlIeS.Ifindit diffICult toacceptWhitaker's argument lhatsince the Bulletins did not reflect this information it mustnothave been of primary imponaru to theRCMP.Insaead I sball&rJUe tbat theRCMPdidnotreport on Fascism in the Bulletinsbecause the threat.of Fascism

was

believed to be less than thatof Communism. From RCMPtq)OttS,however, itis obvious thattheRCMP saw theFascistorganizationsI Ianannoyancethat had tobe monitored. Since the SecurityBulletins

were

writtenby the RCMP forodlcrRCMPOfficersand Canadian stateoffICials. it is not surprisitlltbar:Fascistsurveillance

was

notemphasized.

Kealey and Whitakerhavemadei.mportam contribution5 to the field of security andinlellisence, includingseveralothervolumes of the Security Bulletinsandvarious articles. Kealey'swortconcenttata on the earlyyean:ofswesecurity, primarily the 1920s, while Whitaker'sworkfoeusa primlrily on the 19401. hisperhapsthis time framewhichexplainsthe lackofaaenrioD. 10 Fascism. asFascism occurredin the 1930sandearlyI~.

l2JCeaIeyandWhitaker, TheWar Seria,1919-1941, 10. Quotina Inspector Rivett-eam.clener toRobertson,NAC,NormanRobertsonPapen, vol. 12.file131, 211anuary 1939.

Kea.IeyandWhitaker areIX)(dleonly academics researchingdleRCMP Security Service. othen such asUrryHannanthave alsorakenup thechal1enae.

Hannant recently published1M IJtfupltll MtJdIiM:Invmigtltillgtheloyaltyof C4n4da'.rCilizpuwhich

was

lar&elybasedonhis PhD dissenarion.^IJHannarl's wed isadetailedstudyoftheRCMP's

vatilII

(securityscrcenina>proputCor civil servants. wbichdemoasnaestbatitorialnatcdin 1931 andIX)(in1945 aswas previowllyIhought. Hannam's aim istoexplainthemotivalion andmethodsfur investigatingpeople's loyalty. to describe thecreation ofthe securityvettingsystemin Canada. toeltplore any connectionsbetweenean.da. the Uniled States andBritain whichcouldhaveshaped thescreenilll s)'$lCftl inCana:ta.tofitsecurityscreenina inroa teduricalc::oorext,and10probethereactionsofCanMliar&s10 thisnew means of swesecurity."Hannant'sbookfocusesmore on1be

ideoIocicai

basisofsecurity screeningthanon individual case studies. Also, much like KealeyandWhil&ker.

Hannant is quite quick: 10 dismiss thethreat: posed by the Communist Party."

Therehasalso beena recentupsurp in aniclesabout theRCMP, many of thempubltsbcdinLt1bofuILe1hrwIiJ.ediledby1Ce*y. Rec:e1XeumpIcsinclude MicbacILobanlo's·UnderaWaa:bfuJ Eye: ACaseStudyofPoliceSum:iliance

ULarryHaManc. 1Jwl",mtIIl M«:Iti1W: I1Msti,.,ur,~Lt1yGkyofCaIIddD'.r Citiutu(Toronto: Universityof TorontOPress),

1m.

I·Hannant.VIeInfemoJ. ModIiM. 6-11.

ISWiIliamKaptan.-Review:TheInfernal Machine.·LtIbofuILe Trtn'tIil. 37 (Sprina 1996). 317.

Duringthe1930'5,- Paul Axelrod's ·Spyina: ontheYoung in DepressionandWar:

Students, Youtb Groupsand theReMP 19)5·1942.·and GaryKinsman's ·'Oaracter WeakDtss' and 'Fruithbcflines':TowardsanAnalysisofTheAnti-Homoosexual securityCampaian in theCanadian CivilService•••-Lonardo'sartide focuses on theReMP surveillance of Communists during the 193I)'s, usingthePaddy O'Neill case studytodemOnstrlllCthebreadlh oftheRCMP surveillance. Axelrod's anicle concentmes ontheRCMP surveillaruofIeft·leanil1l students, includincthe CanadiaDYouth

Conaras

andtheCallMIianStudent Assembly. While relevant ro my resean:hbecauseoftheir

time

period,tbetintcwoarticlesdemon:saa

more

about RCMP surveillance practises in aenera!andprovidelittle help onbow theRCMP dealt with rilht-winaorpnizuions.Thelhinl article,byKinsman,centres around theRCMP'squestdurincthe1950'sand1960'sfora scientifictest toidentify homoseAua.ls who

were

considered athreu to national.security.

Wesley Wartisanotherhistorianwhobas wriaen on securityandinrelliaence matters. Wark'sarticle,-Security Inrellilence inCanada.1864-1945:TheHistory of a'NationalInsecurity State',· arpcstbal as c:an.dafaced whatitsaw as perennial lhrearsbachfrom withinaod abroIditc:onstnaetD:I and

stteftCtbened

theRCMP securityServicetomeetthose thteau. Wan: claimsthat,aeneral1y, a scarebcc:omes il'lSeCln when itfleesincemal and externalthreatsand becomesincreasingly

I-AUthree articlesappear inlJIbowlU TI'tIWIil,3S (Sprinc I99$).lonardo, 11-42. Axelrod, 43-64; Kinsman, 133-[62.

xvii

dependem on more powerful allies forinfomwioo. This. axnbincd wilh a popular mentality ofinsecurity andasecurityservicethar:vieweditself asbekaguem1 f05lUed a stale's insecurity.ThesefJctoncertainly came

weemcr

^&1several timesin Canada's recentpast,includinathelate1930's and carty 1940's whentheRCMP saw the Communists,andtoaIesIerextent the Fascists, as il5incemalWeatandthe Axis countries as il5 eJlternal du'eat.

Oneofthemost intereStingbooks10~ontheReMP Security serviceisby twO RCMP hiswrians, Carl BetkeandSian HOrTaU,CIuttJdG'sS«lUityServic~:An Historical O.JiM,/~/966.I'This manuscript

was

writtenforimemal consumption only,prepared to help theRCMPdea.I with thefederalMacDonald Commissionwbichwas

Iookinc

infOa11eptionsof RCMP wrongdoine. The manuscript

was

released.wilhmapdeletions,U1lder theAccesstoInfonnatioa Act and has provenquite valuable10 bislorians.TheBecbandHonaUmanuscript.while adefeodel'oftheRCMP,tneesche

oricins

ofsecurity andinlelliJmc:einCanada back10Confedcnrionand00flf1llnlKcaJey's hypodlcsis that the WinnipeJ: GenenJ Strib

was

a

turninc

point inthe evolutionoftbeRCMP.·'BetkeandHonaU's subtitle.All Historit;alOfIIUM,is quiteaccun1e,sincethisis notan overview or a

I'CarIBetkeand Stan Homll,CmtDtIiJ's S«1Uity &rvb:AllHistoricGJ OIllUM, /864-/966 (Ottawa:RCMP HiswricalSection,1978).

I'Kealey,"TheSurveillance Stale:theOriainsofDomesticIntelliJence and Counter-Subvenion inCanada, 1914-1921,"/1UeUi6mc~GItdNoIiONli S«wity,1, 3 (July 1992), 180.

noiii

history so much as an oudine.Somesectionsare quite detailed while Olben are almostcompletely gklssed over. Unfi:lrumaaely,the deletionsbyCSlS andthe p~RCMPslantrendersome oftheinformatioo50meWhalproblemaDc_Theprime faultwid!!heBetkeandHorranmanuscriptisitsfailure 10question!heemergence of theRCMP as a pan.·miliwyfeden.I. policineforce responsiblefordomestic:securiry andintelligenceandoounter..,ubversion.~Betke andHortall fail 10noticedw:lhis isa situation unique intheWestern world. In Briwndomestic security and intelligence is handled by MIS.whileintheUSA it comes underthepurview oflhe FBI. In neither cueisthesccW'ityforcealsoresponsible for daytoday policing duties andparamilitary.

Threefactors

aa:ount

for the

we

appearanceand

relative

scan::ityofcritical euminations oftbe RCMP. Findy,priortotbesensational exposureofReMP wrongdoinginthe1970'sand1980'stheCanIdiaDpublicwas unwillinatobelieve that theReMPbada'secretpolice'operatioointheirmidst. Secondly, unlike meit AmericanandBritish counCEt.putl,RCMPSecurityServicememben and ex..mernbershaw taken an ulttmelyti&ht..Jipped aaiwde10their work_Therebas been w:ryliaJewbisde-blowiftlamonptea.-!a'ssecurityandiDlleIIige:nce apacies.

one recent exception beilll Mike FrostandMichel Gratton's,Spyworld:lllSiikW Ctuu1tIUJIItIIIdA.wricml1tfldJiltttetEsuIJJIisJuMtft,which focuses onthe secret

19KeaJey,"TheSurveillance State,· lBO.

world of the Communications Security Establishment.XlFinally. another reason for the lackof attentionwasthe limitedac:cesstothe historicalrec::on15of the RCMP pOor totheAcx:ess to Information ActToday.

ac:c:ess

toReMPdocuments isstill limited atbest. These limitaDonshaveshaped bowacademicsha\'e \Winenabout the RCMP.Limitedfilesare only released after specifICrequestsare put 10 CSIS. Thus.

specializedintetprewions andIWTOW

focuses

are common.

Studies on thefar right inCanIda havealsobeenrelativelyrare. Unlike the USA.wheretbc:reisabrmd raneeofmaraial.inCanadathereare only a few books dirtctlyc::onc:emed wid!. thefarriPt. Themajor theme eumined bas been racism not thefarriaht itself. While certainlyan important theme. anti-semitism basdominaled the lileratUrC: 10 anextent thatotherelementsofextremeri&flt-wing thought have been ignored. c:o..:entminc on anti-5emKismis problenwic as not all right-willllfOUPS

are

anti-semitic. FOI'inswx:e,the WeNembtaII::hoftheCanadianUnionof Fascisu

was

only -mildly anti-semitic:.^o1.lThe same is true of theItalo-Canadian Fascists whodidnotadoptan anti-semitic: platform untillate1938.D Anotherproblem with

lDMike Frost,

as

told10 Michel Granoa,Spyworld: /IUitktN0vttJdUvI1IItd AmMca/1fIdligac~EstDbii.sIuftat(Tommo:Doubkday CatIIdaLcd. L994). It

was

inl£rCStillltoIWJtetb:acMib Frost . .not )'Ctbeencbar&edwidl~inc information.Thismay makeodIcniessafrUIollelliDa theirownSlDries.

JlKeaIeyatldWhicaker.RCMPS«1uity8MJJ1ti1u./916-/939.(StJohn'l:CCLH.

forthcominJ),3.

l:1A.1oPrincipe. "TheConc:eptoflIaly inCanIda and in lralianCanadian WritinpfromtheEveofConfederatioft10 theSecoodWorldWar.0PhDThesis.

Universityof ToronlO. 1989,

2m.

TheItaJo.-CanMtiam fellilJk)linewithoffICial

using anli-semitism as thefocalpointforresearch into the far right is dlat it neglects anyCOO5idention of oorpomism. Corporalismwuas important as anti-Semitism in Fascist

ideoIoIY,

yetithasnotbeea widelyresardIed by Canadian researchm.

Abeicfreviewof!heJitmnarewilldemonsnte these problems.UtaRose Belcherman's TheSwastikatJIId 1M MopkUo/is!hemajorpublication. However, it istwenty yearsold andmany new primary sources havesubsequentlycome10 light.DThe most recenthistoricallCOOUntisMutinRobin'sSItDda0{Righi:

NativisttutdFtudslPolilicsiJI~ I~J9«).)lRobin'sbook,apin unfortunatelyamctntrMesonanti-SemitismradIerdian Fascism. Forinscance,be devoteSlongsections10 whetherDuplessis

was

an anti-Semite.Robin'sbook contains valuable information, unforwnuely in coverina a twenty yearslimespan some subjects are inadequately dealt wilb. Robin.alsonea:k:etsissuessuch.as Whypeople joined Fascist movements. what mativued !bern,and howlanatheyweremembers.

While Robin uses recent docwnelllS such as me RCMP fiRs. be does notappear10 give them as much weiaht as !he secondary sources. His chapter "Brethren" on Nazism

amonc

Getman-Canadianlis one of his weakest areu, drawing almost

Italian policywid!.muchproII:SLBy early 1939,bowewr, Italian rascistnewspapen inMontrealand. Torontowerepublisbirll anri-semitic slurs.

"lita-Rose BelCherman,~SwostikCI4JtdtheMopkUtzf (Toronto: Fitthenry&:

WhileSide,l97S).

-MartinRobin,S1wIda0{RI,M:NtItivist4JtdFascist PolitiaillC4IIada.

1~19«J(Tonno:Univenit>' ofTororlIOPress, 1992).

entirely on Waa:ner's.BrotJren &!yoN!tM$ftJ. While Wagner'sbookisexcellent.

Robin doesIJO(balance itoutwithmore ofdienewly available RCMPdocuments.

Perhapsmelar&est problem withtheRobinbook.however.is that thereislittle differencefrom8ecchenna.n. Dapice using some new sources,Robin does

nor:

challen&tBc:u:herman'sessential thesis. tnaddition, Robintails toanalyzewhatthe Fasc::isl;pheoomelWJnoould (CUllSaboutCaDldiu society in me 1930's. In atnOC'e recentbook.Warren KinsellaCOf'lSidenmefarri,htofthe1980's inWebofHau:

Inside CaMda'sFa'RightNetWOrlc.:ISIts brief overviewof the hisroricalbackground is mosdy culledfrom8etdlerman',~Sw/J.JtikQ:QN/theMapkUaf.

Therehasbeenverylittle wriaenspecifw:aUy on French-Canadiu Fascism.

Mostof theliteratureconsistsofchapten iD8elchcnnanud RabiDbooksor senwionaI bookspubtisbed bysupportenofAdrienArcand. Forexample.AdriI1l ArcandtkwmI~tribfutalu J'1tistoit'e

was

published bythecutTCntday reincarnation of Arcand'sNational UnilyPartyandJeanCoc6'sNirina Arcand:11Mgnwkjigurt!

dtnotretempsisextremely pro-Fucist." There are also two Masters theses on the silbjec:t. Real e..u:'sole PartiNaticnJSocialCbrftieu: AdrienArcand.sesidees, son ocuvreetson influence,~aDdRoU.odeMoncsioft',~LesGraDdeIthemesdu

l5WarrenKinsella,WebofHQle: ltuidlC4Mrd4'sFar

Ri""

^{N«wort(Toronto:}

HarperCollinslid., 1994).

HPartiDeL'Unicc NacionaleDuCanada.,Mrim An:4IId DewullLA TriJnmaJ De L 'Histoin(Monczat, 1983)aDdJeanCoc6,Adrim Af'CIIIfd: UM Gf'tWk Figun

u

N~eTemps(MonriaI: I..es EditionsPan--America,Collection:HistoireetTl"Iditions, 1994).

xxii

mouvement nationaIsocwchretienetd'AdritnArcandVWIparIesprirw;:ipaux joumaux fasc:isleSau.Canalda ftancais, 1929-1938."nTheCauxlbesisfocuses primarily on Arcand as leader and his innueoc:e:s, whiie the Montsionlhesis examines lhe overall themes of the N.S.C.P. Mboththesesend their examinations in 1938, they onlyexplorethe foundina:ofthe N.U.P., ianoring the iruemmentofArcand.

Thereis still no euminatic:ln oldy oo.Iy 27 membersofthe N.U.P.wereinterned while847Germansand 632 Iralians

were

intemed. severalother wodaconcentrate onami·Sc:mitism in Quebec. For example. Esther Delisle's1heTroitoraIfdrMJew is concemed with Fascism solelyISa meansto prove that Lionel Groulx, L'AcrUM NatiDtttlUand14 Dftooirwereall anti-ScmitK:.1&Abofocusinaon anti--5emitism

1929-1919. written by David Rome aspartoftheCanadianJewish History series.:no WhileRomeexaminesFascisminthe Frencb-CanadiaD, ltaio-Canadian and

Gcnnan-Canadianoommunitiesitis also soklyfromthe pointof view oftheir anti-semitism.

Z7Rea1Caux.,"LePutiNationalSocialautticn:Adricn Arcand.5CSidees,son OCIMCetJOGinfluence." MA, Univenilt du Laval, 1958, and~1aDdcMontsion,

"Le:sGrandcs tbcmcsduIDCJl,IvaDCfttnationalsocialchretienetd'AdricnAtcandvus parlei principluxjournauxfasciRaau.CanIda~,1929-1938," MA. Univenice d'oaawa., 1975.

J&EstbcrDelisle,1M TmiJortufd1Mlew(Montreal: Roben Davies Publishing Inc., 1993).

:rtoavidRome,ClDfIdsilldvTJrirries:ONAJrtisOffilisMUt Owadc.1929-1939 (Montreal:CanadianJewishCoap'ess, 1977). Volumes 1·l3.

xxiii

Thefield of Italo-Canadian Fascism is growingwithseveral established historians,and graduatestudentsCW'Tently wortina on various aspectsofthelOpic.

Theresc:an:hrangesfromFascismand theCamoIicChurdl.

as

indie workofLuigi Pennacchioin his anicle"TheTorrid Trinity: Toronto's Fascists, halianP'riesuand Archbishops OwingtheFascistEra,192CJ.I940," CO internment.forexamplethe wackof Bruno Ramirez.Jllcase studies of S9C'Cif'tC Italian communities have been undenaken by PeMlCCbio ·Citiz.ensofFascist Italy:

Exponinc

FascismtoToronw's Italians. 1929-1940,·Cumboinhis fonhcomilll Ph.D. on Hamilton, and Penn.

"Mwna Good FascistsandGoodCanadians:ConsularPropapndaandtheIlaiiaD Communityin Monlfe&l inthe193O·s."nUnfonurwely.there are only a fewgood syntheses onllaliansin Canada, let alone on Italian Fascism in Canada. Two ofthe bestboobon ItaJo-Canadians and immigration areRobertHarney's!Ul1i4trsinNorth

lOLuiaiPennacchio."TheTorrid Trinity: Toronto's Fascists. Italian Priestsand Archbishops DuringtheFascist Era, 1929--1940," in M.G. McGowan and B.P. C1adc, eds.,Catholicsat1MGtIlhm,.,PIDa(ToronIO,1993)andBruno Ramirez,

"Ethnicity on Trial:Thelcalians ofMontreal and the5ec:oDdWorld War," in Norman Hillmer,BobdanKordaD:.aIIll: Lubomyr

Luciuk.

eds,.011a-udftH'T7rft:War, EIJuridly,tJJtddtttC4MtJilJJaSltIte,19~!945(Oaawa:CanadianCommiU1llefor the HisroryofSec:OIIdWorkl War, 1981).

J1Perin,·CitizensofFascist (laIy: Eqlortina Fascism 10 Toromo's Italians.

1929-1940.· in Frara

rc.oveua

and PaulaDraper,eds., SojofInwrs.5mllnD1td StrrJJIg~n:{SSIID ill!""";,1'fItiDIIHisttNy(Toronto:University of TorOluo Press, forthcomina)andRobertoPerin,"MakilllGoodFascistsandGoodCanadians:

ConsularPropapndaandtheItalian Community in Montteal inthe1930s,· in Gerald Gold,cd.MiJtoriIil!SaJtdModtuCoMIItry{",.,uy (S1.John's: Institute ofSocialand EconomicRcsc:arcb, 1984).

A1MricQ. and Harney andJ.Virann. Scarpaci'sl.iak lto.iia in North Amrrica.n Harney's work: pioneeted the field of ltalo-Canadian studies and included an anicle on

"Toronto'slittle lIaly, 1885·I94S.· which

was

one ofthe first anides to examine FascismandthehalianCOIIl.Munitics.JohnZuc:c:bi'sIUllialuillT()f'OfIIq;lHv~lopmDu ofIINtItiDttal.lde1rtiJy. /875-1915 is anotber

&ood

examination of the TorontO lIaHan community. inchadinc acbapferon Fascismandwhat effect it had on the halian community.lJ Aaothersynthesis on ltalo-Canadians isKennethBqneU'sCo.Mdts~:

A Portrait of ItalitVIC41fDdiQIIS.J-6An excellent examination of howworldevents and cultural developments:affccrcdCanadian Italian communities isAngeloPrircipc's Ph.D. thesis,-rbcCoocept of (tale in Can8daandin Italian Canadian Writin&S fromtheEveof ConfederationtotheSecondWorid War.·^JSPrincipearguesthat Fascismcauseda lfOWinapolarizationofCanadian lIalian rommunities,with the Ethiopian crisis creating neptive fcelinas rowatds Italians. Principe's thesis counlerS the image of Italians asFascisrs by examining anti·Fascists. Also wotking on anti-Fascism areRobVentresca andFtaIICI.Iacovetta. While the Italian facldis

JZR.obcrtF.Harney,lt41kuui.NonIeA.mtricII(foromo:MulticulturalHistory SocietyofOnwio, 1981),andH.wneyandJ. Virx:enzaSc:aq:JiIl:i, Ullle ltlllitsill NorthMwrlca(T0f0III0:MuldculanJ HistorySa::ietyofOmario.1981).

DJohnE. Zuc:clli.ItllliollillTtHOIftO:~IopmmtofIINtItiofttIJldnttily, 1875-/915 (KinplOD andMontreal:McGilI-Qqeen'l UniversityPress. 1988).

}tKenneth Baanell,QmQda~:A Pomail0/ItlJJillllCtuttJdiDM(roronlO:

Macmillan of Canada, 1989).

~Principc.-rbcConcept: offealUsinCanada..1989.

growingthere are still several areas tumndy unexplored, including the role of women Fascists andthero&e ofItalianspiesin sendingotherItalians 10the internment oamps.

hisroriop'apby is quiresparse,but one writerhasemctpd as the authority in the area.

Jonathan Wagnerhas wrinen severalarticlesand one book.BTOiMn&yottd the5«1:

NaJiONJiSocialismillCancad4." BrodtD's~dieSed:attempts co placethe phenomenon ofGerman-eanadian NazismwithintheCORlell:tof Canadiansociety of the 1930's. tryina 10 link it 10 thesocio-economic systemthat led 10 the Depression.

Wagner'sbook. drawson earlierworks. includingJohnOffenbeclc'sMAthesis·The NaziMovementandGermanCanadians.1933-1939.·n Bydescribing thegellCfal charactcristicsoftheGerman-Canadianrommunity and kx*inaatthe formation of meNational SocialistPartyinCanada.WaaDerplcesGerman-CanadianNazism within Canada's Fascist community.ODeofthe henetics of the Waper bookis his use ofGermansources.Ik'Italwaysaccessible10re:searcbersinCaMda.

RobertH.Keysertinakhaswridmseven1keyarticles00thesubjectof

. l6JonathanWqner,1JnJtJwn1kyoItddieSa.'N4di:JNIl Sod4JUmillG1Mda (Waredoo,Oncario:WilfridLaurier UniversityPft:u,1981).

lTJohnOffenbect,-TheNazi MovementandGermanCanadians1933-1939,·MA thesis, University ofWesICrnOntario.1970.Otherinfluentialworksinclude Heinz lehman,1M~mwrCA1uJd:UuIS1750-1937,

transw=

and edited by Gerhard P.

Swier (St. .John's:JespenonPress,1986), andRobertKeyserlinalc, -Breakingthe NaziPlot: CanadianGovernment Attitudes TowardsGermanCanadians, 1939-194S.·

in Hillmer, KordanandLuciulc.eds.•01:GfIaI'd/rN17w.S3-70.

German-Canadians during World WarTwo, includina: "Allies or Subversives? The Canadian Government's Ambivalent Attitude towardsGerman.canadiansin the SecondWorld War.""Mxkenzie KinK's Spirit1aaJism and h.is View of Hider in 1939." "Breakina the NaziPlot:CanadianGovemmerx AttitudesIOWardsGerman Canadians,1939--1945.""Arena withintheGales:theSeard'l COl'"NaziSubversives,"

and "Which Fatherland in War?The:Canadian Govenunent'S View of German CanadianLoyaltiesin World WarTwo."" Keysulingk'sessays are weUwritten andresearched. but h.is need 10provetbu dteRCMPinvatiptionsinfo German-eu.dians neverturnedup any domestic:spiesorsaboceuncontinues10 bea problem." Keyserlinak attributes this 10 two thinas: the lick. of intelligence capability ofthe RCMPand thelack. ofany subversivethreat within the community.

He doesnotmakeitCRariftheReMPc:oWd not cau:h theFascistsbecauseofalack:

of intelligence capacity orbecausetbey did not Cllist. ItappearsthatKeysertinp

:llIKeys.erlingk.. "MKkenzie Kine's Spiritualism and his View of Hitler in 1939,"

JoumaiofOutadhutStlldia.20. 4 (1985-6), 26-44, and"Allies or Subversives?The Canadian Government's Ambivalent Attitude towardsGennan-ean.dians in the SecondWoOd War" inPanikosPanayi, ed.•MiJtoriderillWdIftMt:NtJtioNUtIIfd R4ci41 GfOIIPUcIs illEIuope,NDnIIAmmaItUtti AJut1ali4tbIriJIIdfIt1WoWorld Wan (Oxford:

Beta

PublisbenInc••1993). 239-260."~theNaziP&ot."OftGwurJ for171ft, 53-70.o'A,enawithin

me

0..':'TheSearchforNaziSubveniva in CanIdadwina World.War 0⁰CaMrIiMHisIoriaJI1M1ew.66. 2. (1985).211-239.

'Which Fadleriand in W.,'!'Theca..dianGoYemment'sView ofGermanCanadian Loyaltiesin World WarTwo.' in T. Yedlin. ed.,Ce1rtrtIltIIttIEiutmaEiuopftm ErhnicityillCcuwIda.'AdtJpttslioIItUttiPranvotioII(Edmonton:CerdralandEastern European Studies Society of Alberta. 19M). 133-171.

"This isa theme consislaJt

dtf'ouahout

Keyserlinak'sarticles.for example see

"AlliesorSubversives?" 246, xxvii

believes that,because there were no attemptS at sabotage, no German-eanadians should have been interned. Keyser-linck'sneed10 clearthename of the interned Germansdeaactsfromhis otherwise well wriaen articles.

UnfortunateJy, since thewritinpof WilDer and Keyseriinp- therehasbeen littlenewresearch, despile theavailability of

new

information in RCMP documents.

The RCMPrcpon:s rontaindetailson all aspectsofGerman-Canadian Fascism,filling in manyppsinlbecurrentlileWW'e.Onesuchppis the discussion of aovemment

GermancommWlity not intemed.-TheRCMPreporualsocontainochervaJuabMe primary sources,includingnnslared excerptSfromGerman language papersand theme sonpfromvariousGermanorpnizatiotll.

lruemment hiscoryisaarowinafieldwithean.diaJlhistorians,rescued from

ror compensation by Japanese-Canadians, lWo-Can.diam:,and

Ulcrainian-Canadians.⁴¹ Earlierworkson internment durilll World War (( include

CCSlS,"TheNaziPartyinean.da,WR.C.M.Police,Special Branch,Oaa..-a,

February 1947, 58-72. .

411ftdle

cae

of ltaio-CanMIians,itisironicthat Luisi PtMlCChio. a historian opposed tocompensationforItalo-CanIdians, ICNaIlyspvkcdtheItalo-Canldian community'sdemandsfor compensation. PennlCdtio gave a talk in January 1989 on the imemmelllofIraJo.CanIdiaasto •JfOUPthat included MPP Anna:MarieCutrilli whoseoutrqeoYettheCanldiln aow:rnment's IlCtions pushedherintodemanding

...

aviii

Ann Gomer Sunahara's1MPoliticsofRacisM bochfecusing on

Japanese-Canadians.·^JIn additionto thesehave been J.A. Cicoocelli's MA Thesis,

"TheInnocuous Enemy Alien: haJians inCanIdaduring World War II," Luia:i Liberati's "IIC&nada. l'haHa e il fascismo 1919-1945." Bruno Rarniru's "EdlnicilY on Trial:TheItaliansofMomrealandthe5ec:ondWorld War."andMarioDuliani's La Ville Sa.vFmrnw.^o Inaddition,Ted Joneshaswriacn atwOvolume

won:

derailingthedaily routineofthoseinternedatFrederic1ol1, 80dISUUsofthe Wire:

TM FmierietOtlIttlentntenlCamp."More recentworks have gencraily takenthe form of articles. most consisting of either case SNdics orproc:edutalanalysis.

Thekeyprob~mwiththe edmicinlenlJDentsrudiesistIwthe authors appear

fOapproradI theirropicswitha Iympatbetic view,DOtofFascism iaelf. butratherof theirindividual communities. Foreump5e, mostoftheabovementiooed authorstake great painstodiscuss individualmotives for joining Fascist organizations, often excusing membership by rationalizingitinlCf'tnSof insurance, companionship or

9(enAdKbi,1M &mry71tatNever Willi: A HiIkJryofdwJIIptIIfGICmtatJiIJIu (Toro••" ...&OopenIlennyo.1976). AMGoa>o<S _1MPoIiJia0{

RJJcisIrt(Toromo:James Lorimer

a.

Co.,1911).

0J.A.CiccooeIli,'"TheIMlXUOUI Enemy Alien: ltaliansinCanada

I:>urinc

World Wu II,· MA, UnivenityofWesecmQIario,L917. LuigiLiberati, IICaIIad4, l'[ttWOt'ilfasdsmtJ1919-1945 (Rome:8onK:ciEditore, 1984).BrunoRamirez,

"Ethnicity on Trial:theItalians of MonttaJ.andtheSecond World War,· in Hillmer.

Hordan. and Luciuk.edt.• 0,.GM4rrI{or 1'hft.

Wf'cdJones.BothSidaofriteWin': 11tt'Ff'ftIkric1tHf Il1lt'1JUlft'1flComp,vol.2.

C F _ '

New

A_... ^1989).

culnue. Whilethisin itself is not a problem, it becomes one whenIfUeFascists are ignored. Inaddition, many of these authon appear to havelettheir sympathies colour the way they view the government's decision 10 ineem membersoftheethnic communities. BothCumbo and Keyscrlinp:: stressthat as there were no convicted spiesexsabotqecasesthen the government hadno riatutointernanymembers of thesecommunities. repnUessoftheir beliefs. The authors. with some eltceptions. do notseemwilling to accord theirsubjcdJ any responsibilityfortbeir part in joining and remainiRlmembers ofFascistorpnilations.

Proceduralreviewsoftheinlemmelllprocess have been written byRea Whitaker.~OfficialRepressionof Communism

Dv.riDa:

Wodd War II," John Stanton"Government lna:mmentPolicy, 1939-19.U: and Daniel Robinson -Planning for the 'MostSerious Continaency': Alien Internment, Arbitrary Detention and the CanadianStale. 1938-1939.~ Unfortunately,allthreeof these procedural reviews focus predominantly onthe internment ofCommunists.raaherthanonFascists. To daletherehis been very little procedural or case study typeevaluationson Fascists.

with the exoeptioaofRDbertKcysertiJllk

wtae

articks cumine theCanadian government'sattitudestoWards GmDan ean.diansaDd bowmis led toimemment.

"Wbitaker,~OfficialRepression of Communism Dunne World War 11,- lAbow'/UTravoil,17(Sprina1986), 135-166. Swnon, -Government Internment Policy,1939-1945,-Labotu/UTrtzvGil,31(Sprina1993), 203-241. Robinson,

"PlanniRJ(exthe'MostSeriousContinaency': Alien Intemment. Arbitrary Detention.

andtheCanadian SIatC,1938-l939,"10fI11IQJO{C4Mdif»tSlwIies,28 (Summer 1993). S-20.

William Kaplanadds 10tileissue by invesrigatin, the little known persecution of Jehovah's Wimesses in hisboot StateQN/Solvation: TheJdtovohWinrasaand their jigluforCivilRigltls.⁴

wasjustif'Jed.Onone extreme there are bistorians who believe internmentwaswrong no mauerwhat thecircumstancesandattheother extreme therearethosewhobelieve the governmentacted entirely appropriately liven Canadawuatwar. While me largemajorityof5CbolarsraJl somewhereinbetween,merenewedinterest in internmenthassparked callsforoffICialapoIoaicsandcompensationbysevenlethnic organizations.Thete I\asbeen a renewedinterestininternJnent,especiallyamong halo-Canadian historians.On the one extremeisGabriek: Scardcl1ato who believes that bythe act of forcil1l ItaIo-Canadians toregisk:rand potentially face inlemment the CanadianGovernmentdeclaredwaraDitsethnic commun.ities.C'1BrunoRamirez inpart

aarees

withSatdcIJaao's statements.

lUinc

w::c:pcion to the term declaration ofwar. Ramirez believes me Stale humiliated asqmentof the pq!UIation without

*William Kaplan,$tIIUtIlfdSd1wJIkJIL. 1MJdtt1wJhWitIIrsustuttitheir fighlfor Civil

Ripn

(TorontO:Univenity ofToromoPress,1989).

C1Gabriele Scardellalo, in questionperiod for session lV,-ThePoliticsof Internment: ftalianean.diansin ComparativePenpec:tive, - Speech Thelltlemmetrl of lraJo-CiJNlditUtS DllrillgeMS«oIIdWorld War: A.~to Bruno Ramirez, (York:Columbus Centre), 14Ocrobcr1995.

xxxi

cause by forcing registration and internment onits ethnic communities." At the other endofthe specuumis historian Luigil...iberatiwhobelievesthaJ. given the wartime circumstancesCanada

was

justifiedinits halo·Canadian incemmenB.

Liberati&tIues dw thefactdw theReMPand theIDCdrew theline between the leadersof Fascismand therank.ancMile members,showsthatit

was

not indiscriminate internment. Liberati holds the Canadian aovemmem responsible failing lOdifferentiae to the public that

nee

all Itl.kH:anadianswereFascists."Other hislOrians fall somewhere in the mKSd5e, believina that while illlienlment itself

was

a validaction, itwaspoorlyenacted.Suchistheopinion of Fnnca lacovetta,Robeno Perinand An,elo Principe whobelieve that while the Swe wenttoOfar in the internmentprocesIthatitwu

nee

aetinc with deliberatemaliceapinsr:Ilalians.^JlI Otherhisrorians sw:his Anrooio Mula

acree.

addingtfw:theproa:ss of internment

"BrunoRamirc2,"TheUnbearableLiJhtne:ssoftheStale: Reflections onthe Policy of l1alo-Canadian tnlef'l\lllCnt- Speech,1M lnle1'1tmDll

at

ltolo-CtuuJdiQ/U During 1M S«ond World W4I': A

CotVemtt:e..

Speech (Yen:ColumbusCcnttt),14 October1995.

"Luiai Liberati.-SurveillanceoflbdicaJs and Fascist Activityinthe Italian CommUlliticlillCanIda. -Speecb.1M/1UT1IIfWIft

at

l~lhurlttdie.

S«ottdWorldW4I': ACi;NpmtU (York:Columbus Ceatte).14Ocrober1995.

JlIAs

was

shownby theirfeSIlOClMStoquestionsAI1M llfltnuttt1tt

at

llaJo-CturtMJiDIu DIUiIllthe.S«:t:Htd World W4I':ItCotr/tmtee.,Speech (York:

Columbus Centre). 14October1995,

"AnlOnioMazza,"Memoryandthe ItIJo-CanIdiansDun,.the Depression and the War. - Speech,17teltrtmuW1ftfI//~

DruiJf&

tItISe.a:MdWorld War:

xxxii

Whiletheacademicdebatehaslargely concennscd on the ltalo-Canadian community. historian Roben Keyserlingkhasalsoapplied il toGermazK:anadian5.

Keyserlingk's UJument against imemmcnlislWO-fold:

rltSt.

Uwthere

was

DO large- scaleNaziconspincyinCanada;and second.dIatevenifIherewas aNazi ooaspiracyin

ean.a..

IheRCMPhadneilher

me

manpowerorIheinrelJigeo::e capability rorandit.Thus. wilhIheseCOIItt'Idiaofyideas.Keyser1inak argues Uw internmentwasunjUSlirJed. Keyserlingk SUteS Uw~inconttaslID the published off'Ciai versions ofthis maner. the police and bureaucms badnol:been directed beforethe crisis ID collecl adequue hard information aboutGennan-Canadiansand.

Nazism inean.da.~!JIn addition. Keyserlinp:believesdw: IheRCMPoouk1nol:

Gennan-CanadiansID'

were

Ihey everrequiredID do so bytheir politicalmasten until

JUS[

beforethewar."Keyserlinatc maintains dIat

me

government decision to move against German Canadianshadless to do with unc:overina; security threats. and

more

ID do withdomestic~itica1goals. Hethinksthe politicians were pressured by

itCot(nnce. SpecdI(YOfk:Columbus Cemre).14 October 1995.

fiJtobcttKcyserlinck. •• Alenawitbin theGala:TheSearchfor NaziSubversives inCanadadurinc Worid War U.~CDIIadi4l'IHistoriallRniew.66. 2(l98S),214.

uRobett Keyserlinak. "BreakinatheNui.Plot:CanadianGovernment Attitudes Towatds German Canadians."in Norman Hillmer,80tIdanKordanandLubomyr Luckiulc.eds.,OJIGwud/or 11w: WGT. EJJuUciry.QIftI1MCa1ttJdUuISlate, /919-1945(Ottawa;CanldianCommi=efortheHisuxyofthe SecondWorld War.

(988).54.

uxiii

thepanickedpublic 10 • action; intum. the politicianspressuredthe RCMPand bureaucratS tofind them proof ofNazispying.Thepoliticians wanced to be able 10 give thepublic the impreuion dw theywerein control ofthe silUalion. Theharried requests for immediate action led the RCMP to throw to&ether haphazard lists grounded on mcmbenhip inGermancultural orpnizations,some Fascist but others 00<,based on anonymous tips or neilbbours' denunciations.'" Kcysc:rlinak argues that

tfuouabout

the1930'stheGovernmentpaid limeanentioDtothe possibility of Nazisubvusionin

eu.ta.

However.thisisnD(borne outintheevidence. There

were

RCMP reports detailinc Nazism initsmanyforms.the N.S.D.A.P.• the D.A.F.

and the Bundfrom1933 onwards. Keyserlinp: isconectin hisassumptionthatthe RCMP wasnotoverly roncemedwithNazism.preferrina to concentrate on Communism asthe greater threat. Keyscrlinck's arpmcntthat theRCMPwas incapable of investiptilll the GermaJl..Canadian communities because of a language barrieris alsoincorrect as theRCMPbad trained otrlCm capable of speaking Gennan.

TheCW'TCIItdcbItcOYertbejustifir;:alioa

or

inIr:rtlmcatip;Jrestheapcaof responsibility,bothstU.andpenooal. What.responIibilitydidthepemmenthave toWatdsits citizens.awholeandwithiJl certain ethnic communities'?Docsthe government have a responsibility toitself and its citizens apilBtthosewho mipt have double loyalties'? Thesecooc1questionarisesoutof theconcept of loyalty.Can

"'Keyserlinck. "BreakinctheNaziPlot." 55.

axiv

a person be loyal to Canadaand another Slate It the same time? Whatifthat Slate is anenemyofC&nIda? Whatresponsibility did thesepeople havefortheiractions?I wouldanswertheftrStquestion byswingdw diesovemmentfaikditsethnic:

communitiesduring themid-l930s whenit allowedfuc:ismtobepropagated unchecked. bytheGermanand Italian Consuls.Second, that after already failitl& the ethniccommunitiesthe government had littlechoicebuttoattempt to pmcect die rest ofthecounttyfromthe potential problems of

a110wina

aportionofits popu.Ialion to embrace Fascism. especially whenCanadawent towarapinst Italy.Hadthe governmentcheckedthe spread ofconswarFascisminthefustplace,thetewouldnor:

have beentheneedtointentso many people. ~forthequestionofdouble loyalty, itwas

never-

made cleatto inuniarana thatinorder tobea

aood

can.dian theywere supposedtop~aetheir allegiancetoCanadaandCanadaalone.However,despite the government's failure to stop the growth of Fascism,noteveryone in emnic communities emtnccd Fascism. Iodeed rdalively few did. This brilllSl.lS10 the issue ofpersonalresponsibility. While rank--and-filemembm can bee~fornor:

unclerslanding theissueofloyalty 10 Italy,thole in leadership positions welllcnew what theywere~.ThoseinleldershiproIe:smusttakeresponsibilityfor activelypromoti. FIIl:ism.AsiDIemmenl:wassuppoICd 10tarIClonly fascist leaden.it

can

beItJUCdtbu

mosc

ofthole illllCmeCl kDDwinc1y~Fascism.

Thisisnotto say that all thole interned.wereFascist~,many

were

interned under fUse~byvindictive neighboursand !helike. Thus,while !he

government shouldhavePUl astopto overtFascismearlieron, itcannotbeexpected totake theblamefor internircpeoplewhom theybelievMwereleadenin subversive organiDrions.

There are severa.! key problems OInnina:throughthe literature asitrelmsto theRCMPandFascism.TheseproblemsiDeludealack:of sytXfleticwork inanyof meflCkis. Tbete is stillnohistoryofmeReMPSCaIritySetvU,noristherea histofy of inremmentinCanada.Authorshavecbosen. for many reasons,tofocus on narrowly defined topics ratherthan live asynthesisof the field. In addition. the role ofwomen as Fascistshasbeen complecelyi&nored.asbasthe topic of women internees,bothofwhich desperalely need to be uamined. My reseatdlisrdeva.nt to the ftcld for three reasons:flnC.,I attempt to live a tJro.d overviewofthe topicof Fascism,usingdocurnenU wbich live theRCMP'spointofview. Second, in c:onoentraringontheRCMPreactiontoFascismitbasbeen necessarytodelve into theideologyofkeymcmbmofIbcRCMP. Thishaskid10my~the

ideoIoaical

makeup oftheRCMP dun.. tbc L9)O's. Third. I aaempttointroducethe topicofwomen andFascism,albeitin a veryleneralizedmanner. Hopefully.now

mar.

re:searcbersare awarethal tbis topic exists, someone will bqill to fill inthis lAP inthelicaawre. Inaddition,sevaaIlocaltopicsneed to beexamined orre-examined in lia,htofnewinfornwionbeilllmadeavailableduou&htbeAccesstoIllfonnation Act. For example,thereare very fewstudieson French-Canad.ian Fascism, mose studies^OftGerman-CanadianFascism are all mertwemyyearsokI.andwhile halian

fascismisa arowina:fiekl theareaofwomen in Fascism has been entirelyignored.

rnaddition,my thesisattempts10 use RCMPdocu~nlSCD examinehowtheideology of theRCMPinnuencedits writina:of reportsonfascism. While Robin,Pennacchio and others llave used someRCMP documents, theyhave done50soleLyfocthe information theycomainontheFascistgroups. Noone has looked atwhat

n»e

the RCMPplayed inCanadianFascism. This thesis uses theRCMPdocuments oot only forinformationbutabofordaQ.theRCMP was concernswhichgroups were slltVeilled.and bow

many aaems were wornna

oa these cases.

xxxvii

Chap", 1· CaJW!jan Fpciyn in

rbc

1910:1

Fascism swept: muchofEuropeduring the L930s. mostAOQbly in Germany andItaly.There

were

also Fascist movemenu in NorthandSouth America. In

CanIda.

Fascismfound adherentsprincipally amanathree1f'OUPS:German- Canadians. halo-Canadians.andnon-immigrant Canadians.bothFrench and English speaking. While Fascism neverbecame wKlespI'Qd.evenintheGerman and Italian communities. it is important 10assesswhatrole Fascismplayed. In investigatingthe arrivalof Fascism inCanadaand who joinedFascistorpnizations. dlischapterwill examine theFascist pbcnomelKKl inCanadadunncthe1930s. InIddition.it will explorethe variousFascist1fOUPS.not10 analyze their

ideoIo&Y.

but ratber10 assess theactionsoftheseJI'OUPSand. LaIicron inchIpIerthree,theractionsoftheReMP mdlem.

inaQ5edgrowthin sldltadicalorpniDtionsas Fascism. Communism.and Socialism.Thec::ombinadoo ofdieooIlapse ofCaDIda's5CIOCk and wheat marketsand faJliDl consttuetionstartsdevaswecICanada'sec:onomy. These factorsconttibu~to theunemp50ymentofover one-fifth ofCanadianmales. Railways alone laid off over 70,000.IAstheU.S. eltportmarketclosed,factorieslaidoffeven

more

employees.

IUta_Rose Bctchcnnan.17wSw4stikGand tJvMGpkLnIf.'FGSdst MumM1Ils in G2IIada inthe Thinia (DonMills: Fitzhelq' and WhitesideLtd.,1975). 2.

Especiallyhard hitwerePrairiefannerswhol'aced drou,)u.. grasshopper infestations.

and tust-infecl2d.crops. Many municipalities and some citieswereforced10declare bankruptcy.1 In anattempt10 help. the loverrtmentiuuedrelief cheques to over 84.

000men, womenand children. As theBennett aovernmcnt continueditspolicyof lt1issel.fDireeconomics. manyturnedco more radical orpnizations,suchasthe Fascists.forallCf'nativesoluUons.

Immilranu who arrived durinllbe1920shada panic:ularlyhardtimedurinl theDepression. Manyhadonlypineda fewyt.:aBofst.asor* employmentbefore theDepressionhit. Once unemployed,thesenewirnmiJIUU did not qualifyforaid and thosethat did qualifyforaidwereput ina tenuousposition.Ac:ceptina: public reliefmeantthe possibility of deponarionor,when thewarbrokeout.imemment.

Immigrants couLd notbecomepublic cbar:ges inCanadaWIderSections40and41 of theImmigrationActwhic:b madeitmandaIoryfor allmunicipIJandpublic off'acials 10 reportany immilJUbdependellt011.relief.

Durina

theearly yeanofthe Depression relief related deportations sicy-rocteted, with 430~in 1928,2106in L930 and 4916 in 1933.¹Increasinaly,deponationswereUJedas an excuse to shuntthepoor

lBanyBroMfooc,TmLostYtan1~19J9:MmtOriaaf CtwIdiDIuWho Survivedthe DqmsitHI (Toronto:Doubleday Canada,Ltd., 1973), vii..iJt..

'A. Grenke, "FromDreams of the:WortetScale co Fi&btifta Hider:lbc GerJnan-.Caadu Left fromtheDqlressiolllO the eIXl.ofWoOd Wu I,"lAbofulU Trawlil, 3S(Sprina 1995), 67. Citincea.da'sYa:u6oot,1940, 161.

As conditiortsworsened manyCanadiancitizens and immigl'anlS became increasinglyradicalized.whichledto

idcoIo&ical

polarization amana: immipant groups.'It

was

notuntil1937-1938 dW:CanIdabegantoII'IO'VeOUt or the Deprcuion but by that time manyCanIdianshIIId already lostfaithin the syscem.' Despite somenewimmipulSfindiD&anicheintheecooomy. a socialdistancestill existed between themand their Canadian neiahboun. Combining this disWICC with the tendencyornewimmip'ants 10honour theirhomdandsmeanlmollnew immi&fantgroups

were

notas qudly assimilated imoCaMdian50Ciety as the govemmcm:

wantr:d.' Pmcrams

such

as

AdIarchez.IIOMI'and"CanIdafor Canadians"

only encouraaed

new immigranlS toturnfurtherintotheirown commLmities. forming 'Litde Italics'. and equ.ivalencs. in cities andc:ountrysides.

Manyorthe

newc:omen

found wortin CanIdaasWIStillc:d 1Iboums.buildingm.ds, railways.

sewers

andcanalsor workinainmines. foundries orf:aaories.Thesejobs

'BarbaraRoberts."ShoveJli~Out the'Mutinous':PoliticalDepona.tioofrom CanIdaBefore1936."LiIboIIrIU TrtIWIiJ.18 (Fall 1986), 79.RDbens,W1Imudtey CGnw:DeporttItiDcr/TOIft C4IIGda:19aJ.19J5(Onawa: UnnoenityofOttawaPress.

'981).

!Carmela Paula.

-n.e

PoIiticizalion ofPaIaMlmmipana,· in Fran;:alacoveua andPaulaDraper.eels••Soj~.Sdrkn tutdStrrmtm:ISJIIQililmmigralion History(Toronto: UnivenityorToroncoPress,rortbcomiJla), 11.

~rooc..TnLostYean'. 1.5.

'CharlesM. Bayley,"The SocialSttucon:of11llian and Ukrainian Immi&;rant CommUilities in Monaealinthe1930',.~MA Thesis,Mc(jillUniversity,1939.3.

were exttemelyvulnerabletomartelfluetualiooswbidtoftenled tohighlevelsof unemployment.I

Panof meappealof "isms"StIdI.1$Fascism and Communism wasthe apparem success of their alternative ec:ooomic systems. The economic situations in Gennany. Italyand theSovietUnionappeared to be onmeupswina while Canada hadyettoshow muchrecoveryfrom me Depression. Many belie'.'edthatStalin's Five Year Plans. Hitler'sdecreuein unemployment and MussoI.ini's making the trains run on time

were

indicativeofmore efFICientsystems. Theappealof Fascism inCanada involvedseveral r.:tonirx:luding: a rejectionofor disaffection with the existin& poIitic:a.landeconomicorder irx:ludine adelliaI of democraticrights. both

reJiaaous

andracial ditism,extreme narionaIismanda beliefill meneed fortheSwe toaffectcapicalism(corpcntism)!Fascists used miliClrya:.ppinpsuchas uniforms, drilling, and a similar commaDd structure 10attraelmemben. manyof whomjoined out •senseofmission. FlISCtstsf:SIJOlISIelItheideo6octhatwllell economiccrisisprevailed,it c:oWdaNybe met bydraaic .::tioD.witha

monc

k:ader rescuinathe aJUntry.

Lifeinthe immipant communities WIS~by a social structure madeup of reliaious. mutUalaidandnational politicalorpnjutionl. These orpniDtions

lBayley, -The Social StrUCtUre of lIalian,· 5.

~orrisSchonbach.NtIIiwAmeriamFGJdsmDwilll 1M19J()stIItd19«J:l: A Sllldy of lISRDots,laG~GItdlISlJ«JiN(New York: GarlandPublishc:n Inc., 1985), 2l·22.

servedasinlmned.iariesbetweentheimmi&fantsand 'Canadiansociety'helping the immignrotoundersandand pin enay imo Canadian institutions. Initially,new immigranls'NU'esqreptedinto roomin&-bouses,fWsandIenements ofiennear industrial areas. Asimmigranlsbecame more enablished, often with thefirst generation ofCanadiaJl.bomwqe-earners. theymoved to

newer

areaswithmore adequalecondicions.^IOIn some cues poI.itical. mllcua.laidandreliaious organizationsscrenacttened ticstothehomeland andrewdedimmigrantassimilation into Canadian sociecy.This was the case inthelralianandGerman-Canadian commWlicies inche1930swheretheConsular,culOJtl1 andmlleua!aidsocieties focused00ties to !hehomelaDd racbcrthan ties toean.da.

TheItaJo-Canadian rommWlicy

was

ROC a homotenousentity.infaaicwas madeup of manypeoplewhoconsidered themselves more of aIOWn(puu)chanof a nation.IIThisbepDcochantewicbthesharedmiararioo experiences of new IeaHan immigrancs.Manyimmip'anafromdifferentputSof Italy werethrown

IOIetber

oncetheyJOt10CallIda,shari. .nlOIl'lSata

boItdinc

house.wortina

fOIeCbcr

and sh.ariD&labour.,eaa.They alsofacedsimilarexpcriencaindealin&widl.a mainscream Canadian 1OCie(y witicb oftencouldROC distifllllisb becwcen different aroups of lIalianl. This

cfw1&e

fromdiversesutM:ommWlicics co a more consolidacc:d

l°Bayley,-The Socia!SCl'UCtIIIeoflIaiian. - 10.

llRobenF. Harney, -Toronco's Litde Italy, 1885-190'5, - inHarneyand J.

Vincenza Scarpaci,edt.,liJtklttlliesillNonItAIIVriaI(Toronco: MlilticulOJtlI HislOr)'Societyof Oncario, 1911), 44-45.

communityoccurred ...idl. the

JroWtb.

of Italianprideduring World War Iandthrough the effortSofdiverseleadenintheItalian community,ilEludingpriests,businessmen, Fascistsand theItalianConsuls, togetpeopletosee themselves as ItaliaNfIrSt.11

By 1927 ...hen Mussolinibepn appointina loyal fascists 10thediplomaticCOC'pS,Italy

was

considetina all emigrara as Italiansabroad,still Italian CititeDS,andencouraging itsc:oDSUlatoffICials rospearbtada drivetoremind Italians oftheir hen• .IJThe Italian Governmentalsobepnviewina Italianimmiarantcommunities as colonies of Italy.WItaliansabrOIIdwere10serve15emissaries of Italy, as a klbbygroupfor Italy,andaspromoIetSandpurcbuersofItalian

aOCJCb.

Througbout. theL930sthe Italian Consuls ancmpted 10makeFascism synonymouswith nationalism, and10make Italy,theFascist Pany,andthebureaucracy one andthesame. In aaemptina 10 centralize ethnicity,theCoruulswanted10becomethe centre of culturalandethnic life in ltaIo-CanIdian communities. Itdidnotsuc:ceedin bringinathe divene segmentSofhalian communitiesimoone enlity. However, me ConsularOfficials

maaaae

10 livetheappearuc:e,bothinsideandoutsidetheItalianc::ommunity,of

llHamey,"Toronro'sLiuJe Italy, 1885-1945,· SO.

I1Hamey,lltlii41uinN<JnhAllwriCQ (l'oronto:Multil:ultural HistorySocietyof OnWto. 1979), LB,

I·L.uiaiPennlcchio,·Citizens;ofFascist Italy: Exportina FascismtoToronto'S Italians. 1929-1940,· in.IIcoveaaandDraper, edJ.,SDjoIuJvn. SettkntIItd sm..,....

beighlened Italian pattiotism and oflessf:lIctionaIism.UOnly a small portion of lhe Italian communityeverendorsed FascismenouabtojoinFascistorganizations, but manywereenthusiasticoverlhe rebirth ofpridein Italy.SuchidentifICation initially causedlittleconcernintheAngk:K:anadiansociety whichupWltiJlhe Ethiopiancrisis vieweds~for Mussoliniasimply

boaouri.

^{one'sbe:ritqe.}Prior10 L936, many CanadianauthoritiesStJppOr1tdMussoIini's sUOl!l anti-Communist and anti·tabourstanceandadmirednisability10rebuild Italy, despitetheDepression.

They believed. Mussolini

was

Ibechampion. ofthemiddleclassapinstBolsbevism.II

Evenafta"L936 theCanadianJOVC"UDCIIl maintained die attitude that ItaIo-Canadian enthusiasmforMussolini

was

an iDClmla1maatffor die ltaJcK:anadian communities."

Italian setdememsappearedin many CanadiantownswithindlJSttY, canal and roedconsttuetioo,

sewer

work, railworkorports.

I'

^Forins&ance, Hamilton.

TotonIO, MomralandThunder Bay allbad1arpllalian oommunities.ToronlO emerJcd as •portof cn([)' for Italiansin the early 1900s, Many(wiantused Toronco as •bilecamptowort:intlOI1bentmiDi",. railwayand timbertownsor

UHamey, "TDrOe*)'S LittJe Italy,188S·L945,· SS·511.

llHamey,ItalkuuinNorrhAnvrica,17.

"Harney,"ToronlO'Stildelraly, 1885-1945,·57.

uHarney.RobertaDdJ.ViDcenzaScarpaci,LiItU1t4IiaillNonIIAMtric:a.

TorontO: MHSO, 1981. 1.

alo"ltheWellaDd canal. InitiallytheimmipuCs

were

predominantly male,wilh 2200 men and 800 women listed inthe1911 census for Toromo.^1t

Priorto1928,leadershipin Il&1o-Canadian commu.nities

was

!ara;ely composed of skilled ttadesmen. businessmen and professionalswhoran voluntary aaenciesand providedotherseMc:estodie population.Essentially, IhescmenbecameIeadm either by defcbding the Italian population,creatineinstitutionssuchas mUlUal aid societies. newspapers. c:burcbesandbanbinthekx:aJcommunities,aetilllaslinks betweentheethnicaxnmunityand the testofCanada. boWing official positions, or attaininahilhereducationaloroocupational

swus.·

l...eadcrssaasedthenecessity of a hollKlleneous communityand loyalty toUaly in an aacmpttoraiseethnic consciousnessamongtheircommunities.^2IWiththearrivalof a sttonI Consulthe independence ofthelocallcadushipwucbaUenacd.Localleaders wereforcedID nuntotheConsulsforsupport..wbich enabledtheCoDsuIs10takeadvantqeofthe

&fOWldworklaidbythelocalIeadcninsaasuw

bomocaleity

andedl.nic consciousness.GraIefuIfor'theaacm:ionIlaly

was

~dacm,matt}'acditical halo-Canadians'II'Ueauncud10 Fucism. Tbc 1930sproved10 bedifficultfor

''Harney.Little1tGJies ill NDrth..tmmca. 46.

lOJohn Zuccbi.ft4iialtsill To1'OlW:~1optfwtfIofGNtItioIwlfdDuiry.187$-1935 (MontraJ: McGilI-Quccn'sPreM. 1989>, 142-143.

"JohnZUex:hi."TheRiseofFacismmIT~'sNoabili.·Speechlivenat The

Inccnuncnr

of ItaJo.-CanIdians

DuriDc

theSecorxI W«Id War conference (York:

ColumbusCentre),l4 0cI0ber 1995.

Italo-Canadian communities. Theyfacedproblems such as resttictive immigruion legislation.struUIes betweenFascists and anti-Fascists. and the depression. The Canadian government placedincreasina:pressureonimmipant communitiesto becomeaccuJt1lnUd.Therewere betweenLoo,oooandLlS,OOJpeopleof Italian descent inCanada dunllltheinrer-warperiod.Formany[talians pridein MussoHni returned their senseofdipitywhich badbeenmissinCsince theirurivaI inCanada.

Fascistsandsuppone:rsofMu:ssoI:ioiandstill remail.lgoodCallldiancitizeDS.ln addition. theCoosu.Isarwnpced10 seizecontrolofeveryfacet oflife in the h.alian communities.Toappealto differi.. interests theConsuls creaIedseveral.different Fascistoraani.z.ations for peopletochoose from. Leadinathe Fucist movement were twoovertly Fascistorganitations.theFascioandthe 0pBrVoitMtGri~RqrusiOM ANi-{tudo.orthe0rpniJati0nfortheRcpressioo of Ana-Fascism (0. V.R.A.).

Other'Fascistorpnizations cII.i-.:110beDOft1)OI.itical, inchadqtheDopoLavoro.

theAssoci4Ootw CotrtbtJtmrIi1l41iGta·(Italian Wit: Vecaans Association), the

~GU1wIIIilid4IiII#I.itIItioIJ.' Esuroor Italian YoudaAbroId(O.G.I.E.).

~FfOItU Uffi,ooMonJk(Italian Uniu:dMon.IFront),aDd theOrderofthe Sons of [taly.22 All oftheIe IfOUPIwereusedbytheItalianConsuJs.10 Wlify the ltalo-Canidian communities in an effortto di.ueminace Facist propap:nda inCanada.

TheCanadianFacio

was

ac:oumaputto theFacioinIlI1y,whole

=<:SIS,vol.7.~:IIJIIiM FtudsItt.23January1940.