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St.JOM's

CROWDING OlIT TIlE GIRLS:

ISSUES OF GENDER ACCESS IN TIlE USE OF COMPUTERS

by

Tina M.Maloney,B.Ed.,B.A

Athesis submitted to the SChool ofGraduate Studies

inpartial fulfillment ofthe requirements for the degree of

Master of Education

Facultyof Edul;arion Memorial Universityof Newfoundland

JuIy,l999

Newfoundlond

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Abstract

This ethnography investigated access to computersinone Grade 2 French immersion classroombasedon gender.Theactionresearcher employedstudent interviews and observation to describecomputer access andattitudesofninetecnparticipants. Parent questionnaires investigatedstudentaccess to home computersand parental involvement and attitudes towards computer edui:ation.Analysis of provincial.school districtand schoo l documents investigated the systemic response to the issue of gender equityin computer education.Theresuhsofthe study indicate that genderis not recognized by parentsand the majority ofstudentsas an issue in computer use in thisclassroom, and gender is notaddressed at the school. school board or department administrative levels However gender appears to affm computer access and use at home and at schoolinthe behavioursandattitudes of students.Inthis classroom,interventionsto ensureequal accesstothe computer are required.The smallnumber of participantslimitsthe generalizability ofthcsefindings,Funherresearchinthis area isrequired.andpolicy drafting, piloting and implementation ateachadministrative level is essentialifthe integration ofcomputers is to benefitallstudents ofthe province of Newfoundland and Labrador.

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Thisthesisisdecbc:atedto Da.nidandRosemaryMaJooey.whosebelief in educationwiDalwaysinspireme.and10the memoryofMary Bridget O'DriscoUwhoK

lifewas •stOf'Yofstrength

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Acknowledgments I wish torecognizethecontributions ofthe following-

Dr.AliceCollinsfor believing inthe importance of theissue being studied.and for herthorough andconsttuetivecritici~

Dr.JeffBulcoc:k for hisinsightfulanalysis and ccmmems;

Mr.GeraldWhite for his supponandassistance with quantitativeanalysis;

Ms.Susan Forward for her cooperation and suppon;

Mr.Kent Talley andMs_Joanne Hogan for their continued friendship and suppon throughout thisendeavor

iv

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ABSTRACT.

DEDICAnON.

ACKNOWLEOOMENTS..

TABLE OF CONTENTS

. ii

. iii

iv

LlSTOF TABLES .. vii

CHAPTER

I INTRODUCTION TO TIlE STUDY. 2 REVIEWOF THE LITERATURE.

JTIlEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND ME1l{OOOLOGY.. 24

4 PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF TIlE DATA. 36

5SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS 92

REFERENCES.. 102

APPENDlXA Student InterviewQuestions APPENO IX B ObservationChecklist APPENDlXC ParentQuestionnaire APPEND lX D Letter ofConsem to Parents

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APPENDIXE

Communications withDistrictand SchoolOfficials APPENDIXF

EthicalProcedures APPENDIXG Letters of Permission

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LISTOF TABLES

TableI Use ofcomputer in dcc:reasingfrequencybyBender 48 Table2 Principal computer users asdeterminedbyGrade 2 students 51

Table3 ElectrOnicgamesbyBender

' 2

Table 4 Cro ss tabulation ofBender of principal user byhours .3 Table5 Comp ut er skills taught by parent to Grade 2 student: 66

Table6 Electro nicgamesbyBender .8

Table 7 Parental COmmen1Sre computerized games

••

Table 8 Parental reaction vis-a-vis computer club 70

Table9 Aver aBeboonofweeklyparent-<:hild activities 71 Table10 Activity ratingofparentbygender of student 72

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...m

a processof enlightenment,therecan be only participants."

J.IIab<nnu 1974 p.4 0

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Cro wd ing Out the Girls

Introduction totheStudy

With the publication ofprovincia1 documents RIch&5Technology In Leanring Environments (1994)andlivingIn a Tee:hnological Society (1997), initiatives such as Human Resource Developmentgrants to schools, and widespread access to the World- Wide-WebviaStem-Net,the schools of Newfoundlandand Labradorarc:in the process of imp lementi ngfullintegration of computersin the curriculum.Itistherefore topicalthat educato rs condua research which informsthe many dimensions of computer use by students,sothatweunderstandthe impactofcomputer use,utilize appropriate strategies andmaximizeresourcesintheclassroom to enhance the learning ofallof the children of thisprovince.This casestudyisan investigation oftheaccess.use and attitudesof students bygender inan attempt tounderstandbettertheeffects ofcomputer use in the primary classroom

perglQill Implicatign'!.

G1esne and Peshkin (1992) advise:~...seektomakesense of personal storiesand theways in whichtheyintersect~(p.I).Theiradvice invitesa criticalreflectionof myown gendered computingexperience

Thetechnological innovations afforded me in attending an all-femalehighschool in the mid-1980's were limited.Useof computersin this setting was reservedfor.specific group, namelythe~Work Experience~program ofstudies,whichengagedthose students who werepreparingforsecretarialand related positions immediately foUowing high school. StudentswhoenroUedinadVJneed courses bad no contactwiththe keyboard

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Crowding Out the Girts

before graduating_ At our brother school intheneighbouring comnnmity.my male counterpartsinadvanced studies werebusilyexperimenting with programming and spreadsheet software,establishing computerclubs,and worlting towardll technological literacy.Subsequently.my first official contactwithcomputers wasinthe university setting,and was reminiscenl: ofmy p.-evious

ecerieeces.

lbe computer room in our single-sex university dormitory was frequently vacant,and the demands werelimjtedto word-processing.Onthe otherhand.the male residences organized schedules for their computer rooms to meetthesestudents'diversifiedneeds.My subsequent study periods completedat other univenities yielded similar informal observations of computer laboratories;consistently,maleswould be more highly represented bothinnumber and in variety ofapplications, renderingthe computer labamaledomain.

In 1999.technologyhas seeped into tbe primary/elementarysetting. and similarly preschoolsare boasting high-tech computer centers.As a teacher,I have witnessedinthe lastthree years in my sitethe expansion oftectmology,from its original unimposingand mostlynegligible presence, 10the-wiredschool-,with its state oftbe an laboratoryand localarea network providing classroom access to a library of software_ Internet connections canbe found in the resource center,the staff room, and all classrooms.In schoo ls throughouttheprovinceandtheentirecountry, the computer promises to revolutionizeeducation.However one ofthe questions which must be posedis:for whom is this revolution taking place1[(the observed divergence of pan ems in my own gendered computing experience isindicative,theintegrationof computers inthe currialium may

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Crowding Out the Girls

resultinthe propagation ofhistoricalgender inequities in education.

purpose gftbc sudy

Thepurposeof this study is to investigate access to technologyina primary classroom by gender,inan attempt to detennine:(a)ifacc:esstoanduse of computers is gendered; (b)ifthe attitudes of stud ems towards computer use differ by gender;(c) if the attitudes of parents towards computing are gender-eel, and Wthese attitudes influence childrenintheir respective use of computers;and(d)ifcomputerinitiativesal administrative levels(ie.,school,district,department hierar<:hy)address theissu e of gender. As schools extend considerable resources 10 computing,itis critical to determine ifgender differences existinthis domain. As a teacher ofyoungchildren, I feel obligated to informmyselfabout the gender issues which maybe developing in my technologically- enhanced classroom.Inthe spirit of action research, it is my ambitiousaimto

..transform the present toproduce.differenl future^M(Carr and Kemmis,1986,p.183) SlItrmcntgrlbeproblem

This thesis will investigatethefoUowing questions:

I.Arethere gender differences in computer access?

2.Arethere gender differences in attitudes towards computers?

3.Doparentalattitudestoward the useof computers affect children'suse and attitudes towards computers bygender?

4.How does theeducationalsystem promote gender equity in accessanduse of school computers?

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CrowdingOutthe Girls

IjmjtltjgDSpftbcstydy

Themajor limitation ofthisstudyisthatitoccurs in one Grade2classroom andis thereforelimitedtothe population of thisparticular classroom.As such,the resultsmay notberegarded in terms of gcuenlizability toother populations.Additionally,the parti cipantsinthis studyare French immersion students,which maydifferentiate them fromthegeneral student population.Timeandavailab ility of computers wereCunher limitations ,namely one classroom computer and seven computersinthe resource center

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Crowding Outthe Girls

Reviewof the Literature

...OUTcultrn~ISdefiningcomptl(~naspre~mi1w"'lymalemach",~s."

LockheedME../98j.p.//6 Three shan decades a80. female pioneen made valuable contributions to the youngcomput er industry:the world'sfirst programmerwasAugusta Ada Lovelace;

Grace Hopperwasinstrumental in the development of the programming language

COBOL.and6S% of computer programmenwerewomen (Lockheed.1985).However.

adifferentrealityismanifestedtodayin the so-calledInformation Age,ureactionary writings offemin.isttheorists,coupledwithaccumulating research findings, submit that gender neutralityisnolongerincidental in theworld ofcomputing.InQwstioning T~chnology.T.V.Hillargued that a patriarchy DOWexistsintechnologicalsociety,which

"...robs everyone ofthe fascinating complexity ofexperienceandperspectivewhichcomes

withattentionto thewonderfu.ldiversityof peopleandcultures~(ZenanandCames, 1991,Preface)

Fo r thepurposeof this study,the following themeswillbe presentedinthisreview ofthe Iiteratun:: <a>genderedpanemsof computeruse,(b)perfortl\llJlCContasks.

(c) parental involvement andinfluenceson patterns of computeruse,(d) role model theory

incomputer education,<e) female misrepresentationincomput~-reIatedperipherals.and (f)interventions .Sincethisstudyinvestigat es computer useintheprimaryclassroom, the literaturereviewed is limited to the primarylelementary grades where possible;thisis somew hat problematic:inthatprimaryeducation accounts forasmall portion ofthe

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researchinthisdomainand •limited litemure fromwhichtodraw Cn:ndcrcd pattc:mSgfsgmplltc("K

Researchsuggeststhatgenderedpatternstowardsthe useoflhe computer are both anitudinalandbehavioral.andarepresentearlyinlife.Evenafter intervention, preschoolboysreponedly holdmoregender-stereotypical viewsthangirls,tend to explore more freely withoutinstruction,andengage more in'trialand error' attempts 10 figure things out (Aelcher-FlinnandSuddendotf, 1996).Conversely,preschoolgirls tend to be some what inhibitedincomputer activities,and await instructional cues (Laney&Hayes, 1988;Laney eraI.,1987).Despite female-friendly interventions at one site,the described behaviours were typical of both genders,andinterventions served to intensify the srereotypic attitudes cfthe young male participants (Bernhard,1992).Additionally, Huber andScaglio n (1995) noted chat boys tend to monopolize not only the computer,but also the computer teacher,initiating mere interactions withthe computer specialist during class time

In terms of non-structured usage of computers in school,gender differences are marked.InKinnear's (1995) nine-month study ofGt"ades4 to 7,males tended to dominate the computer center when access was not controfled,particularlyduring out-of-elasstime suchasrecess ortuncb.However,when accessbecamecontrolled,some inequity still persisted,withat least some oftbe girls choosing traditional socialization activities during recessandlunc h over theirallottedcomputertime.A previousstudyof accessand assignment reponed that femalesdo not lake the initiative to reservetmninaJspace when

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Cro wding Out theGirls

available (Schubert

a.

8aldce,1984)

The described malemonopoliz.ation ofcomputers at schoolisofparttcu1arconcern becauseitcan interfere with female participation, as Fisher (1984) reports:•...boys co mmo nly would reach over to press keys on the <:omputerwhen a girlwas using it.I neversaw agirlpress keys when it was a boy'stum· (p.25).Other qualifiers have been usedtodescribethe male interactionwithcomputers. including"ent hus iast ic" (Hawkins, 19 85),"avid"(Feder,1985),and"inquisitive"(EDiot,1993).These contrast with

"reluctan t"and"Iac k( ing ] aggression· for femalcs(Schubert

a.

Bakke,1984),who

displaya"tack of interest anddrive"(Fisher ,1984).Theseattitudes result inavoidance tact icsthat ultimately·...deprive [female] studentsofpersonaland economic possibilities·

(Brownell,1992,p.44).D'Ami<:o(l995) alsonoticedthat girls tended toadopt an orie nta tio nof"learned helplessness ·in termsof tile attributions which they make about theircomputer performance, oft en attributing good performance to luck., and poor 10lack ofability.

Asalogicalextensionof theirpositive anitu des towards computer use,males are morelikelythan females toselect computer-related activitiesinthei r leisuretime, either at home or school (Culley,1988).Sanders (1984) claims that...boys are usuallytheones whoare entt..Jsiastic enoughaboutcomputersto play with them after school...•(p.31) Compu t er camps.foreumple,arelargelyattend edby males,w;th female representation progressivelydecreasingas the difficulty level,gradeand expensesincrease(Hessand Miura,1985;Fisher,1984).Both studiesfound a trend of approximatelythree10oneratio

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Cro wding Outthe Girls

of boys10girlsincomputercamps Additionally,computei' gameshavebeenfound to

appealmore tothemale populatiorLSwadmerandJuren (1986) indicatedthat 20% of themalesintheirsampleofGnda4through8usedthe computei' withrmJChgreeter frequency than most responlknts;thegreatestdiffeI'enCeof use wasfoundintheenn.- curricular use of computei' games.A survey ofGnde 7 studentsiDNewfoundl&nd indicated that almost twice as manymales asfemalesusedthe computei' for games,while femalessignificantlyoutD.lmber-edmales inwon:!proceuins(DepartmentofEduca tion and Training.199 7)

Itisimportant to notethatcomputergamesarelinkedto video games inthe literature.LoftusandLoftus(1983)noted that experience wilhvideogamesmay serve as an initiationto computers,andgirls'negative attitudesto wards videogamesmayaetually delaytheirexposureto computen and thustheircomputer tittnC)'.According toWalder, Mackie,andCooper(1985),~As earlyas kindergarten,boysandgirls\oiewvideogamesas moreappropriate to boys...Ahhougb the computei'isscm more neutrally,thereis. very slight tendencyforehiJdrm10seeitasImoremasculinethanfeminineitem~(p.220) Electronicgamesare more &equentIy the favoritepastimeofboys.and bothboys;andgirls consider thatitisaa:cpIabIe for boystoplay these gamesfrequently(FunkandBuchman.

1996;Newman. Cooper and Ruble,1995),Boysare morelikelythangirls tohaveaa:ns tosuchgames athome(Swadener&;Juren.1986 ).Further,malesare morelikely tobe boththeactive participant sand the spectatoninvideogamearcades (Kiesler , SprouUand Eccles,1985 ).Interestingly,Fisher (1984) reports:~...itmaybeworthnotingthatPac-

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Crow ding Out the Girls

Manisthe only arcadegameequallypopularwith females;itis a completion task, and doesn'tinvolve rockets or blowingthingsup"(p.24)

Therealso appearstobe aconnectionbetweenthe curriculumareasof math and science,and the use ofcomputefs inschool. Shasbaani (1995) found. that"ma th liking"

was related tointerest and confidence in computing.Shealsodetectedapositive relationshipbetweenthe math stereotype and computer stereotype views;those who believed that math isamale domainalsoendoned the idea that computing is more appropriate for males.Hawkins(198 5) warnedagainstthe possible consequences of treating computers asatopicgrouped as"sciencel mat hltec hno lo gy",and advocated viewing computersastools to counteract the traditional male dominance overthese subjectareas

Evidencefurthersuggests that the gendergap in computing is developmental;asa

group,malesbecomeincreasingly confidentover time intheircapabilities,while females bec omeles sfrequent usersand develop negative attitudestowardstechnology (Kirk, 1992;Hattie andFitzgenld, 1987 ).By juniorhighandhighschool. computer useis rega rd edbystudentsasamasculineactivity(Co llis,1985), The gap widenstowardspost- secondary education(Shashaani, 1994;Hawkins,19 85) and beyond, as fewerfemales electcomp uter-re lated careers,andthefemalepresence in the computing wo rldbecomes increasingly negligible (Frenlcel. 1990).Notonlydoboys tend to"physically crowd girls out"(Siann, Macleod, Glissov,and DumdeU, 1990,p.189) wheninfrontofacomputer terminal,but thephenomenon actuallyextendsitseIfas a metaphor for the effective

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Crowd ingOut1he Girls 10 elimination offemalesas confidentandcompetent user,oftcctmology Thepromotion of equityisthereforeofparamownimponanceifmaleandfemales an 10 enjoy lhe5oIlIIC'

opportunitiesbeyondgradeschool.Newmanetal.(I99 S) caution,-Reluctancetouse computersandIeamwmpu!ersIrilbtsrapidlybecominga major handicapto anyone wishingtoperformeffectivelyinanythingbutthemos1menialjobs"(p,346)

Therefor e. tbe lilerature suggeststhai agendergap manifestsitself earlyin edl.tC&tiona1computingandappean10widenintimeinfavorofmalesintermsofattitudes and behaviors.This gapisC'\'idencedbyaccns10tbelermina1sinschools,performanceon task s,panicipationinextracurricular computeractivities,and observationsofmale dominanceovercompulers.partiQ pation.invideo gameadture,whichisalmost exdustvdymak:.hasbeen linkedtocomputer useandmay serve u an initiationto computer literacy.Interventionsduringsrructured and unstNCturcdcompeteeuscnave nOI alwaysbeen successfulandsome !laveeveninlensifi edthe stereotypic betulvi0r5

Performance^{p o}",W$

Significantperformance differencesbavebeendocumentedbetweengendcn in computing;these rangeintheirind icatorsof"perfo rmance",inthat experimentersoften differentiatebetween the reteandskillincompletinga paniculartask.Bernhard's (1992) m-weekstudyofpreschoolc:hiIdl"ftlusedaninformalevaluation1001fortaskcomp&etion.

Despileequivalent preparation,.tbeboyscompleIed more taSksthandtdthegirts Alternalely.inhi,study of Grade3 children,CIariana(1990) used rateofcompletionas thedependent measure; his

findins

also favoredmale p&rticipants,noUnsthat."Thismay

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Crowding Out the Girls II relate to learningstyleand characteristicslikerisk.taking which tend to be enhancedby extensive association with Computer BasedInstruction~{p.89).Hawkins'(1985)year- long Logo study of elementary students concludedthatthere was a trend of boys performingconsiderably betterthan girls onalltasksand measures of programming expertise, with younger males outperforming older females.Thegirlsinthe study developedlessfacilitywith the programming software.Feiler's(1985)work in Grades 6 and12 also favoredmales.,noting that,"'Boysinboth grades displaced consistentlyhigher levelsof achievementinnearl.yaU[computer} curriculum objectives surveyed"(p. 181).

How ever,Hattie and Fitzgerald (1987) rertWited the lack of empirical data to support the hypothesisthat males and females differed on anitude and performance,andcaUedfor moreresearchinorder tocomprehendthe phenomenon

In summary,there isa paucity of research at the preschool or primary/elememary levelson the perfonnance of malesandfemalesinspecificco mpu ter activities;studies that doexist,however,favor males inbothrate of completionand skill in perfonning a particular task

Pmnta!jnyglyemm' and influences 9n paums ofcQDlpyt!:r use Parental involvementinschooling is significantinmany forms, from helping with homework to schoolgovemance(Danyluk, 1996;Ho Sui-Chuiand Willms, 1996;

Etheri dge,Halland Etheridge,1995;Becher,19&4).Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler (1995) describe parent involvementas...a powerful enablingandenhancingvariable in children's educational success...It s absence elirninatesopportunities forthe enhancement of

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12 Crowding Out the Girls

children'sedceeuoe, its presence creates thoseopportunities"(p.319).Parental involvementhasbeen linked to academicachievementand the development of a positive senseof efficacyinschool-related tasks (Hoo'Ver-Dempsey andSandler).For example,in their study of middle school students, HoSui-ehuiandWillmsfound that parental mvotvemenehadpositive effectsonreading and math;these effectswerenol limited by parents'socioeconomicstatus.Griffith (1996) made a similar finding,in that consistenl correlalionsof parental lnvclvemeee to test performance ofelementary students in forty- two schoo ls were unaffected by school characteristics ofthe socioeconomic,racial,and ethniccomposition ofthe student population.The ability of parental involvement to overridetheeffects of socioeconomic status may differ in terms of computing. where ownership of computers is an important 'llriable.Danyluk proposes that the use of technologyand compulers may confuse some parentsand actuallycontribute to the decreaseof parental participation at lhehighschool level

Parental involvement has implicalions for equitablecomputingin education;a significant contributorto students'anitudesand performance in computer·relaled activities,as detenninedbyShashaani(1994),iS lhat ofthe family.She ranked the following'Variab les in order of their effect on student interest,confidence,and anitud es towards computing:(a) pcsinve encouragernc:ntfromparentsasthemost powerful 'Variable;(b)students' perceptions of their parents' attitudes/expectations asInespecially strongeffect on the female participants,and(e ) socioeconomic status asthe greatest effect on femaleparticipantsfromlowsocioeconomiebackgrounds.Traditionallender roles

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Crowding Out the Girls 13 were more prevalent in fiunilies oftowsocioeconomic:: status,and tended to regenerate in the attitudes offemaJe students from such families;females from strong socioeconomic backgroundsweregreatlyinfluencedbytheir parents' positiw: attitudes towards computer use.This tendencywasleu pronounced inthe male subjects of Shashuni's research, whose interest and attitudes towards c::omputing were not as strongly correlated with the attitudes and socioeconomic status oftheirrespective families.Rocheleau's(1995) longitudinal study found similar resulls in defining variables to predict heary computer usage,including (a) computer ownership;(b) parental interest in children using computers;

(c)gender;(d) parental educational expectations, and (e) socioeconomic status.funher research showsthatstudents actually rate their parents as the most influential people in their decisions about course enrollment (Shashaani,1993;Eccles, Jacobs and Harold,

\99 0)

If...the home is the6mdecisivesteptoward exposure"(Kirk,1992,p.]0),then

there are indications that exposure to computer useinthe home is problematic. In two separate studies, parents were considered more supportive of their sons'learninginthis area than that of their daughters (lockheedand Frakt,1984;Miura and Hess. 1983). Boys tend to have greater access and exposure to computersin the home than girls (Swadener andJarrett, 1986;Fetler,1985;Wlideret aI.,1985;Fisher,1984).Levin and Gordon

(19 89) argue that priorexposureto computers is • greater determinant of attitudes

towards computers than gender

When computers are presentinthehome,parental users are morelikely tobe male

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Crowding Out the Girls 14 than female.and malesingeneral are more likely to usethehome computers (Hattieand Fitzgerald . (9 87) ,Swadener and Jarrett(1986)asserted m.t boys see males as more common home users than females_Howeves-,the same authors noted that rwo-thirds of the femaleswhoactuallydid have computersinthe home had viable femalero le models

According to Edwards (1984).the effectsof parentalinvol~ineducational computing are twofold:(a) a home computer allows children more hands-on time.and (b)parents using a computer at homeprovide positiverole models for their children

Parental involvememis therefore significant to academicand personal achievement .and more specifically to attitudes and performanceincomputer activities Thisinvolvementis importantregardl ess ofsocioecono mic. racialand ethnic characterist ics of school populations.However,parental attitudesand socioeconomic sta tuscorre late more stronglywiththe attitudes offemales towards computer usethan those ofmales.Earlyexposureto computers isan imponant determinant of attitudes towardscomputers and mayfavor males in terms of access tohome computersand parental support.

Rple Modelsin Computer EduCAtipn

Thestudyofrole modelsincompu tingisless conclusive than thatof parental involvement.Inone study,Lever.Sherrod.andBransford (1989) made an unexpected finding.in thatfemales improved theirattitudestowards school and towards compuler use during theirproject;the researchers suspected the change mightbethe effect oflhe female models.,as both computerteachenwerefemale.Schoolteachersdo play a crucial rolein

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CrowdingOut the Girls

"

their students'careerchoices (Eccles et el., 1990).Concerns regardingrole models include an Ipparen1lack offemaJesinthefidd ofcomputing (Culley,1911).Fletcher·Flinn and Suddendorf(1996)observed that aWes accounted for nearlyfivetimes lhenumberof femalecomp. n e.- coordinatonItthe lower secondary schoollevelinNew Zealand,and calledfor the previsionof more female role models10help bridge the gende.-cd computer gap.These findings repute Ibose o(Stasz.Shavdson. and Swz(1915).who delmnincd in theirCUfomian study chaJ: chen!: were adequateteachenofbolh genden whowere leadersin the mte:rocomputer movement, and presemedequallyviable roie models

Asearly as1984,interventionswer-einplaceinNew YorkCityschoolsto counteract

me

monopolizationof computeractivitiesbyboys_Theseincludedproactionin termsoftheprovisionoffemaierolemodels u both leacheni andJUCSIspeakers in the classroom (Alv arado,1914 ).Fishel"(1984) postulates thaithe success ohhe"Equals"

project,whichaimedtomotivalegirls10take moremalhcmatK:s,maybeIprototypefor effectivelystimulating:female intereslincomputers.Headvocat esthesdeclion of school wide -compute.-experts-,whowillberepresemarive of the scbooI~be promotestheuseof studenC-socialleaders-ugood role modelsforcomputing Conversely,Sanders (1984)claimsthat femalerolemodelsas compute.-teachers maynot be enough10 increase female participationincomputing

TheliIenture

suuau

thairolemodels inscboobmayaffectstudentaniCudes toward scompu lers;however,more researchisrequiredtodetamineifthereare adequale role modelsintermsof gend erin educationalcomputiDg.andiftheserolemodelsinnun

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Crowding OuttheGirls affedstudentattitudes

femaJcMjvprnmt,tigninCornp,tcr·Rdatcd Pc:ripbmb

'6

Investi gation: of fema]e portrayalin computer -reW ed peripherals suchas textbooks,gWdes,software,magazines, andsoforthisrdevanl:inthat biasedportrayals maybothreflccland.perpetuatethestilUSquo ofinequityincomputerweComputer magazineshave beenfound to representfemaleslessoftenthan males, and where females arerepresented, they are usuallyportrayedinstereotypic portrayals suchassex objects andclericalwoders.Incontrast,men aremostoften5howIIin positionsor authority (WareandSI\M:k,1915).Likewise,inananaly!.isofrepr esenwionoH cmaIcsin23 textbooks whichwereused in K-12Kttinss,BrowneJJ(1992)reportedthat,...maIes accounted for 69% of the power figures,comparedto an expected49%,wbile females accounted foronly 31%ofthepower figures.ascompared 10an expecIed510/."(p.48) Brownell'sstudyusedcensuspro;eetions asreferences.and.although afemalepresence was stronginthe textbooksoverall.aconsistentmill"epC"esentationof thefemale as pusive observ ertowardstechnologywaseWtem.Kiesler (1985)observedthatfmWes were rarely rep re sent edonthe coversof softwar e games,and where representalionwas found.

itwasusuallyinappropriate

Intermsofthesoftwareitsd( •maleorienwioatsoften del:eded..termsof v;oIence,c:ompetitioaoraggressioa,andmanyprimarycbancten aremaie(Fisher. 19 &4;

Sanders, 1984).Infact,Sanden foundthateven whenchancten suchas• turtleOf""Dr Factor"appear

androsYnous.

childrenandteaehenassumethat theyare male.In

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Crowding Out tbe Girls 11 analyzingthe 11moltpopular mathematicsprogramspublishedfrom1~94.ChappeD (1996)Lookeduthree &don:gender,compctitioaandvioImce.Themeanpercentages offenWe charactenandvoKesinthesoftwaredecreasedwithgndeIevd.whilethe mean percentagesforviolence and<:ompetitionagainsttheprogram and against apeeri:ncreued acrossgrWlevd_CbappdIarguedthatanalternat efannatfor softwarewouldbe insuumernalinshapingpositive attitudesforgirls cowards compurins·Similarly.Swadener

&;Jarrett (1986) contend edthatthecomputer-usegend erdiscrepancy isactua.IIy a problem ofsoftwue; theycallfor moregamesandconcen l· ueaprogramswhichare free of gender stereotyping.Fisher (1984) alsofoundthegerteBl overallstyle of softwacewas more attractiveto boys.includinssuch features as•...contpetition, aggressiveness,rapid.

violent

ecnce,

loudnoises;etc."(p.24).lbese features1edsomeresearchersco conclude thatthedesignersof computergamesae:tuaIlytarget amaleaudiencein theirdesi gn (CoUey.Hill,Hill and Jones,I99 S;Hufl'and Cooper.1917).Such gender biasin c:ompu1er games. Shashaani(1994)claimed.~computertechnoIotYtobecome an-alien cWnueforgirts-(p.)6)

The suggesu:ddiscrepancying~tepfesenrarionincornputer-rdated peripherals thereforemanifestsitseffin

masazines.

textbooks,and software.and isdefined bypassive female imagesc:omparedto autboriwivemaleimages.Thisis panicularly evidentintermsofsoftware and computergames, whichappear tourgetamaleaudience withtheirsteuot)'pic male charactcn.aggressi o n andviolence.Suc h representalion may alienategirlsfrom computerculture.

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CrowdingOuttheGirls 18

Inrecognition ofthe challenges andlimitationstothe equiteble integration of technologyinclassrooms,interventions have been proposed to counteract the observed trends.Bernhard (1992) advocates early intervention, asstudent attitudes tend to become lessmalleable over time.Perhapsthe most obvious vehicle for changeis awareness (Conrell ,1992;Fisher.1984;Edwards.1984).Cottrell urges,"Lisren to the stories of yourco lleagu es andtheirfriends.yourcbildren and theirplaymates~(p.9).Knupfet"

(1997)concurs:~Aninfonned societywillbe the catalyst tobringaboutcontinued social changes leading to genderequity"(p.36)

Researchers such asMarrapodi (1984)caI.Ifor "tigorous affirmative action"

(p.57)and astrong oetwork of suppon in order to combat this issue.She makes numerous suggestions,which include integrating classroom pnctices like early computer integrat ion,role model strategies,parent involvement strategies,resource reviewing and select ion (e.g.,use Logo,rathe!'than traditional programming), media awareness activities .and elttra-c:unicular considerations.Aneumple of a proactive,5ySIetna tic approach such as Marrapodi prescribeswasthe"Equals"project, whichwassuccessful in mot ivatinggirls to take more mathematicsand may be a prototype for effectively stimulating female interest in computers (Fisher,1984).Sbashaani (1994) proposes similar campaigns,and 5lIggeststhateducators organizeworkshopsfor parents to inform themof theircriticalrole inthe deveiopment of attitudes towards technology, and that educatorslead parents to encouragetheir children's use ofcomputenatscboo~as well as

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Cro wd ing Outthe Girls 19 outsideofschoolifaccessisavailable.One such strategy wIUchfocused on the proactive partnership ofparenuis "P roj ect Micro"(Edwards,1984).Inthis program, a coordina to r visitshomes for the purpose of parent orientation, and a computer room is designa t ed for parents attheschoot.in hopes of creating an informed, supportive parental communi ty. Parentalencouragementis. strong advantage infostering self-efficacyin compu ting for both genders,Shashaani(1994)argues,~ParenushouJd changetheir attitu desand expectationsabout their childrenandprovide equalopportunities fortheir sons and daughters in respect to access and use ofcomputers~(p.36 3).Parent-teacher cooperatio ninencouraging female computer use is consideredintegral if intervention isto besuccessful.

Aw arenessactivit ies havealsobeensuggestedto encourage studentsas advocates Theseincludestudentsevaluating software,conducting surveys todetermine preferenc es . and desi gnin g evalua tio n forms.Additionally,media educationis considered valuab le in critiq uing software companies(Fisher,1984)

Teac hers have an important role to playinthe effectual gender-freeintegra tio nof comput ers.They canliai se with vendon and select task.-oriented software whichappeals togirls aswell asboys.Insomecases.computer classes demand a femalequota of50"/0, and studentsare allowed 10selecttbeirown software,which improvesfemale panicipat ion (Fisher,1984 ).Thedirectleac hing ofstrategiestooveroome male dominance in computer lessons isalsoadvocated (Culley,1988 ).Bernhard(1992) recommends thatgender neutralplacement ofthe computer centerinthe classroom shouldbedesignated.Raearch

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Crowding OuttheGirls 20 also suggests wttcadtentend 10 allocate more oftheir time inthecomputer lab to the male studeots,and therefore should increase their contactwithfemales(Huber and Scaglion,1995)

Other proposed inlerventioos involvethe preferential use of school computers for girls.These include female computer clubs.girls'computer day inthe classroom. specific hours set aside by the teacher for girls (Fisher,1984),iIJ.classcompulertime to favorgirls (Bernhard, 1992),reserving lhe computer center for them one day of theweek.

prohibiting game-playing on computers at school (Lockheed andFrakt,1984),same-sex peergroupings.and the provision offemale role models (Elliot, 1993).Edwards (1984) further recommendssettingaffirmativegoals for participation in co-educational computer clubs

Softwareis integral in intervention stntegiesin terms of its design, itsevaluation, anditsuse.Accon1ing toNeowmanetaI.(1995),...software design might contributeto maintaining the gender gap...software could contribute towards severingthe perceivedlink betweencomputersand'maleness' or could preventtheideaWtcomputer use is a male activity from fonninginthe first place"(p.347).Instead of designing withthe male cestc merinmind, designers should represent females more often and more appropriately Hawkins(1985) notes."The careful design of software intheareas ofmath and science mayenablegirls 10viewthese subjects aspersonaUywefuI tothem..(p.179).

Indetermining appropriate software,aiticalexamination ofequal female representation inimagesand language is paramount.Carefulreviewingaids in avoiding

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21 CrowdingOut the Girls

male-oriented software(l...cK:khcedand Frakt,1984)

Once an appropriate coUection.has been establishedina school,furtheractions mayenhancethe students'use ofche software.NathanandBa:roa(1995)advisethat when giventheopportunity tomake an indepeodmc selectionof theiTsoftware,c:hild ren are moremOCjv.led10learn and toexpI«e.IllslmportanC thai prosrams and c:ompulen be seen asc:Iassroomcoo ls for

ac:hievins

avariecyofgoals (Hawkins, 1985).Fisher (19&4) suggestsusinggrapbic:programrniJIs1Ol\wan,RJdlasLogoor Pilot,asopposed 10 Basic,astbefonner programs aremore appealing 10girls because lhey aregraphic:.He alsoindicales thai c:hanging the focusfrommathemalicalprogramming 10 drawingis helpful:...emphasizeapplieatioos,rather thansimplyi.Ilu.straIinsprognmrnins commands..•'Thegoalisnotto makethecomputei'"moreIlCCC:SSiNe andannccive cogirls lhan10boys.but 10 ensurelhat thismarveloustoo lisavailable10allstudents in school- (p,26)

Afinal itemwtUc:hrecursin theproposedinterventionsisnperienc:e,whic:bis shown10have apositiveimpK:I on audents'artitudescowardscomputing(Clarke,1990) Increasingexposure time 10• particular task canhelpUnprovcperformance(D'Amloo, 1995),However,research suggeslsthaiitisnotexperienc:reor exposure alone,but the diversityofc:ompulernpaienceswbid:Iiskey (Jo nes andClarte, 199 5;Newman et&I., 1995;Wlburg.19904).Thisrcquirausing the compulerac:routhec:wriaJJuminavariecy ofccetecs,including ereetiveand artisttc:applications.aswell as rrwhematic:aland language-orientedlub Jonesand Clu1l:erec:ommend •computeraHTic:uJum for girls

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which comprehends a broad range of computei'" activities. rather than skill development.

NotaUstudiesof gendered computing experiences concede that a gap exists 22

among children.Elliot's(1993) examination offour-yar.-olds' computerized play indicates similarlearning outcomes forbothgenders.Forsyth and Laney (1989) acknowledgeno gender differencesinanitudes orachievementinfourth andfifth graders resultillg from a learnin g experience with a panicular software program, Nathan and Baron (1995)contend that maleandfemale fourthgraders did notdifferintheirsoftware preferences.Shade (1994) ,however,badpreviouslyargued the existence of gender preferences for software:

...girls responded more positively tothe more developmentally appropriate software, whereas boys were more excited about the low-level,more competitivedrillsoftware-(P 203).HattieandFitzgerald (1987) detectedno differences in primary children's attitudes towar ds or usage of computers;however they did concede that a developmental gap was present,in thatasstudents progressed throughsecondaryschools,the differencesbecame more noticeable.Kirk (1992) claims that computer technology did not creategender differences

Before computers were introduced in schools,gender inequalitiesa1nodyexisted.particularly in traditional curriculum areas.Schools can have only minimal influence on any change ingender differences. beeeuse they perpetuate some ofthe biases ofthepastand reflecttheattitudes oftilesociety they serve.(p.30)

Hattieand Fitzgerald (1987)remark on limited empiricaldata to support the hypothesis that malesandfemales differed on attitude and performance.and call for more researchin order tocomprehencl thephenomenon

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Aa:.ording 10

me

research, inlerventions for equitable wmputeruseshould take place early ina child'seducation;awueness activitiesandproactive measures are proposed fOTteachcn., parentsandslUdems.Affirmativeaction in favor offemale computer useisadvocated,andcomputerexperiences should be diversified.Finally, stake ho lders should criticallyexaminesoftware and demand quality,gender·neurral computer resources

23

In

sum.

thelitera turesuggeststhat•gender gap existsineducational computing, whichmanifestsitselfinearlychildhood experiencesand appears towiden with agein favo rofmales.This gap is evidenced byac«utothe terminals in schools,performance ontasks, participation in extracurricular computer activities,and observations ofmale dominanceover computers.Encouragementfrom parentsand otherrole models may play apivotalrolein the eradication ofthese patterns.So ftw ar e considerati cesare also advocat ed since magazines,software packagingandthesoftwareit self often depict a male orientatio n.Theuse ofcertain interventions may narrow the described gap,including such actionsas organizin g female-onl.ycomputergroups,utilizinggrap hic-based software, recruiting parentalinvolvemen t, and usingthe computer as a tool acros sthecunjcuJum Therehave alsobeenchallenges 10theexistence of a genderdifferencein computing;

these detractorsimplythatthe problemhas been exaggerated.

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TheoreticalFrameworkandMethodology

24

Two general theories guide thisstudy; thefirstapplies tothe research on gender in computer education. namelythatgeede- inconsistenciesinattitudes and aptitudesin computer educationare determined by the environment and not by inherent dispositions This is convemionally accepted in this researchdomain.uShashaani (1994)indica t es·

"Mostresearchers involved in this areaagreethat the basis of gender differences in computerattitudesis essentiallysocialandcuhunland not related toinnerability- (p.444 ).In this context, it is argued that nan acceptance of females ascomputer-capable is fostered both athomeandatschool, then the anti-feminine trends discussedwillbe offset long before negative stereotypes canbe established.

Thesecond guiding theoryarisesfromthe general research on parental involvementineducation,which states that parental involvement is significant inaUfonns, from tutelage at home to school governance (Danyluk,1996;Ho Sui-Chu andWillms.

1996;Etheridge,Hall andEtheridge,1995;Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler, 1995;Becher, 1984).Inpanicular,Shashaani's(1994) findings indicate that puental attitudes area detennining factor in theshaping of student anitudestowards computer use;parentswho are positive role modelsand provide encouragement to their children in computing are more likely to have childrenwho display positive anitudes towards computers

!>klIIIldllJoil

This research employs an ethnographic case study approach.Spradley (1979)

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Crow ding Out the Girls 25 definesethnographyas"..learningfrompeople"(p.3), as opposed tostudyingthem Case studyallows for the construction and interpretation oftile"lived experience"(G1esne and Peshkin, p.19) of tile participants,while •...immersion in the field...•(ibid.,p.10) fosterstho rou gh exploration of thedynamicsat work during computer use.The data collected in thisstudytherefore depict the reality of the experiences ofaparticulargroup of studen ts,asdetermined by their own words andactions."Thi ck description" (Geertz, 197])formsthecore ofthis research. andisachieved through student interviews, observ atio n, and parentsurveys.The use of multiple instrumentation,andthe inclusionof secondarydata intheforms of document analysisanddialogue withrelevant officials, establishes imemal rigorandtnutworthiness of results.Inthespirit ofaetion research, it aimsmainlyto generateknowtedgeabouttheresearchsite, butcan also act as an example to otherschoo ls.Inadditio n,it mayserve toeducateotherteachers,administrators, parents and students aboutthe imponance of gender equityin computing

Ethnography implicates presenceinthe livesof others.AJJ.tbeconstructivist nature of suchevolutionary inquiry implies,the researcher is an importantinstrumentof the research.This qualitative investigationis set atthesite where the researcher ispresently teaching,and therefore proceedsfroman"ernie"perspective(Glesne and Peshkin, P 7).The selection of thissit eisnotdeemedaliability;rather,the researcher'sunderstanding of thecontextisconsidereda valuab le contribution todata analysis.To Polanyi(1962 ).

suchaction research•..transcendsthe disjunction between subjective and objective · (p.3OO)

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Crowding Out the Girls 26 This practitioner researchdoesnotpresumeabsolute objectivity inthe reseereher role,but submits toKincheloe's (1991)philosophy:

Teachen...wiUnever approachtheact of inquiry without an~-theywillbe prejudiced because they live and workinthe schools.Theseprejudicesere not an impediment...they arepanof the rdevam understandings teachers have acquired from their experience.Inconjunctionwiththeirclassroominquiry, these understandings can 1ead to more sophisticatedreftet"rionand reflective action.(p_102)

Such a perspect ive<:anallow a hotisticviewoflhis research without jeopardizingthe trustworthinessand rigorestablishedthrough triangulation techntques

Astheteacher/researcher,I am thereforethe chiefinstrumentoflhis qualitat ive inquiry.Mystudies have enabled me to use recent trendsand practices in integrating comput ersinlhecurriculum.includingcarefulsoftware evaluation and other integration issues.I have also completed varioustechnical training, including keyboarding and web publishing,and withthe schoolleaming resource teacherIhave presented at a national conference in 1997 on the use of computersin the classroom.As a teacher,I make a consistenteffon to infuse computersinthe Grade 2curriculum, so thaI the computer becomesa 1001inmeeting learner outcomes,Thisethnography proposesabetter understandingoftheattitudesandpractices of computer useinone particular classroom, inwhich the researcher is.participant observer of radical technologic.al development.

SOIIrstSPCQata

Thisstudy employed mainlyqualitative researchmethods butwas alsoinformedby the use of a quantiwiveparentsurvey.Thisresearchwasconducted as anethnography.

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Crowding Out the Girls 27

oftm referredto asacue study.Sincethe studyisfocused on u in-depth MaIysjs of geed ered computa'" cxpcricnce

mmy

d&ssroom.thenumberof pattic:iJlantswas limited to thatparticulargroup.Primaydw.includestudcm.inrerview1 and parent quesrionlWres.

supplemeat ed byaresarch journal, whichincludes6ddnotesandsuucrured and unstructured~ofstudeIu,Scc:ondaJ1tdati. includedoaunents.communication withproviDcialdepartmentand school districtofIicWs..Melminutesof computer committeemeetingsat the schoolwhereI conductedthestudy Sou rcesofQullirariy C Pll.

There wasaninterviewwith eachof the 19students(SeeAppendixA).The instrumentwas pilotedwithfour 7-year-olds before implemcntariorl,The mteMew with each studentwas limitedto 10 minutesinduration.andwas lChcduJed atatime convenient10the RUdent.withoutlossofinsttuctionaltime (often previoustoschool rime or duringtuncbhour).IfWASconducted inaquiet:room.withfew distrae:tions.,andWAS normallyaudiotaped(onechildrequested no audio taping)andwas IUbse:quendy transcribed.StudentsweRinstructed to respond "Pus-ilthe)' wished torefrainfrom answeringany particular question.Allresponses werevoluntary,TheimcrMwWAS divided intothree sections:Ca )knowledgeaboutcomputing. (b)attitudes towards and use of computer at home.,Mel(c)attitudes towards and uscof computer at school.It investigatedsuch issues as the attitudes towards use of computenbygender and perceptions ofparents' attitudes/expectatio nscowards comput a'"usc.Responses were subseq uent ly organizedusingTheEJhDQBTJphtoidentifythemes,trends and

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Crowding Out theGirls 28

classificationsingenderedcomputer use.

In addition to acting uaqualitative instrument,the studentinterview was initially coded and analyzed in a quantitative format;however,itwasthe students 'explanation or commentary regardingtheirresponseswhich provided the mostusefulinformation,and thereforethe quantitatiV1:analysis isnotpresentedhere.Infact, the quantitative results alone often misrepresentedthestudent response, such that simple"yes"or"no" codesdid notdepictthe livedrealityofthechild;bycontClrtUalization,.moreauthentic description of that realityisachieved.

Qualitativeinquiry furtherinvolvedinformalobservation of students'usc ofand interactions with softwareandwithfellowcomputer users,inorder to determineifgender differences existed.Thesetook placeinbothstructured and unstructured environments.

Duringstructuredcomputer eventsinthe school resource center,participants were engaged in computer activitiessuchasusingIparticularpiece of software or scanning specified web sites for information.A checklist wu used (SeeAppendixB) to determine if patterns wereemerging.Fivestructured computer eventswereobserved.Unstructured computerrimeinvolvedwe:oftlle classroom computer during recess or lunch hours Gendercomposition of thoseobserving,as wdJ as commentaryandactions of participants werenoted

Myresearchjournalincluded6cld notes aswellasreflectionon pl"aetice,which providedan ongoing meta-analysis of theresearchasweI!as I checkofresearcher subjectivity.ParticipCionincomputercommitteemeetingsofthe schoolwasalso

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Crowdi ngOut theGirls 29 dOQJlnenud.and nmneseYideDcedmembers'priorities.

Secondary data involve an examinationof provincially publisheddocuments.such asTecJrnologyIn Learning EnvIl"OIfIIfenlS(1994)andLivi ng in aT~cJmologlcal Soc,~ty (1997).Thiseuminationattends 10 policiesand inlervmrionsbased on Ihe issue of gender incompweruse 10delcrmine iffemalepartic::ipuion isprnmoIed..Additiooal/y,school districtandprovincialdcpartmenI representativeswereCOOtICIed todetermineif comp.ner usepolicybad been drafted for schools.Theseseconduydata determine iflheeducationaJ hierarchy5ySIemic.a1typromolesgender equilyintermsofcomputer accessanduse.

Sourcesg( O" 'mirlt iyePall

Oneinstrument which incorporates some quantitative elementsinthis studyis a parent questionnaire(SeeAppendiJI;C).ThismeasureprovidedlUrtberevidenoeof the

livedrealityof dieGrade 2 clWd and the datacomexnalizedbyqualitativecomponents

Thequestionnairewucreatedincontextoflbe research questions andwasapproximately three pagcsinlength.A pilot ofttlesurveyhelpedclaritYinstructionsand render the tool moreusertiiendly.The instrumentdeterminedcomputerp.-esenceinthehome and useby familymembers.,andexplored parenlexpectationsor participationintheir child's computer education.Itfurther"investigated suchattitudes as importance of compu1er use

comparedto other subject areas., andparem.aIc:onAderationofcWferencesingender

towards computer use.

Each child wu giventhequestionnaire 10deliver to parents on • Monday afternoonto ensurethatthe most pamtlswouldICCtheiDseninlheirchi.ld'shomework

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CrowdingOutthe Girls 30 for that evening. Parents were givenone:week 10 complete the quc:srionnaire, 1be questionnaires werenumberedsou to eceetaee the parents with their respective children. Inorder toensure paniciparn anonymity, returned questionnaireswereplaced ina box so that a particular student couJd not be associatedwithaquestionnaire.Thepercentage of participation was 85%,which wu considered satisfactory forthe small number of children involved inthe study (N=20) .SESSwuutilized inthe statisrical analysis of this data

Insummary,qualitative tools including interview,observationanddocument analysisare utilized in this case study.Afurther component, the parent questionnaire, includesboth qualitative and quantitative elements.

EcoleBonaventure is • Kindergarten 10 Grade 5 French immc:nion urban school.

As the onlyfuUy French Immersion primary/elementaryschool in the city,its population is approximately 3S0 students.As a -district- school,its intake consists of students from all overthe cityand its environs

The30-year-old facilityhouses. gymnasiwniauditoriumwithstage,two music rooms,abilingualresource center,aminicomputer laboratory,a science/an room, parent volunteer room,anddaycare,some of which ace made available by converting unused classroom space.Thereis. well-appointed playground,equippedwith see-saws,slides, monkeybars.and tennislbasketballCOW1, In 1998,landscaping wu completed in front of theschool, which renders the facility invitingand visually pleasing.Althoughit is situIIted inaninter-urbanarea,the schoolisfairlysecluded,andusuch,itrausvictimtovandalism.

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Crowding Outthe Girls 31 on a regular basis.For example,recentimprovements iJK:luding basketball nets,shrubs, and flagswereall stoicnfromthe propertyinseparate incidents.Perhapsthe most obviousdrawbacktothephysical plant of the facility is thatItis notwbeek:hairacassible;

although it is accessible ORthemain floor, there is no elevator orliftto allow access to the upper floor

Within theschool,specializedprograms offer both enrichment and special assistance to lhose studentswho require such services.Theenrichment program is organized by thedistrict,with caocIidatesselected on a basis of standardized tests. coupled with informal teacher assessments. A small number ofsuccessful students anend an alternate school one dayper week during Grades S - 7, while another group meets one day percycleinthe school with a teacher representative&-omthe alternate school. Special education followsthe procedures set out by the Depamncnt of Education, and usually results in individualized orsmall-group assistance for those who demonstrate tendencies of learning difficulties.Often, these students are capable of roping with the immersion program afterthe implementation of classroom adaptations;howeverinsome cases students transfer tothe English program and therefore to a new school.Finally,thestrings programis also organized bythe district;thisis •ftpuUout^Mprogram,in that students attendstrings class while regular classes arc ongoing. This program acts as one type of on- siteenrichmentforthese studellts

Extracurricular activities organized atthe school include chess (open to students fromGrades2to S), cross--countJy running,and newspaper (committee determined by

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Crowding Outthe Girls 32 teacher selection amongGradeS students) Otherservicesare offered tothe school populationbyoutside ageocies.The German club is organizedbyseverallUltiveGerman speakers.,whogive lessons onedayperweekafter school hours, and the choir has been organized bymusic students from a neighbouringhighschool,who practise withthe membersat lunchhour.Also, a drama troupe meets weeldy underthe direction ofan instructorfrom the community.FlnaIly,aspreviously indicated, there isa daycareon-site.

which is run bythe YMCA,andconsists ofan after·schoolprosnm,and morningand afternoon sessions to complementthe ha1f-day schedules oflrindergarten students.

Bussing is notprovided at the school; transportation is the responsibility of parents.As well,thereis no school lunch program on site.Such programslIfCusually based on need as determinedby socioeconomic status; the school population is fairly affluent,with the majority of students coming from middle to upper income families. Most parents hold post-secondary education,and many are highly skilled professionals.For example,76~.of thecase study participantS have parents with post-secondary education.

Asa French immersion school, the firstlanguageof virtuallyallstudentsis English.

Afew transient French families have enrolled their children, and some anglophone parents havesome knowledge of Preecb.Otherwise.students receive lheironlycontactwith French whileatschool. One effort to remedy thislaclc ofexposureisa yearly trip to 51 Pierre. organizedfor theGradeS students Ittheendofthe school year.

Parental presencein the school is strong.TheHomeand School Association ejects on a yearly basis an executivewhoseme:mberschair thesubsequentmonthlymeetings10

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CrowdingOutthe Girls 33 discuss relevantissues.fi.mdraisiDg, ee.,andalso to welcome guest speakers.Parent volunteers aidin various capacitiesinthe school on a daily basis.,includingadministrative dutiesin the resource centerandinthe school office durinS hmch hour, as weD as the preparation of curriculum resources;theparentvolunteer roomis the center ofmanyof the se activities.The newly organized schoolcouncilwasformedin1998with.number of parentspresenting themselvesascandidates

The facultyof20 ispredominantlyfemale,wjthonemale teacher.Twoteachers are francophone.withthe remaindereitherraisedwithFrench astheirsecond language.or have studiedinimmersionprognmsthemselves asadults.Thestaffisorganizedinto.

varietyof self-selectedcommittees,which include computer.chess,school council, fundraising,and social committees.Annual activities attheschool include anelementary science fair,a Grade5 statisticsfair.Englishand Frenchbookfairs,aspring bazaar, science/t ec hnologyweek, -..d education week.As well,spirit day isusua1lyheld during themonthofF ebruary,andspans dayinMay/June

With regards 10computers, the committeehasbeeninvolvedin avariety of project s,including panicipationin"G r ass Root s"Internetprojectsinconjunctionwith STEM-Net,theprovincialeducationalnetwork.Alocalarea netWork has been installed this year , which allows extended use of classroomuniuthrough the file server,which is administered through the resource center.Each studenthasa "ogoo"name and password tousethe system . E-mail accounts have alsoheel created for all students and teachers on the server;howeverthese arestillnot used bythestudent body_Therehas been nu:h

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Crowding Out the Girls 34 debate by comminee members as to how the computers may be better distributed throughoutthe school; at present. each class bas one computer and most have a printer.

Some class computei'! are lntemeHcady.This year.four studentsfroma Ioc:aIIec:hnic:al college completed the compulsory placement component oflheir program at our school, wtuch wasbeneficialinmaintaining thetechno logy and improving technical capabilities of staff membcrs.For the past two years.one of two annual professional development days hasbeen devotedto computer applicarions.TechnologicaJexpansionatthis sitehasbeen veryaggressiveinthe pasttwoyears.as computer literacy bas become a priority with teacher sand administntorsof Ecole BonaventuTe.

Inthe spirit: ofactionresearch.the researcher'sclasswasselectedas the sample forthis study.This Grade 2 class consisted of II females and 8 males.All students attended GradeIinthe previous year,withtwostudents transferringinfromother schoo ls to Grade 2.Four of the students(three female, one male) were receiving extra helpin languageansfromthe special education teacher.Two ofthese students (both female)hadbeenpreviously diagnosed as showing tendenciesof learning disabilities;the male student wu anindividual case,inthathehadtransferredfromanotherschool, and wasexperiencing greatacademi<:andsocialdaaUengC5at Ecole Bonaventure.1bcfamily backgrounds ofthisgroup werefairlyheterogeneous. with seventeen studentsc:oming fromtraditionaltwo-p&rentWnilies.the majoritycfwhich were two-income units.All students had bad • c:omputerin their classroom the previous year.and had panicipatedin

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CrowdingOutthe Girls 3S several softwareand InterneH-eJated activities.Thestudents appeared enthusiastic: about using the computer and engaging in computer-related activities.

Theclassroom computer wasequippedwitha variety of software, including math, Frenc h, an,andgeography-mated packages,as wellas aword processor.Itwaslinkedto a network which was administered from the resource center,through which compact disc softwar ecould be accessed.

ThesubmissionoCmeproposalferthisresearch was dated October,1997,and approvalwas received the foUowing month.Permissionwas subsequentlysought and receivedfrom the school administRtionandschoolboard,which was followedby informedconsentofparents andstudent participants,The actual on-site research, which included survey distribution and collection, individual interviews,observations,andjournal writingspannedafour-month period,from January toApril,1998

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Cro wdingOutthe GUts

,.

Praentationand AnalysisoftheDala

SevcnItoolswormthisresearch.Theseindude:(a)jouma1(CODSisting of unstNetured andItJUCtUred~);(b)studenttmerAew;(c )pua1lquestionnaire;

and(d)docwnenl analysisandCOlTespondence(includin gscboollCbooIboard,and government policyinltiatives).CoUcc:tivdy,thesemethodsconstitute aYCrificarion procedureinthatfindingsfromone proceduresupportthoseof one01"moreofthe remainingresean:htools

Thedata presentationandanalysis whichfoUoware structured by the guiding theo riesofthisresearch, namely(a) that gender differencesincomputing attitudes and practicesofstudentsaredeterminedbytheenvironmentandnot by inherent dispositions . and(b)thatparentalattitudes areadcterminiDgfaaor inthe shapingofstudemattitudes towardscomputeruse.Thedataanalysisidentifiespatternswhich implicatethese guiding theoriesinresponsetothe foUowing research questions:(a )Aretheregenderdifferences incomputeruse?(b)Are theregmd a- diffemx::ninattitudestowards computen?(c)Do parentalattitudestow ardthe useofeompu1en affectchildren'suseandattitudeslowards computc:nbylender?(d)Howdoes theeducationaJsystem promolelender equityinthe accessanduseofcomputers~

Thejournalwuusedbyliteresearcherto 101observationsofcomputeruse during structuredandunstrUCtw"1ldcJusroomtime,aswellas to monitorand checkthe

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CrowdingOuttheGirJs 37 researcher's subjectivity.Structuredclassroomtimeincludedcomputer classes at the resource center,while unstructured timewas outsideregularclus time

Intheclassroom,thetwentystudents were nonnalty su.ted in heterogeneous groups offour at small tables.Inone eoreer,the math center offered Lego blocks,math manipulatives, etc.Intheopposite comer,the readingcenter included a comfonable seating areaand shelves stocked with French storybooks.Thecomputer was set up on the opposite side oftile room. near the teacher'sdesk, and was not in close proximity to any other center, the positioning ofthe c:omputerin agenderneutral areawas therefore provided,as recommended in the literature(Bemhard.1992).There were two chairs at the computer table, andampleroom for onlookers.

Theclassroom computer had a wide variety of software &om which to choose Theseincluded word processing(Studenl WritingCenter,Studenl Pllhlishing Network, Microsoft Works),mathematics(McnhBloster,Math Wizard, Exploring Panem Bloch, ExploringBaseTen, Animated Malh, MathVilJe, Counters and Slims,1-1-30rdonne- moi,J'atdessous,QueJ/e heure est.;I?,Fnses et modiles),publication(PrintArtist, PrintShop),geography(Carmen$andiego,PC Globe,X- Cou"nyCanada) , spatial orientation (R-Alpha, Orie"tQllon Spatia/e), spelling (RaJ/OtIS MaglqueS), granunar(Lo chasseallTrewr). science (Operation Frog). various topic specific software (DesignasmtrllS),andseveral games(Wot"d!Uscue.Clw5.S. Orhlts) which exhibitvarying curricular value.The computer was connected to a serverintheresource center,so that students hadto log oninorder to accessthelocal area network.

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Crowdin gOut theGirts 38 ForinitialUI'lSttUCtwl:d~Itudcntswerepermined10 use the computer onafirst-comc.finI-serwd basis_TherewereDOspecific:regulatioas given.such that panemsofuse mightnotbeinhibited.1belimeswhenthe classroom computerwoukIbe availableinthisway were 8:25am·8:50am (period before class), 10:30am· 10:45 am (reces s),and 12:25pm - 12:5Spm (lunch bour).There were also computer activities duringclass time which reprncnt the structured observations.Theresults ofthese observationsover aperiod of five weeksareorganizedaccordingtovaryingthemeswtBch emerged fromtheuscof the computerintheclassroom

Ifngn'£!l,rnt(')bgryJtjon

TbcmcI·cpmprtitingfur.g;cM'9tbemmptltCJ

Duringlbefirstweek.cenainpanemsdidbegintoemerge amongtbeseGrade2 studentsin terms ofllC«SIwtuch.onceestablished,prevailedIhrOUghoullhe observalion period.Studen taccess 10thecom pu ter wasnotconlro Ued, but delegatedona first-come, first- servedbasis.As.rellUlt,thene wu •competitionamongSOnICstudents 10get10the computercentes-firstandclaimthe computerfor tha ttimeslO1.AsinKinnear's(1995) studyof Grades410 7,male students becamemorefrequentusenofthecomputer because theyweremoreIiJr.dytoclaimitaDddemandaccesstoit.Fivemalestudenuin particularweremoreeager than their classmates 10NSh 10 thecompulerduring theirfree

time, asMdeDccdbytheirdailyusc;orif1he compulerwasnot availabie they would ask

toreserveitfor thenextrecess or lunchperiod.For. time,thislimi1edfemale participationat the compuler center.However,towardsthe end oflhefirstweek.two

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female participantsrequested to use the computer at luncb hour, andtheirrequest for:l.

"reserva tio n" was granted.The following journal entry describestheir use of the computer:

Twofemalesusingthecomputer.They chooseWord Resew Three malesand twofemaleslookOIl.Seven.! times.,themales make comments regarding the procedure intheprnc:.Ontwooccuions., a malereachesOVCI'thefemale'sshoukIcr topn:ss abunon.showing where to navigate.Themales remain atthe computer even after the teacher has twice askedthe group to be seated to resume class As the pattern of more regular use for males continued atthe computer eerter,scvtral

39

females ofthe class became more vocal about their desire 10 use the computer more often.

and conflict began to develop among two groups ofstudents who were both interested in usingthecomputer-intheir free time (one group oftwo males, one group of three females),Thepractice office access tothe computer was therefore halted at the end ofa two week block,in favor ofdesignated access or"turns"for each computer slot.This became necessary as the group oftive male studentSbecame daily users of the computer.

whiletheir classmates either looked on or participated in alternate activities.Themajority of students welcomed thenewsyste m ofprcdesignatcd computer use for free time,A list of students'nameswas posted,and studentsWU"Ctold thatitwas their timeto use the computer.For the remaining threeweeks. access to the computer- was prcdetcmUned.

which eliminatedthe need forcompditionor reservations Theme q.Prp1om;URtsoftware:

Ninetypercentofthe time throughout the observation period, the same software

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Crowding Outthe Girls 40 wasutilizedinWlSU'Udw"eddusroom computeruse:WordRlscw.This program is slmi1areoaNinunJogame.in thatasmaUcharacter(male)manocuventhrougham&U composedofanumberofbels or"'wortds..inorder10 Kbicvc the higbc:stlew:!.The ciaraet er is confromedbyvariousopponeulSor "'Nasties",apimtwhomhe may01"may notbe equipped withsomedefensive"slime".lristhedwacler'sduty10collectletters throughouteach mazeinorderto creale• word.Thegamedoes exhibil someeducationaJ value, sinceitrelnfor ca conventions ofspdling.On mostoccuKmsthis wasthegameof choice,andso the topicof howfar each studenlhadtraveledin tennsoflevelsquicldy becamea subjectof discussionintheclassroom. Manystudentswerecompetingto reach thehighestlev el first - in particular,the fivemaleindividualswhohadbecomethe most frequentusers.Theuse of the classroom computetbecamesynonymouswith playing WordIhSCllt!.even though thereweremanyother programs from which 10 choose, as outlinedabove.Thiswastrueforbothmaleandfemaleusers

Thesecondmostpopularprogram wasPOIn t,inwhichthe students expcrimenIcd with creating picturesordesignsusing colon.shapes. andfools.However,this program wasusedapproxinwdyS%ofthe time that the computer wuinuse.IIwasalsoequally popular withmaleandfemaleusen.ThetbinIprogramwhichmaintainedapresencewas PnntShop,inwhich students ex:pcrimcnted with graphics and layoultoereee greeting cards.Thiswasusedexclusivelybyfemales.andwaswedapproximately2%ofthctime.

Theme;m·Comm"a expert!intM d'Wngm

Sixstudentsemergedu knowledgeable users oflhecomputers,asevidencedby

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Crowding Out the Girls 41 the number oftimesthat students approached them for assistanceduringunstructured computertime.Five of these were male,andwere the same users that dominated the computerfromthe onset of the observation period_ Their knowledse of the classroom computer was influenced by their oIMous interest: inusingit.Asa result,even when

"turns"were ddegaled,these studentswouldregularlygatheratthe computer toobserve

theplayersof theday,and on the performance of theU5eI".Italso became obvious lhat one partieular female wu~eryknowledgeable in computet" use;she did notuse it more thanot hersat school. buthada computer at home thai she used regularly.Shewasoften asked for help regardingsuchprocessesas saving or exiting

Theme !Y- Maleand(m,lespectatprPlums

Malesweremoreinclinedto be spectatorswhileother"students played;the females wouldalso observebut always forashorter period ofafew minutes. and they wouldthen proceed toother activities in the classroom, such aslow~sames.Ingeneral.the femaleswerefreq uent spectators butthey did not tend tobecomeinvol~edinthegameor makecomments regardinghowitshould be played.Malesdid exhibitthesebehavion,and watched playersforextendedperiods,often fortheentire fifteen minutesofrec:esstime Especiallyduringthetinttwoweeks, male spectators were regularfyobservedtoreach overthe female users'shouIdenandpress a key in ordertohelpthe femalesnavigate

Once observed p*nemsof dominance by one group of children were established, the interventionof

"'taJcins

turns"wasintroducedwiththeexpectation that access would