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Strength Tests of Ice on Lake Zurich During "Seegfrörni", 1963

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PREFACE

I c e c o v e r s on l a k e s and r i v e r s a r e u s e d e x t e n s i v e l y f o r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n p u r p o s e s i n Canada. The l o a d t h a t can be p l a c e d s a f e l y o n t o c o v e r s o f g i v e n t h i c k n e s s i s , t h e r e f o r e , a q u e s t i o n o f some i n t e r e s t . I t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e t h i s l o a d w i t h c o n f i d e n c e a t t h i s t i m e d u e , i n p a r t , t o l a c k o f knowledge c o n c e r n i n g t h e d e f o r m a t i o n and s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t i e s o f i c e , and t o t h e n a t u r a l v a r i a t i o n s t h a t o c c u r i n t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f i c e c o v e r s . P r o b a b l y t h e b e s t s o u r c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y o f i c e c o v e r s a r e f i e l d t r i a l s and r e c o r d s o f l o a d s p l a c e d s u c c e s s f u l l y on them. The r a r e l y o c c u r r i n g e v e n t of f r e e z i n g o f Lake Z k - i z h p r o v i d e d an o p p o r t u n i t y f o r d e v e l o p i n g s u c h i n f o r m a t i o n . The i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d i s p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e - f u l b e c a u s e i t i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h i c e t h i c k n e s s e s o f l e s s t h a n t h i r t y c e n t i m e t r e s . F i e l d s t u d i e s c a r r i e d o u t b y t h e D i v i s i o n o f B u i l d i n g R e s e a r c h have shown t h a t t h e s t r e n g t h o f i c e o f t h i s t h i c k n e s s i s v e r y s e n s i t i v e t o t h e n a t u r a l v a r i a t i o n s t h a t c a n o c c u r i n t h e s t r u c t u r e and q u a l i t y o f t h e c o v e r . The r e s u l t s o f t h e s t u d i e s on Lake Z c r i c h a r e a v e r y u s e f u l c o n t r i b u t i o n t o knowledge c o n c e r n i n g t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h i n i c e . The N a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l i s p l e a s e d t o be a b l e t o make t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e i n i t s T e c h n i c a l T r a n s l a t i o n s e r i e s . The D i v i s i o n of B u i l d i n g R e s e a r c h w i s h e s t o e x p r e s s i t s a p p r e c i a t i o n t o D r . J o h n R . Kohr f o r h i s t r a n s l a t i o n of t h i s work, and t o D r . L.W. Gold of t h e D i v i s i o n o f B u i l d i n g R e s e a r c h who checked t h e t r a n s l a t i o n .

O t t a w a

November 1970

N . B . Hutcheon D i r e c t o r

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NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL OF CANADA T e c h n i c a l T r a n s l a t i o n 1 4 2 2 T i t l e : S t r e n g t h t e s t s o f i c e on Lake Z i r i c h d u r i n g " S e e g f r G r n i t l , 19 6 3 (Das Problem d e r T r a g f a h i g k e i t d e r E i s d e c k e a n l a s s l i c h d e r Z i r c h e r ~ e e g f r G r n i 1 9 6 3 ) A u t h o r : H. R G t h l i s b e r g e r R e f e r e n c e : S c h w e i z e r i s c h e B a u z e i t u n g , 86 ( 3 1 ) : 565-569, 1 9 6 8 T r a n s l a t o r : J o h n R . Kohr, T r a n s l a t i o n s S e c t i o n , N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e L i b r a r y

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DURING ~ ~ S E E G F R O R N I ' ~ , 1 9 6 3 I n t r o d u c t i o n " S e e g f r Z r n i " i s a S w i s s d i a l e c t e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h e t o t a l f r e e z e - up o f a l a k e a l l o w i n g g r e a t crowds o f p e o p l e t o v e n t u r e o n t o t h e i c e . On Lake Z t r i c h , t h i s h a p p e n s on t h e a v e r a g e o n l y o n c e e v e r y t h i r t y y e a r s ; h e n c e , s u c h a n o c c a s i o n becomes a v e r i t a b l e f o l k f e s t i v a l . I n Z u r i c h , p u b l i c s a f e t y d u r i n g " S e e g f r 6 r n i f f i s t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of t h e c i t y p o l i c e . By t h e e n d o f J a n u a r y 1 9 6 3 , t h e l o w e s t p a r t o f Lake Z i i r i c h s t a r t e d t o f r e e z e o v e r c o m p l e t e l y ; t h i s i n d u c e d t h e i n s p e c t i o n s e r v i c e s o f t h e c i t y p o l i c e t o a s k f o r t e c h n i c a l a d v i c e f r o m t h e

" V e r s u c h s a n s t a l t f i i r Wasserbau und E r d b a u " a t t h e ETH as w e l l as f r o m t h e f f S c h w e i z e r i s c h e M e t e o r o l o g i s c h e Z e n t r a l a n s t a l t " (MZA). The re-

q u e s t was g r a n t e d w i t h p l e a s u r e , e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e i t c o n s t i t u t e d t h e c o n t i n u a n c e o f a s i m i l a r t r a d i t i o n f r o m p r e v i o u s "Seegfr?k-nenl'. I n February-March 1 9 2 9 , t h e c i t y p o l i c e h a d r e l i e d on d a t a f u r n i s h e d by P r o f e s s o r A l b e r t Heim and D i r e c t o r J u l i u s M a u r e r . I n F e b r u a r y 1 9 4 0 , when t h e i c e c o v e r b e g a n t o e x t e n d as f a r as Z i r i c h i t s e l f , a s e r i e s o f l o a d t e s t s and t e c h n i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n s o f i c e s a m p l e s were p l a n n e d by D r . R . H a e f e l i , t h e n C h i e f o f t h e T e c h n i c a l D i v i s i o n o f VAWE, i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h EMPA; h o w e v e r , a n e a r l y thaw p r e v e n t e d implemen- t a t i o n o f t h i s programme. I n 1 9 6 3 , t h e D i v i s i o n f o r Hydrology a n d G l a c i o l o g y o f VAWE w a s e n t r u s t e d w i t h t e s t i n g t h e l o a d i n g c a p a c i t y o f i c e ; t h e s e s t u d i e s were a l s o s u p p o r t e d by t h e G e o t e c h n i c a l D i v i s i o n and by t h e Board o f D i r e c t o r s . The work i t s e l f was c a r r i e d o u t i n d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h t h e Lake P o l i c e . T h i s may b e a n a p p r o p r i a t e o c c a s i o n f o r t h a n k i n g a l l p a r t i c i p a n t s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e c i t y p o l i c e

as s p o n s o r s o f t h i s r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t . We w i s h t o e x p r e s s a l s o o u r s p e c i a l g r a t i t u d e t o o u r American c o l l e a g u e s o f t h e U.S. Army Cold R e g i o n s R e s e a r c h and E n g i n e e r i n g L a b o r a t o r y (CRREL, p r e v i o u s l y known

a s SIPRE), who h e l p e d u s g r e a t l y by d r a w i n g on t h e i r l o n g e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e f i e l d o f l o a d - b e a r i n g s t u d i e s o f i c e c o v e r s .

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Review o f E a r l i e r Work The l o a d - b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y o f i c e on f r o z e n l a k e s a n d r i v e r s i n n o r t h e r n c o u n t r i e s h a s economic as w e l l a s m i l i t a r y i m p o r t a n c e ; p r i m a r y i n t e r e s t i s f o c u s e d on heavy i n d i v i d u a l l o a d s . However, m i l i t a r y l i t e r a t u r e o c c a s i o n a l l y c o n t a i n s e n t r i e s on l o a d s e x e r t e d by p e r s o n n e l ( i n d i v i d u a l l y o r i n g r o u p s

-

s e e T a b l e I ) ; e a r l y " S e e g f r B r n e n " p r o v i d e t h e i r own d a t a on i c e s a f e t y a s f a r a s l a r g e m a s s e s o f p e o p l e a r e c o n c e r n e d : on 25 J a n u a r y 1 8 8 0 , i c e was d e c l a r e d s a f e a t a t h i c k n e s s o f 1 3

-

1 5 cm; on 27 J a n u a r y 1 8 9 1 , a t a t h i c k n e s s o f

9

cm; a n d on 2 1 F e b r u a r y 1 9 2 9 , a t a n a v e r a g e t h i c k n e s s o f 11

-

1 2 cm. Only o n c e , i n 1 8 8 0 , i n v a s i o n of t h e i c e s u r f a c e by l a r g e crowds l e d t o a m i s a d v e n t u r e t h a t c o u l d e a s i l y h a v e ended i n t r a g e d y . On 8 F e b r u a r y , a f t e r a n e v e n i n g o f " i c e c a p a d e s "

-

c o m p l e t e w i t h C h i n e s e l a n t e r n s , p o l k a d a n c e s , and f i r e w o r k s

-

h a d a t t r a c t e d a crowd number- i n g anywhere from 1 0 , 0 0 0 t o 1 5 , 0 0 0 , t h e r e w a s a s u d d e n p a n i c t h a t c a u s e d t h e crowd t o d i s p e r s e r a p i d l y w i t h a g r e a t hue a n d c r y ; b u t , e x c e p t f o r a p r e v a l e n c e o f wet f e e t , n o harm was d o n e . I c e t h i c k n e s s a t t h a t t i m e was a b o u t 30 cm. D e s p i t e d a t a g a t h e r e d from e a r l i e r o c c a s i o n s o f " S e e g f r G r n e n " , i t was n o t e a s y t o d e c i d e , d u r i n g t h e f r e e z e - u p a t t h e end o f J a n u a r y 1 9 6 3 , a t what t h i c k n e s s t h e i c e s h o u l d b e o f f i c i a l l y d e c l a r e d s a f e ; a f t e r a l l , no f a i l - s a f e v a l u e h a d e v e n b e e n a s c e r t a i n e d on p r e v i o u s o c c a s i o n s . T h e r e was, m o r e o v e r , t h e unanswered q u e s t i o n of t h e p o s s i b l e e f f e c t of p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e (more t h a n 50% s i n c e 1 9 2 9 , w i t h i n t h e c i t y l i m i t s a l o n e ! ) . Above a l l , t h e r e w a s a n e e d t o a p p l y r e c e n t t h e o r e t i c a l a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s t o t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e i c e s a f e t y f a c t o r , a s w e l l as t h e problem o f how t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f i c e i n Lake Z G r i c h . T h i s a r t i c l e d e s c r i b e s t h e s e s t u d i e s , t o g e t h e r w i t h d a t a t h a t h a v e s i n c e a p p e a r e d , o m i t t i n g , h o w e v e r , r e f e r e n c e s t o ( 1 2 ) a n d ( 1 3 ) , which d e a l w i t h i m p o r t a n t p r o b l e m s o f v i s c o - e l a s t i c i t y o f i c e ; u n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e s e p a p e r s w e r e n o t a v a i l a b l e t o t h e a u t h o r a t t h e t i m e of p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e m a n u s c r i p t .

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I n d i v i d u a l Loads When a l o a d b r e a k s t h r o u g h t h e i c e , i t c a n b e o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e e v e n t p r o c e e d s by s e v e r a l d i s t i n c t p h a s e s : t h e f i r s t c r a c k o c c u r s o n t h e b o t t o m s u r f a c e o f t h e i c e , e x t e n d i n g r a d i a l l y f r o m t h e c e n t r e ; t h i s i s f o l l o w e d by f o r m a t i o n o f a d d i t i o n a l r a d i a l c r a c k s ; t h i s p a t t e r n e v e n t u a l l y a s s u m e s t h e s h a p e o f a s t a r . T h i s p h a s e i s n o t d a n g e r o u s . F a i l u r e t h r e a t e n s o n l y when t h e l o a d i s i n c r e a s e d t o t h e p o i n t w h e r e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l c r a c k s a p p e a r on t h e t o p s u r f a c e o f t h e i c e ; t h e s e s o o n b e g i n t o f o r m a more o r l e s s c o n c e n t r i c r i n g a r o u n d t h e l o a d ( F i g . 1 ) . The n e x t p h a s e c o n s i s t s i n t h e p u s h i n g down o f t h e s e s e c t o r s formed by t h e r a d i a l c r a c k b u t , s u r p r i s i n g l y e n o u g h , t h i s s t a g e d o e s n o t p r o d u c e a n i m m e d i a t e b r e a k - t h r o u g h a t t h e " h i n g e - l i n e " ; t h e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e d e l a y may b e f o u n d i n t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s e c t o r s a r e wedged a g a i n s t e a c h o t h e r . N e v e r t h e l e s s , s o o n e r o r l a t e r , t h e l o a d w i l l b r e a k t h r o u g h , o n c e t h i s s t a g e i s r e a c h e d , e v e n i f no w e i g h t i s a d d e d . B e f o r e t h i s h a p p e n s , h o w e v e r , f u r t h e r c r a c k s a p p e a r b o t h i n s i d e a n d o u t s i d e t h e f i r s t c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l c r a c k ; a t t h e same t i m e , t h e number o f r a d i a l c r a c k s c o n t i n u e s t o i n c r e a s e . The f i n a l b r e a k - t h r o u g h o c c u r s , g e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , a t t h e i m m e d i a t e p e r i p h e r y o f t h e l o a d , by a p r o c e s s o f c r u s h i n g t h e t i p s o f t h e s e c t o r s w h e r e t h e p r e s s u r e upon t h e i c e i s h e a v i e s t ; t h i s a c t i o n a l w a y s o c c u r s i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h a p r o c e s s o f s h e a r i n g . T h u s , b a s i c a l l y , t h r e e main p h a s e s may b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d : 1. F o r m a t i o n o f r a d i a l c r a c k s ; 2 . F o r m a t i o n o f c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l c r a c k s ; 3 . B r e a k - t h r o u g h o f l o a d .

Each o f t h e t h r e e p h a s e s r e q u i r e s i t s own method o f c a l c u l a t i o n . The d e f o r m a t i o n e x e r t e d by a s m a l l l o a d i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e l o a d a p p l i e d ; a n a p p r o p r i a t e method o f c a l c u l a t i o n , d e r i v e d f r o m t h e t h e o r y o f e l a s t i c i t y , i s w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d ; t h e same f o r m u l a e c a n b e u s e d t h a t h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d f o r t h i n p l a t e s o n a n e l a s t i c b a s e . The l o a d p r o d u c e s a b e l l - s h a p e d d e p r e s s i o n i n t h e i c e s u r f a c e , w h e r e t h e l o a d i s b e i n g c a r r i e d as i f i n a b o a t . The w e i g h t o f t h e l o a d

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e q u a l s t h e w e i g h t o f t h e w a t e r t h a t i s b e i n g d i s p l a c e d by t h e d e f o r - m a t i o n o f t h e " p l a t e " . F o r a p o i n t l o a d and f o r a u n i f o r m l y d i s - t r i b u t e d c i r c u l a r l o a d t h e d e f l e c t i o n l i n e c a n b e d e s c r i b e d by a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e c y l i n d e r f u n c t i o n s ( 3 ) , ( 4 ) . The e l a s t i c d e f l e c t i o n w o a t t h e c e n t r e of a p o i n t l o a d P p l a c e d on a n i n f i n i t e p l a t e i s : 81'0 -- f f 8 Cb L z , (1) where E 11' 114

.;

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12 (1 -v') cb ( 2 ) where L i s t h e c h a r a s t e r i s t i c l e n g t h o f t h e p l a t e , E t h e modulus o f e l a s t i c i t y , v i s P o i s s o n ' s r a t i o , a n d C b t h e f o u n d a t i o n modulus which c o r r e s p o n d s , i n o u r c a s e , t o t h e s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y o f t h e w a t e r Yw =

l o e 3

kg/cm3. I n a d d i t i o n , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e maximal t e n s i o n f o r a u n i f o r m l y c i r c u l a r a r e a o f r a d i u s a , e . g . t h o s e f o r c e s e x e r t e d by t h e c e n t r e o f t h e l o a d upon t h e b o t t o m s u r f a c e o f t h e i c e , by u s i n g t h e W e s t e r g a a r d f o r m u l a ( 5 ) , ( 6 ) . The l o a d r e q u i r e d t o f o r m t h e f i r s t r a d i a l c r a c k c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d by s u b s t i t u t i n g f o r omax i n e q u a t i o n ( 3 ) t h e v a l u e f o r t h e f l e x u r a l s t r e n g t h , a b z : L

pra -- a*z I I ~ I I , I ( 1

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The q u e s t i o n a r i s e s w h e t h e r ( o r t o what e x t e n t ) t h e d u r a t i o n o f l o a d a p p l i c a t i o n must b e t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n . W h i l e P o i s s o n ' s r a t i o i s g e n e r a l l y h e l d t o b e a b o u t 1 / 3 , v a l u e s I n t h e l i t e r a t u r e v a r y g r e a t l y f o r E and a b z : f o r E , b e t w e e n 5 , 0 0 0 kg/cm2 a n d t h e dynamic v a l u e o f 9 0 , 0 0 0

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1 0 0 , 0 0 0 kg/cm2; f o r o b Z b e t w e e n a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 kg/cm2 a n d 20 kg/cm 2 ( 1 3 6 , 7 ) , whereby t h e ( 8 ) l i m i t s may e v e n s i n k b e l o w 1 kg/cm2 u n d e r s p r i n g thaw c o n d i t i o n s

.

U s i n g b a r r e l s i n l o a d - b e a r i n g e x p e r i m e n t s on Lake Z i i r i c h , s c i e n t i s t s o b t a i n e d f o r E f r o m t h e d e f o r m a t i o n i n t h e c e n t r e o f t h e l o a d , r e l a t i v e l y h i g h v a l u e s b e t w e e n 25,000 t o 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 kg/cm2. F o r a

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v a l u e o f E = 66,700 kg/cm2*, o b z was c a l c u l a t e d a s 3 . 3 t o 6 . 3 kg/cm2. G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , t h e i c e c o v e r i s t h e r m a l l y p r e s t r e s s e d , b e c a u s e o f t h e g r a d u a l i n c r e a s e i n i t s t h i c k n e s s as w e l l as t h e v a r i a b i l i t y o f t e m p e r a t u r e ; t h i s e x p l a i n s , i n p a r t a t l e a s t , t h e wide r a n g e o f v a l u e s o b t a i n e d f o r t h e c o n s t a n t s o f t h e m a t e r i a l , d e s p i t e t h e com- p l e t e h o m o g e n e i t y o f t h e i c e i t s e l f . S i n c e t h e f o r m a t i o n o f r a d i a l c r a c k s d o e s n o t l e a d t o t h e b r e a k - t h r o u g h o f t h e l o a d , t h e b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y would b e s u b s t a n t i a l l y u n d e r e s t i m a t e d i f c a l c u l a t e d a c c o r d - i n g t o f o r m u l a ( 3 a ) . S h o r t - t e r m a p p l i c a t i o n s o f l o a d s s e v e r a l t i m e s t h e w e i g h t o f t h e c a l c u l a t e d c r i t i c a l l o a d may s t i l l be s u p p o r t e d by t h e i c e s u r f a c e w i t h o u t d a n g e r o f b r e a k - t h r o u g h ; v a l u e s t h a t l i e o n l y m o d e r a t e l y above t h e c r i t i c a l l o a d f a c t o r may b e s u p p o r t e d f o r c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y l o n g e r p e r i o d s . T h e r e i s n o l a c k o f p a p e r s d e a l i n g w i t h t h e o r e t i c a l o r e x p e r i - m e n t a l d a t a c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e l a t e r p h a s e s o f b r e a k - t h r o u g h o f a s i n g l e l o a d 1 4 y 5 9 . The f a c t t h a t n o u n i f o r m l y a c c e p t a b l e e x p l a - n a t i o n h a s emerged t h u s f a r may b e t r a c e d t o t h e u n c e r t a i n t y o f t h e c h o i c e o f a n a p p r o p r i a t e model f o r t h e p l a s t i c p r o p e r t i e s o f i c e , o r r a t h e r , i n t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f d r a w i n g t h e l i m i t s o f a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f any g i v e n model. I t was f o u n d e m p i r i c a l l y t h a t t h e v a l u e f o r t h e c r i t i c a l l o a d i s d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e s q u a r e o f t h e i c e t h i c k n e s s , as i s t h e c a s e f o r Prad ( s e e F i g . 2 ) . The g r a p h shows t h a t on some

o c c a s i o n s i c e o f g i v e n t h i c k n e s s was a b l e t o s u p p o r t a g i v e n l o a d , b u t on o t h e r o c c a s i o n s f a i l u r e o c c u r r e d f o r t h e same l o a d a n d t h i c k - n e s s . (To r e p r e s e n t t h e s e d a t a i n a l i n e a r f o r m t h e f o r m u l a x = J P h a s b e e n u s e d i n t h e a b s c i s s a . ) R e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t n o b r e a k - t h r o u g h o c c u r r e d a t l o a d v a l u e s o f p / h 2 < 5 kg/cm2; o n l y i n

*

E = 6 6 , 7 0 0 kg/cm2, o r a b o u t 2 / 3 o f t h e dynamic m o d u l u s , i s a con- v e n i e n t v a l u e t o u s e

f e r

c a l c u l a t i o n s . F o r v = 1 / 3 , i t g i v e s a E 1 1 1 4 v a l u e o f 50 c m l / * ~ f o r t h e f a c t o r [ - 1 2 ( 1 - ~ 2 ) , , ~ , ] . . . B e c a u s e o f t h e s m a l l e x p o n e n t , t h i s f a c t o r i s n o t i n f l u e n c e d g r e a t l y by t h e v a l u e c h o s e n f o r E .

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e x c e p t i o n a l c a s e s was t h e r e a b r e a k - t h r o u g h b e t w e e n 5 a n d 1 0 kg/cm2, w h i l e f o r p / h 2 g r e a t e r t h a n 2 5 kg/cm2, b r e a k - t h r o u g h o c c u r r e d i n a l l c a s e s . The d i a g r a m d o e s n o t t a k e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n two i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s : t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e l o a d , and t h e d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e a r e a t o w h i c h t h e l o a d was a p p l i e d . F a i l u r e t o t a k e t h e s e f a c t o r s i n t o a c c o u n t may e x p l a i n t h e wide d i s p e r s i o n o f d a t a . Both f a c t o r s must be c o n s i d e r e d i f one w i s h e s t o o b t a i n more a c c u r a t e r e s u l t s . F i g u r e 3 , b a s e d on A s s u r ( ) shows t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e l o a d f a c t o r p / h 2 a n d t h e d u r a t i o n o f a p p l i c a t i o n o f l o a d , f o r s i n g l e l o a d s w i t h a r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e b a s e ( e . g . a c i r c u l a r w a t e r t a n k w i t h 3 . 6 m d i a m e t e r ) . R e s u l t s o f t h e l o a d t e s t s d e s c r i b e d b e l o w , made on Lake Z E r i c h , a g r e e w e l l w i t h A s s u r ' s d i a g r a m . F o r t h e o r e t i c a l s t u d i e s o f d u r a t i o n of a p p l i c a t i o n o f l o a d s s e e r e f . ( 1 2 ) , f o r a d d i t i o n a l e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a s e e r e f . ( 1 3 ) . The r a d i u s a o f a c i r c u l a r a r e a u n d e r l o a d i s i n c l u d e d i n a f o r m u l a d e v e l o p e d by Meyerhof f o r b r e a k - t h r o u g h o f l o a d s a t t h e moment o f f o r m a t i o n of t h e f i r s t c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l c r a c k s ( a s s u m i n g p u r e l y p l a s t i c b e h a v i o u r o f t h e i c e ) : Plan = 0,825 n ( I -r 3 n/2 15) na 11'. f ~ r 0.05 . n / L .: 1 ,

(4)

where a _ = p l a s t i c l i m i t . A l t e r n a t i v e f o r m u l a e may b e f o u n d i n t h e 3

same p a p e r by Meyerhof and i n p a p e r s b y A s s u r ( 4 9 9 ) . The l o a d s

' t a n i s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d a s b r e a k - t h r o u g h l o a d w i t h d e l a y e d a c t i o n . On J a n u a r y 30, 1 9 6 3 , p r i o r t o d e c l a r i n g t h e i c e s a f e ~ l d u r i n g t h e " S e e g f r 6 m i f ' , a v e r y s i m p l e l o a d t e s t was c a r r i e d o u t . S i n c e t i m e

was o f t h e e s s e n c e , i t was i m p o s s i b l e t o r e s o r t t o a more s o p h i s t i c a t e d d e s i g n o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t . S e v e n b a r r e l s , 60 cm i n d i a m e t e r a n d w i t h

a c a p a c i t y o f 200 l i t r e s , w e r e g r o u p e d on t h e i c e c o v e r i n a r o s e t t e p a t t e r n , p a c k e d t o g e t h e r a s t i g h t l y a s p o s s i b l e , and f i l l e d w i t h w a t e r . The a r e a u n d e r l o a d h a d a r a d i u s a o f 90 cm. The mean t h i c k n e s s o f i c e b e n e a t h t h i s l o a d was 1 1 . 3 5 cm. F o r E = 6 6 , 7 0 0 kg/cm2, t h e f o l l o w i n g v a l u e s were c a l c u l a t e d f o r L and a/L: L = 310 cm, a/L =

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b e i n g f i l l e d ; c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l c r a c k s a p p e a r e d o n l y a f t e r t h e s e v e n t h b a r r e l h a d b e e n n e a r l y f i l l e d . The l o a d a t t h a t t i m e was 1 , 1 4 0 k g , a n d t h i s was m a i n t a i n e d f o r 2 1 / 2 h o u r s . B r e a k - t h r o u g h o f t h e s e v e n b a r r e l s ( t o t a l w e i g h t 1 , 5 4 0 k g ) o c c u r r e d o n l y a f t e r a n a d d i t i o n a l 85 m i n u t e s ; r e s u l t s o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t w e r e s l i g h t l y d i s t o r t e d b y t h e p r e s e n c e o f water t h a t h a d s e e p e d a b o v e t h e i c e c o v e r b e f o r e t h e a c t u a l b r e a k - t h r o u g h o c c u r r e d . T h i s l o a d t e s t a l s o s e r v e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e p l a s t i c l i m i t a : s by a p p l y i n g f o r m u l a ( 4 ) t h e v a l u e w a s c a l c u l a t e d t o b e 3 . 2 kg/cm2. E x t r a p o l a t i n g t o a = L = 310 cm we f i n d t h a t w i t h t h e e x i s t i n g i c e t h i c k n e s s o f 1 1 . 3 5 cm a c i r c u l a r a r e a 6 . 2 m i n d i a m e t e r c o u l d h a v e b e e n l o a d e d w i t h a u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d l o a d o f 2670 k g . T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o a s p e c i f i c l o a d o f

89

kg/m2. ( A c c o r d i n g t o t h e a l t e r - n a t i v e f o r m u l a e o f Meyerhof and A s s u r , t h e p e r m i s s i b l e l o a d s would h a v e a n e v e n s l i g h t l y h i g h e r v a l u e . ) E x p r e s s e d i n t e r m s o f a c r o w d , t h i s means 45 p e o p l e a t a n a v e r a g e w e i g h t o f 6 0 k g p e r a r e a o f 2 / 3 m 2 . F u r t h e r c a l c u l a t i o n s w e r e made t o c o r r e l a t e t h e s e v a l u e s w i t h i c e c o v e r s o f g r e a t e r t h i c k n e s s . A l o a d t e s t c a r r i e d o u t on b l e a c h e r s o c c u p i e d by 50 p o l i c e m e n showed t h a t t h e e x t r a p o l a t i o n a/L f r o m 0 . 2 9 t o 1 must b e b a s i c a l l y r i g h t . The e x p e c t e d c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l c r a c k d e v e l o p e d a t t h e e x p e c t e d t i m e a n d p l a c e . I t t u r n e d o u t t h a t t h e r e was n o d a n g e r i n a p p l y i n g a n e v e n h e a v i e r l o a d , p r o v i d e d t h a t t h i s was done f o r a s h o r t p e r i o d o n l y . L i m i t a t i o n o f p r e d i c t a b i l i t y was

m a i n l y due t o t h e f a c t t h a t i n f o r m a t i o n i n f o r m u l a ( 4 ) was r e s t r i c t e d t o a < L, i . e . t o a r e a s w i t h a d i a m e t e r o f o n l y a few m e t r e s .

N e e d l e s s t o s a y , t h e p r o b l e m s p o s e d by t h e " S e e g f r 6 r n i U w e r e o f q u i t e a d i f f e r e n t o r d e r o f m a g n i t u d e . Nor was i t p o s s i b l e t o make u s e o f M e y e r h o f ' s s t r i p l o a d f o r m u l a e i n o r d e r t o draw s a t i s f a c t o r y c o n c l u s i o n f o r r a t h e r l a r g e a r e a s u n d e r l o a d . L a r g e A r e a s Under Load The p r o b l e m o f e x t e n d e d a r e a s u n d e r u n i f o r m l o a d h a s s i n c e b e e n t r e a t e d by N e v e l a n d A s s u r ( 1 0 ) w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o e l a s t i c t h e o r y . They d e r i v e t h e i r f o r m u l a e f r o m t h e c o n c e p t o f H e t e n l n y i (11) f o r u n i f o r m l o a d o f a n i n f i n i t e l y l o n g s t r i p o f a n i n f i n i t e p l a t e f o r

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d e f l e c t i o n t e n s i o n a on a p o i n t e q u i d i s t a n t t o t h e e d g e s o f t h e s t r i p ( i . e . d i s t a n c e a a n d d i s t a n c e b ) : h = t h i c k n e s s o f i c e c o v e r , q = s p e c i f i c l o a d The " p l u s " s i g n a p p l i e d t o p o i n t s w i t h i n t h e l o a d e d s t r i p , t h e "minustt s i g n t o p o i n t s o u t s i d e o f t h e l o a d e d s t r i p . S o l u t i o n s f o r t h e maximum s t r e s s , Omax' a r e c o n t a i n e d i n T a b l e 11, a l o n g w i t h t h e r e s u l t f o r a u n i f o r m l y l o a d e d c i r c u l a r a r e a . The l o a d a l o n g t h e s i n g l e as w e l l as t h e d o u b l e s t r i p , and t h e l o a d e d c i r c u l a r area a l l p r o d u c e a maximum s t r e s s o f a b o u t t h e same v a l u e . F o r p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s , t h e f o l l o w i n g f o r m u l a c a n b e u s e d :

When v = 1 / 3 a n d E = 66,700 kg/cm2 t h e r e i s a max.imum p e r m i s s i b l e l o a d o f

( q i n kg/m2, ob, i n kg/cm2, and h i n c m ) . The f o l l o w i n g d a t a h a v e b e e n d e r i v e d f r o m t h e l o a d t e s t s c a r r i e d o u t on Lake Z G r i c h , w h e r e t h e f l e x u r a l s t r e n g t h was f o u n d t o r a n g e f r o m 3 . 3 t o 6 . 3 kg/cm2: I c e t h i c k n e s s h P e r m i s s i b l e s p e c i f i c l o a d q 1 0 cm 2 1 t o 40 kg/m2 20 cm 30 t o 56 k g / m 2 30 cm 36 t o 69 kg/m2 F o r t h i s c a l c u l a t i o n a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h v a l u e f o r Young's modulus E h a s b e e n assumed; h a l f t h a t v a l u e , i . e . 33,300 kg/cm2, would g i v e a 30% h i g h e r l o a d and a 7 . 5 % l o w e r f l e x u r a l s t r e n g t h . Formula ( 7 ) i s b a s e d on t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e f i r s t r a d i a l ( o r a x i a l ) c r a c k . A s m e n t i o n e d , t h i s e v e n t h a s p r o v e d t o b e d e f i n i t e l y h a r m l e s s as f a r as s i n g l e l o a d s a r e c o n c e r n e d . E x p e r i e n c e h a s shown t h a t e v e n d u r i n g " S e e g f r S r n e n t t r a d i a l c r a c k s may b e s a f e l y i g n o r e d ,

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a l t h o u g h we a r e d e a l i n g h e r e w i t h many l o a d s d i s p e r s e d o v e r a v a s t l y e x t e n d e d a r e a ; h o w e v e r , t h e s a f e t y f a c t o r may n o t b e q u i t e as h i g h as t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s a f e t y f a c t o r t o l e r a t e d f o r c o n c e n t r a t e d s i n g l e l o a d s . T h e r e i s no d o u b t t h a t i n n u m e r a b l e r a d i a l c r a c k s w e r e f o r m e d d u r i n g t h e " S e e g f r G r n i t l o f 1 9 6 3 , f c r i n s t a n c e on t h e day o f i t s " g r a n d o p e n i n g " , when i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e B i i r k l i p l a t z w h a r f , a l a r g e crowd o f c e l e b r a n t s g a t h e r e d a r o u n d t h e a s s e m b l e d d i g n i t a r i e s . S u d d e n l y , t h e r e was a w h i p - c r a c k n o i s e l i k e a r i f l e s h o t . The impromptu l o a d t e s t w a s t e r m i n a t e d f o r t h w i t h ! S i m i l a r i n c i d e n t s must h a v e o c c u r r e d s e v e r a l t i m e s a d a y ; i n v a r i a b l y , t h e " n o i s e l i k e a r i f l e s h o t " d i s p e r s e d t h e p e o p l e l o n g b e f o r e t h e i r c o n c e n t r a t i o n a p p r o a c h e d t h e c r i t i c a l l i m i t o f t h e b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y o f t h e i c e c o v e r . An a d d i t i o n a l s a f e t y f a c t o r i s t h e s e l f - h e a l i n g p r o p e r t y o f s u c h r a d i a l c r a c k s , w h i c h may d i s a p p e a r ( e s p e c i a l l y a t low i c e t e m p e r a t u r e ) e v e n b e f o r e t h e l o a d t h a t c a u s e d t h e m h a s b e e n removed. F o r m a t i o n o f v e r y l o n g , s t r a i g h t c r a c k s , e s p e c i a l l y d u e t o two " s t r i p l o a d s " i n p a r a l l e l ( w h e r e t h e f i r s t c r J a c k s would a p p e a r on t o p o f t h e i c e ) i s more d a n g e r o u s t h a n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f r a d i a l c r a c k s - c a u s e d by a c i r c u l a r l o a d . Meyerhof ( 5 ) h a s shown t h a t . n a r r o w s t r i p l o a d s ( h a l f w i d t h a 6 L ) s h o u l d b e e x p e c t e d t o p r o d u c e s u r f a c e c r a c k s w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l a n d r a d i a l c r a c k s c a u s e d by a c i r c u l a r l o a d o f s i m i l a r v a l u e ; h o w e v e r , h e a s s u m e s p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e m a t e r i a l t h a t d i f f e r f r o m t h o s e i n o u r e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a . By u s i n g o u r b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y f i g u r e s a n d by m a k i n g a l l o w a n c e f o r t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t b r e a k - t h r o u g h i s d e l a y e d when t h e v a r i o u s p l a t e f r a g m e n t s i n t e r l o c k , o n e c a n e s t i m a t e , w i t h t h e h e l p o f f o r m u l a ( 7 ) , t h e maximum p e r m i s s i b l e l o a d a l s o f o r s t r i p l o a d s . I t i s h i g h l y d e s i r a b l e t o d e t e r m i n e e v e n t u a l l y by means o f e x p e r i m e n t s how t h e l a t e r p h a s e s o f t h e b r e a k - t h r o u g h p r o c e e d , e s p e c i a l l y i n v i e w o f t h e v a r i a b l e t h e r m a l r e g i m e o f t h e i c e c o v e r . O b v i o u s l y , i t would b e p o s s i b l e t o a r r a n g e f o r t h e p l a c i n g o f enormous l o a d s upon e x t e n d e d i c e s u r f a c e s , p r o v i d e d t h e p r i n c i p l e o f u n i f o r m a r e a l o a d i n g was o b s e r v e d . But i t would b e a f a l l a c y t o t h i n k o f b e n d i n g s t r a i n as b e i n g t h e o n l y c r i t e r i u m f o r l o a d i n g o f

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v e r y l a r g e i c e s u r f a c e s . Even a t p e r m i s s i b l e s p e c i f i c l o a d s on i c e o f 1 0

-

30 cm t h i c k n e s s ( s e e t a b l e o f v a l u e s i n columns a b o v e ) as c a l c u l a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o f o r m u l a

( 7 1 ,

a w i d e l y d i s t r i b u t e d l o a d c o u l d p u s h t h e e n t i r e i c e s u r f a c e anywhere f r o m 1.1 cm t o

4 . 4

cm b e n e a t h t h e w a t e r l i n e . T h i s a c c u m u l a t i o n o f w a t e r o n t o p o f t h e i c e s u r f a c e would o c c u r s o o n e r o r l a t e r b e c a u s e o f t h e c r a c k s g e n e r a t e d by t h e r m a l c o n t r a c t i o n a n d t h e o t h e r p o r o s i t i e s w i t h i n t h e i c e . Hence, f o r v e r y l a r g e crowds t h e t o t a l l o a d must n o t e x c e e d t h e " f l o a t i n g c a p a c i t y " o f t h e i c e s h e e t . T h i s means t h a t t h e p e r m i s s i b l e s p e c i f i c l o a d , b a s e d on t h e buoyancy o f b u b b l e - f r e e i c e ( s p e c i f i c w e i g h t ye = 0.917 g/cm3) amounts t o An i c e t h i c k n e s s o f 1 0 cm i n t h e l o w e s t p a r t o f Lake Z i r i c h

-

a n a r e a o f a b o u t one s q u a r e m i l e , up t o a n i m a g i n a r y l i n e f r o m Z t r i c h h o r n t o P u b l i c Beach "Enge"

-

c o u l d s u p p o r t a t o t a l l o a d o f 8 . 3 m i l l i o n k g , which c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e w e i g h t o f some 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 t o 1 5 0 , 0 0 0 a d u l t s . If o n e t o o k t h e e n t i r e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e c i t y i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n when c a l c u l a t i n g t h e s a f e t y f a c t o r , i t would b e n e c e s s a r y t o r e q u i r e a n i c e t h i c k n e s s o f a b o u t 30 cm. However, s u c h a r u l i n g would smack o f e x c e s s i v e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c a u t i o n . The " Z i i r c h e r S e e g f r a r n i " o f 1 9 6 3 was d e c l a r e d open when t h e i c e h a d r e a c h e d a n a v e r a g e t h i c k n e s s o f 1 3 cm. I n view o f t h e c o n c o m i t a n t c o l d s p e l l which l i m i t e d t h e maximum number o f p a r t i c i p a n t s t o l e s s t h a n 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 ( F i g u r e 4 ) , t h i s

v a l u e t u r n e d o u t t o p r o v i d e a more t h a n a d e q u a t e m a r g i n o f s a f e t y . However, t h e r e i s no d o u b t t h a t mass c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f c r o w d s , where some t e n t h o u s a n d p e o p l e may a t t e n d c e l e b r a t i o n s o r e v e n t s w i t h i n d e n s e l y p a c k e d a r e a s , may c o n s t i t u t e a m a j o r h a z a r d ; t h i s c a n n o t o n l y be p r e d i c t e d by t h e o r y b u t h a s a l r e a d y b e e n p r o v e n by t h e wet f e e t o f c e l e b r a n t s d u r i n g t h e " i c e c a p a d e s " a t t h e " S e e g f r 6 r n i 1 ' o f 1 8 8 0 . Even t h o u g h t h e a f f a i r a t t h e t i m e d i d n o t e n d i n c a t a s t r o p h e , s u c h a s i t u a t i o n s h o u l d n e v e r b e a l l o w e d t o r e c u r . The b e s t g u i d e -

(14)

l i n e f o r v i s i t o r s t o a " S e e g f r 6 r n i 1 ' a s w e l l as f o r t h e a u t h o r i t i e s c h a r g e d w i t h s a f e t y m e a s u r e s , i s t h e minimum d i s t a n c e t o b e a l l o w e d b e t w e e n g r o u p s . F o r a n i c e t h i c k n e s s o f 1 0 cm, l o c a l g a t h e r i n g s o f p e o p l e ( i n h e x a g o n a l p a t t e r n s ) o f l e s s t h a n 1 . 3 m t o 1 . 8 m mean s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n p e o p l e may s e t o f f c r a c k i n g n o i s e s i n t h e i c e , w h i c h o u g h t t o s e r v e a s s u f f i c i e n t w a r n i n g t o d i s b a n d ; h o w e v e r , a t t h i s p o i n t t h e r e i s no c a u s e f o r p a n i c . L a r g e r c o n g l o m e r a t i o n s may r e q u i r e , as a n a d d i t i o n a l s a f e t y f a c t o r , a l a r g e r mean d i s t a n c e , i . e . a b o u t 2.9 m; a t a n i c e t h i c k n e s s o f 30 cm, t h i s f a c t o r c o u l d s a f e l y b e r e d u c e d t o 1 . 7 m. From e x i s t i n g d a t a as w e l l as f r o m p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e one may c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e i c e c o u l d b e d e c l a r e d s a f e f o r a " S e e g f r B r n i " a t a t h i c k n e s s o f 1 0 cm o r more, p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e i c e i s f o u n d t o b e o f good q u a l i t y and t h a t e x c e s s i v e crowd f o r m a t i o n w i l l b e a v o i d e d by p r o p e r crowd c o n t r o l , i n c l u d i n g t h e u s e o f l o u d s p e a k e r s . R e f e r e n c e s

..

(1) B r u n k , H . : Uber d i e T r a g f a h i g k e i t von E i s d e c k e n . D i s s T . H . C a r o l o - W i l h e l m i n a , B r a u n s c h w e i g , 1 9 6 4 . ( 2 ) R i h n e r , F. : D i e V e r e i s u n g d e s Z i i r i c h s e e s i n h i s t o r i s c h e r S i c h t

.

( I n ; ~ e e g f r i j r n i 1 9 6 3 , V e r l a g d e r " Z Z r i c h s e e - Z e i t u n g l ' , S t i i f a , 1 9 6 3 ) . ( 3 ) Wyman, M . : D e f l e c t i o n s o f a n i n f i n i t e p l a t e . Canad. J. R e s . A . 38, 293-302, 1 9 5 0 .

( 4 )

A s s u r , A . : T r a f f i c o v e r f r o z e n o r c r u s t e d s u r f a c e s . P r o c . o f t h e 1 s t . I n t . C o n f . on t h e Mechanics o f S o i l - V e h i c l e S y s t e m s , T o r i n o - S t

.

V i n c e n t , 12-16 Guigno 1 9 6 1 , 913-923. E d i z i o n i M i n e r v a T e c n i c a . ( 5 ) Meyerhof, G . G . : B e a r i n g c a p a c i t y o f f l o a t i n g i c e s h e e t s . P r o c . Am. S o c . C i v . Eng. 8 6 , No. EM

5 ,

113-145, 1 9 6 0 ; 8 7 , No. EM 6 ,

161-167, 1 9 6 1 .

( 6 ) M a h r e n h o l t z , 0 . : Z u r T r a g f g h i g k e i t von E i s d e c k e n . "ZAMM1' 4 6 ,

(15)

H i t c h , R . D . : F l e x u r a l s t r e n g t h of c l e a r l a k e i c e . U.S. Army Snow, I c e a n d P e r m a f r o s t R e s e a r c h E s t a b l i s h m e n t , T e c h n i c a l R e p o r t

6 5 , 1 9 5 9 .

F r a n k e n s t e i n , G . E . : S t r e n g t h d a t a on l a k e i c e . U.S. Army Snow, I c e a n d P e r m a f r o s t R e s e a r c h E s t a b l i s h m e n t , T e c h n i c a l R e p o r t 8 0 ,

1 9 6 1 .

A s s u r , A . : B e a r i n g c a p a c i t y o f f l o a t i n g i c e s h e e t s by G . G. M e y e r h o f , D i s c u s s i o n . P r o c . Am. S o c . C i v . Eng. 8 7 , No. EM 3 ,

63-66, 1 9 6 1 .

N e v e l , D.E. a n d A s s u r , A , : Crowds on I c e . U.S. Army C o l d

R e g i o n s R e s e a r c h a n d E n g i n e e r i n g L a b o r a t o r y , T e c h n i c a l N o t e , 1 3 May, 1 9 6 5 .

Hete'nyi, M . : Beams on a n e l a s t i c f o u n d a t i o n , Ann A r b o r

-

M i c h i g a n P r e s s , 1 9 4 6 . N e v e l , D.E.: Time d e p e n d e n t d e f l e c t i o n o f a f l o a t i n g i c e s h e e t . U. S . Army Cold R e g i o n s R e s e a r c h a n d E n g i n e e r i n g L a b o r a t o r y , R e s e a r c h R e p o r t 1 9 6 , 1 9 6 6 . F r a n k e n s t e i n , G.E.: S t r e n g t h o f i c e s h e e t s . P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e C o n f e r e n c e on I c e P r e s s u r e s A g a i n s t S t r u c t u r e s , L a v a 1 U n i v e r s i t y , Q u e b e c , Canada, Nov. 10-11, 1 9 6 6 .

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T a b l e I I c e t h i c k n e s s n e e d e d f o r g i v e n l i v e l o a d s a c c o r d i n g t o a c o m p i l a t i o n o f H . Brunk ( 1 ) D e s c r i p t i o n o f l o a d Min. d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n u n i t s Weight I c e t h i c k n e s s m k g cm I n f a n t r y m e n on s k i s

5

I n f a n t r y s p r e a d o u t

5

I n d i v i d u a l s o l d i e r s w i t h - o u t g e a r 2-

3

Column o f i n f a n t r y w i t h d o u b l e s p a c i n g I n f a n t r y column, r e g u l a r m a r c h i n g o r d e r S i n g l e h o r s e s 10 Men i n columns w i t h o u t g e a r C a v a l r y m e n

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I n f a n t r y a n d c a v a l r y i n m a r c h i n g columns with l i g h t v e h i c l e s S i n g l e s l e d s w i t h l o a d s u p t o 2 m e t r i c t o n s

(17)

T a b l e I1 Maximum b e n d i n g s t r e s s e s f o r l o a d s b e l o w t h e e l a s t i c l i m i t A r r a ~ e r e n t of load Y urn,, - - I

Xreisflkhe mit Radius y

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472L

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b2ZLf

o = p o i n t o f maximum b e n d i n g s t r e s s

y = d i s t a n c e f r o m p o i n t o f maximum s t r e s s t o b o u n d a r i e s o f l o a d e d area; Omax = maximum b e n d i n g s t r e s s

(18)

F i g . 1 Advanced s t a g e o f a l o a d t e s t on Lake Z G r i c h . I n t e r s e c t i o n o f r a d i a l a n d t a n g e n t i a l c r a c k s F i g . 2 T h i c k n e s s o f i c e on l a k e s a n d r i v e r s a t which l o a d s w e r e b o r n e o r b r o k e t h r o u g h ( n o n - s h a d e d and s h a d e d s y m b o l s r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . 00 M e y e r h o f ( 5 ) F i g . 8 , p . 1 3 1 A A S e e g f r b r n i 1 9 6 3 ; 1

-

l o a d i n g t e s t on Lake Z G r i c h , 2

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b r e a k - t h r o u g h o f a t r u c k on Lake H a l l w i l e r ~ r u n k ( l ) , p l a t e s 1 5 a n d 1 6 ( r e d u c t i o n o f snow-ice t h i c k - n e s s t o o n e - h a l f )

(19)

F i g . 3 O b s e r v a t i o n s o f t h e t i m e s t a k e n f o r c e r t a i n l o a d s t o b r e a k t h r o u g h t h e i c e

8E)

d i f f e r e n t p / h 2 v a l u e s , a c c o r d i n g t o A s s u r

,

F i g . 1 p . 9 1 9 , s u p p l e m e n t e d by t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e l o a d t e s t o f J a n u a r y 3 0 , 1 9 6 3 on Lake Z i i r i c h ; 1

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L o a d i n g w i t h s e v e n b a r r e l s n o t t a k i n g t h e p r e v i o u s l o a d i n g w i t h f i v e b a r r e l s i n t o i a c c o u n t ; 2

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t a k i n g t h e p r e v i o u s l o a d i n g i n t o 0 . 0 rn Zm JW loading t i r e i n minutea F i g .

4

S u r f a c e o f t h e i c e i n t h e l o w e r b a s i n o f Lake Z i i r i c h ( M y t h e n q u a i - G e n e r a l - G u i s a n - Q u a i ) on F e b r u a r y 3 , 1 9 6 3 , a t a b o u t 3 : 4 5 p . m . . Account made o v e r a n a r e a o f a b o u t 1 / 4 km2 i n t h e H a f e n E n g e - B c r k l i p l a t z - B a d a n s t a l t U t o q u a i t r i a n g l e showed a b o u t 7500 p e o p l e , i . e . a b o u t 3 0 , 0 0 0 p e r km2. P h o t o by S w i s s a i r A G

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