6 Canadian J o u r n a l o f C o u n s e l l i n g / R e v u e canadienne de c o u n s e l i n g / 1 9 9 7 , V o l . 31:1
Invitational Counselling: A n Expanded Framework
for Comprehensive School Counselling Programs
John J. Schmidt
East Carolina University
Abstract
This article presents an overview o f invitational counselling, an approach to counselling based on self-concept theory, perceptual psychology, and invitational theory. T h e approach is encour-aged as an expanded framework for designing comprehensive school counselling programs o f services for students,^parents, and teachers.
R é s u m é
Cet article p r é s e n t e une vue d'ensemble d u conseil invitationnel, une m é t h o d e de counseling qui est b a s é e sur la t h é o r i e d u concept de soi, la psychologie perceptuelle, et la t h é o r i e invitationnelle. Cette m é t h o d e est r e c o m m a n d é e dans les écoles, en tant que cadre plus large permettant de c r é e r des programmes c o m p r é h e n s i f s de services d e s t i n é s aux é t u d i a n t s , aux parents, et aux enseignants.
School counsellors offer a wide range o f services to students, parents, a n d teachers. T o assist counsellors i n this effort, the school c o u n s e l l i n g profession has attempted to create models o f comprehensive programs with which counsellors p l a n , organize, implement, and evaluate their services. A t the same time, the professional literature has responded to this challenge with various philosophies, theories, a n d approaches for counsellors to use i n h e l p i n g students, parents, a n d teachers with personal a n d social development, educational p l a n n i n g , a n d career deci-sions. Ideally, school counsellors choose certain philosophies a n d ap-proaches a n d integrate them into a comprehensive p r o g r a m o f services.
A l t h o u g h school counsellors today help students, parents, and teachers face a wide range o f c h a l l e n g i n g issues, their primary purpose remains as it was when school guidance and c o u n s e l l i n g began i n the U n i t e d States i n the early 1900's. T h a t purpose is to assist students with their educational development and career aspirations. Sometimes stu-dents' educational a n d career plans are i n h i b i t e d due to social or per-sonal difficulties that must be addressed i f students are to experience success i n schools. Therefore, the models and approaches selected by school counsellors may require an e x p a n d e d view o f professional help-i n g that help-integrates effhelp-icachelp-ious developmental strateghelp-ies as well as reme-dial c o u n s e l l i n g services.
It is understandable that school counsellors may find it difficult to decide what to d o i n any given situation or for an identified p r o b l e m , particularly when students present b r o a d concerns or exhibit c o m p l e x behaviours. F o r this reason, school counsellors search for a framework by
w h i c h they can integrate compatible approaches into a comprehensive p r o g r a m o f services.
O n e e x p a n d e d approach that emphasizes an integrated view o f h e l p ing relationships is invitational counselling, a m o d e l developed by Purkey a n d S c h m i d t (1987, 1990, 1996). Invitational c o u n s e l l i n g em-braces a wide-angle vision o f the services needed to meet the diverse challenges c o n f r o n t i n g today's students, parents, a n d teachers. A t the same time, it encourages counsellors to move b e y o n d the n o t i o n o f alleviating immediate concerns towards the e x p l o r a t i o n o f relatively boundless potential for future development.
Invitational c o u n s e l l i n g is f o u n d e d o n the assumptions o f perceptual psychology, self-concept theory, a n d a new approach to understanding h u m a n interactions, called invitational theory (Purkey & Novak, 1996). Initially developed to h e l p teachers improve classroom interactions a n d enhance student l e a r n i n g (Purkey, 1978), the invitational m o d e l has since been presented as a viable approach for the h e l p i n g professions, especially c o u n s e l l i n g (Purkey & Schmidt, 1996; Stafford, 1992). T h e purpose o f this article is to present invitational c o u n s e l l i n g as a frame-work for designing comprehensive school c o u n s e l l i n g programs. T o begin, we focus o n the foundations o f the perceptual tradition, self-concept theory, a n d invitational theory.
F O U N D A T I O N S A N D A S S U M P T I O N S O F I N V I T A T I O N A L C O U N S E L L I N G
T h e perceptual tradition began with early philosophers who contem-plated the existence o f an i n n e r consciousness. In more recent times, perceptually o r i e n t e d theorists a n d practitioners have attempted to un-derstand h u m a n development by e x a m i n i n g the ways that people see themselves, others, a n d the w o r l d i n which they live. O f all these per-ceptions, n o n e is m o r e important than the view people h o l d about themselves—the i n n e r structure that has come to be k n o w n as the self-concept. Accordingly, self-concept is defined as "the totality o f a c o m p l e x a n d dynamic system o f learned beliefs that an i n d i v i d u a l holds to be true about his o r her personal existence a n d that gives consistency to his or her personality" (Purkey & Schmidt, 1996, p. 31).
By c o n s i d e r i n g the power o f h u m a n perception a n d the impact o f self-concept o n h u m a n development, invitational theory advocates a m o d e l of school c o u n s e l l i n g that incorporates beneficial h u m a n relationships, i m p r o v e d physical environments, a n d respectful systems i n w h i c h stu-dents can thrive. As such, school counsellors who apply invitational counselling embrace these fundamental beliefs:
1. Every student wants to be accepted a n d affirmed as valuable, capa-ble, a n d responsicapa-ble, a n d wants to be treated accordingly.
8 J o h n J . S c h m i d t
2. Every person—students, parents, teachers, administrators, coun-sellors, a n d others—has the power to create beneficial messages to send to themselves a n d others, a n d because they have this power, they also have the responsibility.
3. Every student possesses relatively untapped potential i n all areas o f learning a n d h u m a n development.
4. Student potential can best be realized i n schools where programs, policies, a n d processes are intentionally designed to invite o p t i m a l development, a n d where people consistently seek to realize this potential i n themselves a n d others.
E Ü E M E N T S O F I N V I T A T I O N A L C O U N S E L L I N G
Purkey (1978) initially developed the invitational approach by identify-i n g four levels o f f u n c t identify-i o n identify-i n g across a spectrum o f helpful a n d harmful behaviours a n d encompassing a range o f purposeful a n d accidental actions, called intentional a n d u n i n t e n t i o n a l behaviours. By c o m b i n -i n g the concept o f -inv-it-ing a n d d-is-inv-it-ing behav-iours w-ith the con-struct o f intentionality, this approach suggests four continuous levels o f functioning.
Levels of Functioning
I. Intentionally Disinviting. W h e n students, parents, teachers, a n d others behave i n purposefully harmful a n d destructive ways towards themselves a n d other people, they function at a least desirable level. W h e n they send messages that describe people as irresponsible, incapable, a n d worthless, they demonstrate this lowest level o f functioning. A t this level, people i n t e n d to demean, degrade, a n d destroy the value a n d worth o f them-selves a n d others. O n rare occasion, school counsellors act i n inten-tionally disinviting ways, a n d become destructive a n d lethal forces i n the lives o f students, parents, a n d teachers who seek their assistance.
II. Unintentionally Disinviting. Sometimes harmful messages o c c u r even when people d o n o t i n t e n d them. F o r example, students who behave i n careless a n d thoughtless ways may be perceived by teachers as b e i n g disinviting toward the school even though the students' intentions may m o r e accurately be understood as a way o f protecting their self-worth. Sometimes behaviours are ill-timed, p o o r l y p l a n n e d , misguided, o r ex-travagant, a n d subsequently, messages may be misinterpreted, gestures viewed as offensive, o r actions misunderstood. Nevertheless, as a result o f these u n i n t e n t i o n a l behaviours, negative outcomes happen. A l t h o u g h the h a r m is u n i n t e n d e d , damage occurs nonetheless. A c c o r d i n g to this definition, school counsellors w h o are inconsistent, overzealous, disor-ganized, forgetful, a n d unreliable behave at an unintentionally harmful level.
III. Unintentionally Inviting. Occasionally students, parents, teachers, and counsellors observe positive results from their actions, even though they are uncertain what they d i d to achieve them. F o r instance, some school counsellors begin h e l p i n g relationships with students without establishing a clear purpose a n d d i r e c t i o n . They are unsure o f where they are going, a n d lacking basic h e l p i n g skills, unsure what they are d o i n g . However, because these counsellors have g o o d intentions, most o f their relationships tend to be beneficial. O n e danger o f f u n c t i o n i n g at this level is that a lack o f k n o w i n g what one is d o i n g makes it uncer-tain, a n d perhaps unlikely, that consistently effective cou n selling will be accomplished. T h i s lack o f consistency may prevent the school coun-sellor f r o m repeating successful relationships. In contrast, councoun-sellors who function at a h i g h level o f intentional practice are able to repeat their successes time a n d again for the benefit o f students, parents, and teachers.
IV. Intentionally Inviting. Effective school counsellors reach for the highest level o f professional functioning. T h e y consistently demonstrate c o m m a n d o f h e l p i n g skills, a b r o a d knowledge base, a n d u n c o n d i t i o n a l regard for themselves a n d others. S c h o o l counsellors who function at a h i g h level o f professional practice consistently create messages that enable their primary clients—students, parents, a n d teachers—to feel valued and worthwhile. A t the same time, these beneficial messages encourage o p t i m a l h u m a n development by b e c o m i n g the b u i l d i n g blocks u p o n w h i c h to construct a healthy, well-functioning self-concept. Invitational c o u n s e l l i n g is f o u n d e d o n the belief that perception a n d self-concept are the c o m b i n e d forces that guide student development a n d successful school experiences.
Five Factors
In addition to the four levels o f functioning, invitational co un s e ll in g identifies five factors that contribute to, or detract from, student develop-ment. These five factors are: people, places, policies, programs, and processes. By way o f summary, these conditions, individually a n d com-b i n e d , function at one or m o r e o f the levels descricom-bed acom-bove. It is easy to see how people behave at different levels o f functioning, but it is less obvious how the other factors send positive or negative messges that influence student development. Policies that emphasize punitive ap-proaches, such as regulations that fail students i n courses after a certain n u m b e r o f absences, d o little to encourage students a n d invite them to the celebration o f learning. Places that are disrespectful, such as unclean or unsafe bathrooms i n schools, dissuade students i n subtle, yet power-ful ways. Similarly, programs that neglect cultural or i n d i v i d u a l differ-ences, or processes adopted for the convenience o f an elite few, may be perceived as disinvitations by students, parents, a n d teachers who feel
10 J o h n J . Schmidt
slighted o r set apart from the rest o f the school p o p u l a t i o n . Policies, places, programs, a n d processes, s h o u l d be created a n d m o n i t o r e d so they enhance people's desire to participate a n d excel i n school. A n effective a p p l i c a t i o n o f invitational counselling considers each o f these factors a n d follows the a x i o m that says, "everything counts" i n student development a n d learning.
Invitational c o u n s e l l i n g embraces the b e l i e f that there are essential elements a n d characteristics inherent i n every beneficial relationship. F o r this reason, school counsellors who apply invitational c o u n s e l l i n g start from a professional stance consisting o f o p t i m i s m , trust, respect, a n d intentionality.
A Professional Stance
Invitational c o u n s e l l i n g begins with a particular stance that the school counsellor assumes regarding the school, students, parents, teachers, a n d the c o m m u n i t y as a whole. T h i s stance consists o f four essential elements that h e l p to define a n d give clarity to the role a n d function o f a school counsellor. T h e first o f these elements is o p t i m i s m .
Optimism. Seligman (1991) demonstrated that a positive perspective is
essential for a successful life. "Optimists do better i n school, succeed more at life tasks, a n d even age better a n d live longer. By b e i n g optimistic about themselves, they also are more optimistic about others" (Purkey & Schmidt, 1996, p. 7).
Invitational c o u n s e l l i n g starts with the assumption that healthy func-t i o n i n g people sfunc-trive func-to be infunc-timafunc-tely involved i n mufunc-tually beneficial a n d caring relationships. Consequently, what most students want is to be affirmed i n their present worth while being invited to realize their full potential. W h e n students exhibit behaviours that appear to contradict these assumptions, it is often a response to a school that has low expecta-tions for students, or to school a n d h o m e environments that offer only repeated negative experiences. A s a result, students "have therefore lost respect for themselves, trust i n their abilities, a n d faith i n their potential"
(Purkey & Schmidt, 1996, p. 7).
O p t i m i s m is also reflected i n a school counsellor's confidence i n w o r k i n g with students, parents, a n d colleagues to a make a positive difference. A t the same time, optimistic counsellors persevere t h r o u g h difficult circumstances a n d over seemingly immovable obstacles. In addi-tion to h e l p i n g maintain a positive attitude, confidence a n d persever-ance also demonstrate respect for people a n d institutions with w h o m counsellors work.
Respect. N o ingredient is more important i n c o u n s e l l i n g relationships
than respect for people. In school counselling, such respect includes sincere appreciation for the r i c h complexity o f each student a n d the
cultural value brought to the school by every student, parent, and teacher served. As Purkey a n d S c h m i d t (1996) advised, "Being different is not a detriment; often diversity is a benefit to the entire g r o u p " (p. 8).
Responsibility is a related characteristic o f a respectful relationship. In school counselling, this means that every student is ultimately respon-sible for his or her own actions. W h e n counsellors behave i n ways that over-protect students or excuse them for irresponsible behaviours, they demonstrate a lack o f respect for students, the school, a n d the counsel-l i n g profession. By the same token, when counsecounsel-lcounsel-lors try to do too m u c h for students instead of giving students responsibility to do for themselves, they compromise their role as a h e l p i n g professional. S c h o o l counsellors have responsibility for encouraging students to develop independence and use their autonomy i n an appropriate manner.
E n c o u r a g i n g student responsibility and autonomy means that school counsellors must accept students u n c o n d i t i o n a l l y a n d assume mutual responsibility for what occurs i n the counselling relationship. In this way, invitational c o u n s e l l i n g fosters equality, collaboration, a n d trust, another element o f the professional stance.
Trust. T h e services p r o v i d e d i n a comprehensive school counselling
p r o g r a m are cooperative, collaborative activities based o n mutual trust. T h i s mutual trust is most often established as the result o f an invit-i n g pattern o f behavinvit-iours, rather than any sinvit-ingle benefinvit-icinvit-ial actinvit-ion. A r c e n e a u x (1994) identified several sources that enable people to estab-lish a n d maintain trust. These include reliability (consistency, depend-ability, a n d predictability), genuineness (authenticity a n d congruence),
truthfulness (honesty, correctness o f o p i n i o n , a n d validity o f assertion), intent (good character, ethical stance, a n d integrity), a n d competence
(intelligent behaviour, expertness, a n d knowledge).
A l l these elements play a role i n h e l p i n g counsellors a n d students establish trusting relationships. W i n n i n g students' trust is not always easy, particularly w h e n they have been neglected, harmed, o r damaged i n other relationships. By r e m a i n i n g optimistic, demonstrating respect, and w o r k i n g o n the sources that contribute to trustful relationships, school counsellors c o m b i n e these ingredients into an intentional pos-ture. T h i s intentionality is the most crucial c o n d i t i o n o f a professionally inviting stance.
Intentionality. O p t i m i s m , respect, a n d trust reflect an intentionality that
gives d i r e c t i o n to i n d i v i d u a l h e l p i n g relationships as well as to the larger comprehensive school c o u n s e l l i n g p r o g r a m . Referred to as "counselor intentionality" (Schmidt, 1994), this characteristic plays an important role i n giving a school c o u n s e l l i n g p r o g r a m purpose a n d meaning.
Intentionality gives d i r e c t i o n to all the h e l p i n g relationships estab-lished by school counsellors, a n d guides the selection o f beneficial goals
12 J o h n J . Schmidt
for a comprehensive p r o g r a m o f services. Intentionality that respects a n d honors the i n d i v i d u a l needs o f students while encouraging a d i r e c t i o n that benefits the entire school is the heart o f invitational counselling. In recent years, the construct of intentionality has been rediscovered as a c o u n s e l l i n g variable that is vital to successful professional f u n c t i o n i n g (Ivey, 1994; Purkey & Schmidt, 1996; Schmidt, 1994). In d e v e l o p i n g comprehensive school programs, counsellors who function at a h i g h level o f intentionality are able to design various h e l p i n g strategies a n d choose from several alternative h e l p i n g modes to meet the needs o f students. Similarly, intentional school counsellors select a wide range o f responses i n assisting students, parents, and teachers with long-term goals.
Most definitions o f intentionality focus o n the positive aspects o f purposeful behaviours. Invitational counselling offers an e x p a n d e d
defi-Intentionally
Inviting
/
4
Unintentional
V
A
Behaviors
V
/
Intentionally
Disinviting
Figure 1 Intentionality.n i t i o n that describes intentionality as a bipolar concept, with positive intentions at one pole a n d negative intentions at the other. Figure 1 shows this b i p o l a r d i m e n s i o n o f intentionality.
As presented i n invitational counselling, intentionality can be a posi-tive influence for psychotherapy o r a powerful force for psychopathol-ogy. Intentionality encompasses a full range o f positive a n d negative behaviours, a n d consequently, counsellors can be a beneficial presence, or a lethal one, i n the lives o f students, parents, and teacher: a frightful n o t i o n w h e n contemplated i n the context o f school counselling. Cer-tainly most professional counsellors function at helpful levels o n behalf o f students, parents, a n d teachers, but even with the most careful atten-tion to these beneficial purposes, there are times when counsellors are u n i n t e n t i o n a l i n their behaviour.
Purkey a n d Novak (1996) adopted the term unintentional to identify purposeless, careless, or otherwise accidental behaviours. Figure 1 illus-trates the uncertainty o f unintentionality as it lies between the positive a n d negative poles o f intentionality. In designing comprehensive pro-grams o f services, school counsellors attempt to function at a highly intentional a n d beneficial level, realizing that to behave otherwise neg-lects the developmental purpose o f p r o v i d i n g c o u n s e l l i n g services i n a school e n v i r o n m e n t (Paisley & Peace, 1996).
C O M P A T I B I L I T Y O F I N V I T A T I O N A L C O U N S E L L I N G
Purkey a n d S c h m i d t (1996) c o n t e n d e d that invitational c o u n s e l l i n g offers a theoretical structure that is compatible with other acceptable approaches to professional c o u n s e l l i n g . T h e y listed the elements o f compatibility as: (1) an acceptance o f a perceptual orientation to under-standing h u m a n behaviour; (2) an emphasis o n self-concept as a dy-namic force i n h u m a n development; (3) an unwavering respect for h u m a n respect a n d dignity; a n d (4) the encouragement o f wide appli-cability. A p p r o a c h e s to school c o u n s e l l i n g that value the role o f percep-tion a n d self-concept i n student development and maintain h i g h regard for student welfare are compatible with invitational counselling.
T h e invitational m o d e l encourages wide application o f varied services by school counsellors i n a developmentally focused program. These services i n c l u d e i n d i v i d u a l a n d g r o u p processes, consultation, assess-ment, a n d instruction. T h i s variety o f services allows school counsellors to apply invitational principles across a b r o a d spectrum o f developmental, preventive, a n d remedial concerns o f students, parents, and teachers.
A P P L I C A T I O N O F I N V I T A T I O N A L C O U N S E L L I N G I N S C H O O L S
As presented here, invitational c o u n s e l l i n g is not so m u c h a new m e t h o d o f c o u n s e l l i n g as it is a b e l i e f system and guide for professional
prac-14 J o h n J . Schmidt
tice that can be integrated with compatible approaches into a compre-hensive p r o g r a m o f services. S c h o o l counsellors constantly search for ways to manage their services a n d give m e a n i n g to their role i n the school. T h e effort to design a comprehensive p r o g r a m o f services distin-guishes school counsellors from other counsellors who practice i n differ-ent c l i n i c a l settings a n d "offer either a l i m i t e d range o f services or narrowly focused services due to the specific populations they serve" (Schmidt, 1996, p. 29).
In applying invitational principles, school counsellors design instruc-tional services for teachers to integrate with the c u r r i c u l u m ; create preventive strategies for the welfare o f the entire school community; a n d establish i n d i v i d u a l a n d small group processes to focus o n particular concerns o f students, parents, and teachers. Designing, creating, a n d establishing appropriate services within a comprehensive p r o g r a m re-quires adequate assessment o f the people, places, policies, programs, a n d processes that comprise the school—what invitational c o u n s e l l i n g calls "assessing the Five P's" (Purkey & Schmidt, 1996).
Assessing the Five P's
In addition to the people who define a school community, there are limitless places, policies, programs, a n d processes that influence h u m a n relationships a n d student success. T o determine what instructional, pre-ventive, and h e l p i n g services to incorporate into their programs, school counsellors begin with an evaluation o f the Five P's. Adequate assessment o f these factors allows counsellors, students, parents, teachers, a n d ad-ministrators to target specific goals a n d plan appropriate strategies. T h i s assessment process combines formal a n d informal procedures that begin with an evaluation o f students' developmental tasks.
T h e essential question here is what information will students need to successfully accomplish appropriate developmental tasks? O n c e this is determined, instructional activities can be designed and integrated into the c u r r i c u l u m so that all students have equal opportunity to learn this information. Similarly, assessment o f the developmental needs o f parents a n d teachers can provide school counsellors with information to p l a n appropriate parent education programs or teacher in-service activities.
School buildings consist o f numerous places from the front lobby to the b r o o m closet. A n assessment o f the places that comprise a school, enables teachers a n d administrators to make changes that benefit i n d i -viduals a n d groups. F o r example, one m i d d l e school student disclosed to her counsellor that she d i d not use the bathroom all day l o n g because it was usually messy a n d dirty. By i n f o r m i n g the p r i n c i p a l o f this concern a n d h e l p i n g the school design interventions by which (a) the custodians made scheduled visits to the restrooms, (b) teachers increased
supervi-sion, a n d (c) students participated i n classroom discussions about re-sponsible b a t h r o o m behaviour, the counsellor was able to make a positive difference.
Similarly, there may be policies, programs, or processes that interfere with student learning a n d development. In these instances, assessment can h e l p discover ways to adjust policies, alter or create new programs, or change processes that i n h i b i t student-teacher relationships, discriminate against people, or alienate particular students from the school. By per-f o r m i n g a t h o r o u g h assessment o per-f the Five P's, counsellors place them-selves i n a stronger position to provide beneficial services i n schools. W i t h invitational c o u n s e l l i n g as a framework, school counsellors can also design specific c o u n s e l l i n g services using invitational assumptions and concepts.
Counselling and Consulting Services
Invitational c o u n s e l l i n g uses understandable language to describe a n d learn c o m p l e x h u m a n relationships. F o r this reason, the concepts o f inviting a n d disinviting, a n d b e i n g intentional and unintentional, can be taught to students at diverse developmental levels. Counsellors a n d teachers can adapt these concepts to c u r r i c u l u m goals that target stu-dents' self-development, responsible behaviours, and character educa-tion. Such a systematic approach, f o u n d e d i n perceptual psychology a n d self-concept theory, reflects the philosophy o f counsellors who encour-age "deliberate psychological education" i n schools (Hayes, 1996).
Students can be taught the concepts o f invitational functioning and use this knowledge to assess their own development a n d relationships with others. F o r example, S c h m i d t (1988) wrote a guide to friendship for m i d d l e graders that has been used by school counsellors with individual students a n d i n group guidance. L e h r a n d M a r t i n (1992) presented invitational strategies a n d interventions for schools to help students develop healthy attitudes a n d adopt constructive behaviours, thus avoid-i n g b e avoid-i n g placed "at ravoid-isk" avoid-i n theavoid-ir development.
Invitational concepts also can be the framework a r o u n d which the school counsellor and students examine concerns i n i n d i v i d u a l and g r o u p c o u n s e l l i n g sessions. O n c e students are able to conceptualize their concerns from an invitational perspective, they are i n a better position to determine their own responsibilities and choose appropriate action. By teaching students the invitational m o d e l , counsellors em-power them to take c o n t r o l o f their lives a n d have more influence over events that will determine the d i r e c t i o n they choose.
In w o r k i n g with teachers a n d parents, school counsellors can adopt invitational principles for designing approaches to school discipline
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ships (Purkey & Stanley, 1991), o r consulting with parents about ways to create healthier family relationships (Purkey & Schmidt, 1982). Counsel-lors can encourage their schools to adopt the invitational m o d e l school-wide, a n d have their schools participate i n the "Inviting S c h o o l A w a r d " p r o g r a m t h r o u g h the International A l l i a n c e for Invitational E d u c a t i o n at T h e University o f N o r t h C a r o l i n a at Greensboro.
A l l o f these services a n d activities contribute to a comprehensive school counselling p r o g r a m a n d enable the counsellor to address a wide range o f developmental issues for students, parents, a n d teachers. T h i s is the ultimate goal o f school counselling a n d the reason invitational counselling is a n appropriate choice o f counsellors w h e n selecting a framework for designing a comprehensive p r o g r a m o f services.
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About the Author
Dr. J o h n J . Schmidt is professor and chair o f the Counselor and Adult Education Department at East C a r o l i n a University in Greenville, N C , U S A . H e has been a school counsellor i n elementary through high school grades, a school system director o f counselling services, and the state coordinator of school counselling in N o r t h C a r o l i n a . Dr. Schmidt has published over 50 professional articles a n d nine books, i n c l u d i n g Counseling in Schools: Essential Services and Comprehensive Programs by A l l y n & Bacon.
