HAL Id: tel-00011353
https://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00011353
Submitted on 11 Jan 2006
HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access
archive for the deposit and dissemination of
sci-entific research documents, whether they are
pub-lished or not. The documents may come from
teaching and research institutions in France or
abroad, or from public or private research centers.
L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est
destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents
scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non,
émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de
recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires
publics ou privés.
Etude des collisions d’ions lourds aux énergies du SIS et
du LHC
Philippe Crochet
To cite this version:
Philippe Crochet. Etude des collisions d’ions lourds aux énergies du SIS et du LHC. Physique Nucléaire
Théorique [nucl-th]. Université Blaise Pascal - Clermont-Ferrand II, 2005. �tel-00011353�
✮✰✯✲✱✴✳✶✵✸✷✶✹✺✱✼✻✽✵ ✾❀✿❂❁❃✱❄✹❅✵ ❆❂❁✲✹❈❇❉❁❃✿ ❊●❋■❍ ✧ ❍ ✘ ❍ ✘✂✑❑❏▼▲☎✑✟✞◆❏▼▲☎✑P❖◗❏✟❘❙✑❑❚❱❯❲❘❨❳☎❩◗✁✏✑■✑❬❯✂❭❪✑❑❏▼▲☎❚☎❘❙❩❫✁☎✑✜❴ ❵✲❁❛✾❀✱❜✿❂✱✌✻❝❁❞✻❞✱❢❡❣✯ ❁ ❤✶✱❜✷✐✱❦❥✶✵✸✷ ❤✰✵❧✹ ✷✐✵✽❇❉❵✲✵♠✷✐❇❉❵♥✵❧✹ ♦❦♣rq◗s❫t✈✉✴✇●t②①③q■④✓⑤⑦⑥✼⑧❢⑨③t❶⑩❄❷❪❸❺❹❼❻❜❽✜♣❾❷❪⑨③s❫❷❾✇●✉❿t❶❽✟❸ ➀ ✞◆✆✟➁✡✑❑❚❱❯❲✆✟✑ ➀➃➂ ✞ ⑤⑦⑥❪t●✇❶t●♣❪♣r❸❂❹❅➄➆➅➇❹✝➈➊➉➌➋ ✖✗✠◗❏❑❯✡✑✟✁☎✞✂☛✌☞ ❋ ❚☎❘➎➍✎✑❑✞✡➁✡❘➎❯❲✆ ✤➏▲ ➂ ✞✡➐✬✆■☛✏✑➑✘➒✑✟❏▼▲✏✑✟✞✡❏▼▲✏✑ ➂ ✁➓✤★✗✘➔❖ →❈➣↕↔✚➙✸→ ➙✚→➇➛❃➜➞➝➞➟❼➟➡➠➢➛➏➠➢➝➥➤❞➛➦➙✽➧②➠➢➝➥➤❞➛➨➟❅➝➥↔✚➩➫➙➭➛ ➯ ↔✚➲ →❈➤♠→➳➩➸➵➺➠✬→↕➛➦➙✚↔ ➛★➠➢➛➻→❈➣ ➙✸↔ ➟❼➼✽➜ ✔ ➂➾➽ ❘❙➚❨❘❨❯ ➂ ❯❲❘❙✠✬❚✺➁✡✠✬✁✏❯❲✑❑❚◗✁✏✑➑➚❨✑P✙③✩P❚☎✠③➍✎✑✟✄ ➽ ✞✡✑➡➪✬✩✎✩❱✫◗➶✏☛☎✑❬➍ ➂ ❚❫❯➔➚ ➂ ❏❑✠✎✄✝✄❅❘❨➁✡➁✡❘❨✠✎❚➹☛✌☞✍✑❬➘ ➂ ✄✝✑✟❚⑦✒ ✣r✞✡✆✟➁◆❘❙☛☎✑❑❚❱❯❄✒ ➴ ❍ ➷➡❍➮➬➏➷✗➱ ✖➔✃❐❭ ✘ ➂➾➀☎➀ ✠✬✞◆❯❲✑❑✁☎✞✡➁✼✒ ➴ ❍ ✣ ❍ ✖ ❋ ✣❒✃❰❮ ❋➒Ï ➴ ❍ ❍ ✔✗❮❒✘✂✘✗➴ ➷ ✗ ➴ ❍ Ð✏❍ ❖☎✤★✔ ❋✗Ñ ✘ ➷ ✧❾❭ ❮❾➘ ➂ ✄❅❘❨❚ ➂ ❯❲✑❑✁☎✞✡➁✼✒Ò➴➓➚❨➚❙✑ ❍➮➬➏➷ ❖➢❭✦✃❰✖ ➴ ❍ ✧ ❍ ❖➢❭ ➷➌➱ ❮❾Ó
✔✖✕✘✗✚✙✜✛✣✢✥✤✥✦✧✗✜★✩✛✪✕ ✫ ✫ ✬✭✛✪✮✯✮✩★✯✰✱★✩✛✪✕✥✰✲✢✴✳✵★✶✛✪✕✷✰✸✮✶✛✪✤✥✙✹✢✥✰✸✺✻✤✽✼☛✾✿✕✽❀❁✙✜❂✘★✶❀❃✰✸✢✷✤❅❄❆✔✜❄ ❇ ✙ ❍ ✙ ➱ ☞✍✆❑❯❲✞ ➂ ❚☎➐✎✑❬❯❲✆ ❏✟✠✬✄❅✄✝✑➌➁✡✠✬❚☎☛☎✑■☛☎✁➓➁❉❈◗➁◆❯❋❊❑✄❅✑ ❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍ ✭ ✙ ❍ ➪ ✣r✞✡❘❨❚☎❏✟❘ ➀➃➂ ✁➢➘➹✞✡✆❑➁✡✁☎➚➎❯ ➂ ❯✡➁✂✑ ➘ ➀ ✆❑✞✡❘❙✄✝✑✟❚❱❯ ➂ ✁➢➘➳✑❬❯ ➀ ✑❑✞✡➁ ➀ ✑✟❏❬❯❲❘➎➍✎✑✟➁ ❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍ ✛ ✙ ❍❍● ✧✥■⑦✣r✃ ❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍ ✙ ✫ ✙ ❍❍●✏❍ ✙ ➱ ✑■☛✏✆❑❯❲✑❑❏❑❯✡✑✟✁☎✞ ❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍ ✙③✭ ✙ ❍❍●✏❍ ➪ ✤ ➂ ✄ ➀➃➂ ➐✎❚☎✑❑➁➒☛☎✑ ➀ ✞✡❘❨➁✡✑✟➁➒☛☎✑ ☛☎✠✬❚☎❚☎✆✟✑❑➁➔✑❬❯✦❯❲▲✻❊❑✄❅✑❑➁➔☛✏✑ ➀ ▲❁❈◗➁◆❘❙❩❫✁☎✑ ❍■❍➑❍■❍ ✙✜❏ ✙ ❍▲❑ ✧❾➚❨✠✚▼ ☛☎❘❨✞✡❘❨➐✎✆➌☛☎❘❖◆✼✆❑✞✡✑✟❚❱❯✡❘❙✑✟➚✼☛☎✑✟➁
K
+
❍■❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍ ✙③✢ ✙ ❍ ✫ ✘ ➂✬➀☎➀ ✠✎✞◆❯K
−
/K
+
❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍ ➪P❏ ✙ ❍ ✭ ❭ ➂ ✁➢➘➳☛✏✑ ➀ ✞✡✠◗☛☎✁☎❏❑❯✡❘❙✠✎❚➳☛☎✑❑➁Ξ
−
❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍ ● ✫ ✙ ❍ ✭ ❍ ✙ ✤➏✠✎❚☎☛☎❘➎❯❲❘❨✠✎❚☎➁✦☛☎✑ ➚✈☞✍✑❬➘ ➀ ✆✟✞◆❘❙✑✟❚✏❏✟✑ ❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍ ● ✭ ✙ ❍ ✭ ❍ ➪ ✘✂✑❑❏✟✠✎❚✏➁◆❯❲✞◆✁☎❏❑❯✡❘❙✠✎❚❈☛☎✑❑➁Ξ
−
❍■❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍ ● ❏ ✙ ❍ ✭ ❍❍● ❮✓❯❲✁☎☛☎✑ ☛☎✁❈➁✡❘❨➐✎❚ ➂ ➚✼✑❑❯✂☛☎✑ ➁ ➂ ➁◆❯ ➂✬➽ ❘❙➚❨❘❨❯✡✆ ❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❑ ✙ ✙ ❍ ✭ ❍▲❑ ✣❪✑❑✞✡➁ ➀ ✑✟❏❬❯❲❘➎➍✎✑✟➁ ❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❑ ✭ ◗ ✬✭✛✪✮✯✮✩★✯✰✱★✩✛✪✕✥✰✲✢✴✳✵★✶✛✪✕✷✰✸✮✶✛✪✤✥✙✹✢✥✰✸✺✻✤✽✼☛✾✿✕✽❀❁✙✜❂✘★✶❀❃✰✸✢✷✤❙❘❯❚❱✬ ❲✞❳ ➪ ❍ ✙ ➱ ✑ ➀ ➚ ➂ ➁✡✄ ➂ ☛☎✑ ❩◗✁ ➂ ✞❩❨❫➁✂✑❑❯➒☛☎✑ ➐✎➚❨✁☎✠✎❚☎➁ ❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❑ ✢ ➪ ❍ ➪ ➱ ➂ ✞✡✑❑❏▼▲☎✑✟✞◆❏▼▲☎✑➡☛☎✁❭❬❫❪■✣ ➂ ✁✪❖✏✣✥❖ ❍■❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍ ✫✬✩ ➪ ❍❍● ➱ ➂ ✞✡✑❑❏▼▲☎✑✟✞◆❏▼▲☎✑➡☛☎✁❭❬❫❪■✣ ➂ ✁➓✘➔✔✂✃ ✤ ❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍ ✫ ● ➪ ❍▲❑ ✤➏✠✎➚❨➚❙❘❨➁✡❘❙✠✬❚☎➁➏☛✌☞✍❘❙✠✬❚☎➁✦➚❙✠✎✁✏✞✡☛☎➁✦✑❬❯❴❬❫❪ ✣ ➂ ✁ ➱ ✔➌✤ ❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍ ✫P❏ ➪ ❍ ✫ ➷✗➱ ✃ ✤★❮ ❍■❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍ ✭✎✩ ➪ ❍ ✫ ❍ ✙ ➱ ✑■☛✏✆❑❯❲✑❑❏❑❯✡✑✟✁☎✞ ❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍ ✭✎✩ ➪ ❍ ✫ ❍ ➪ ❖➢❏✟✆❑❚ ➂ ✞◆❘❙✠➆☛☎✑ ➀ ✞✡❘❨➁✡✑❑➁✂☛✏✑■☛✏✠✎❚☎❚☎✆❑✑✟➁✂✑❑❯✂❏✟✠✎❚✏☛☎❘❨❯✡❘❙✠✎❚☎➁➏✑❬➘ ➀ ✆❑✞✡❘❨✄❅✑❑❚❫❯ ➂ ➚❙✑❑➁ ❍■❍ ✭❱➪ ➪ ❍ ✭ ❬➌✁ ➂ ✞❵❨✬✠✎❚✏❘ ➂ ✑❑❯➒➁ ➂ ➍✬✑✟✁☎✞◆➁✗➚❨✠✎✁☎✞✡☛✏✑✟➁ ➂ ✁ ➱ ✔➌✤ ❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍ ✭ ● ➪ ❍ ❏ ✤➏✠✧❛✈❚☎❏✟❘❨☛☎✑✟❚✏❏✟✑✟➁✂✆✟➚❨✑✟❏❬❯❲✞✡✠✬❚✿❜❐✄❼✁✏✠✎❚ ❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❏ ● ➪ ❍ ✢ ➴➓✑❑➁✡✁☎✞◆✑➑☛✏✑✟➁✂▲ ➂ ☛☎✞◆✠✎❚☎➁b
✑✟❚ ➀➃➂ ❘❨✞✡✑❑➁✦☛☎✑ ➚❙✑ ➀ ❯❲✠✎❚☎➁✦☛✏✑■✄❞❝✟✄✝✑✟➁➒➁◆❘❙➐✎❚☎✑❑➁ ❍ ❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍ ✛ ● ➪ ❍ ✛ ➴➓✑❑➁✡✁☎✞◆✑❅☛✏✑❅➚ ➂ ➁◆✑✟❏❬❯❲❘❙✠✬❚❂✑❢❡❅❏ ➂ ❏✟✑✝☛☎❘❖◆✼✆❑✞✡✑✟❚❱❯✡❘❙✑✟➚❨➚❙✑❼❘❨❚☎❏✟➚❨✁☎➁✡❘➎➍✎✑P☛☎✑❑➁➑▲ ➂ ☛☎✞✡✠✬❚☎➁b
✑✟❚ ✄❼✁✏✠✎❚☎➁➒➁✡❘❨✄ ➀ ➚❨✑✟➁★✑❬❯✂✑✟❚ ➀➃➂ ❘❙✞◆✑✟➁✦☛☎✑ ✄❼✁✏✠✎❚☎➁➒☛☎✑ ➁✡❘❨➐✎❚☎✑✟➁➒✠ ➀✏➀ ✠✎➁◆✆✟➁ ❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍ ✙③✩❱✫ ➪ ❍ ✙③✩➺✖✗✆ ➀ ✑❑❚☎☛☎✑❑❚☎❏✟✑➑✑✟❚p
t
☛☎✁❈✞ ➂✬➀✏➀ ✠✎✞ ❯Υ
′
/Υ
❍■❍➑❍ ❍■❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍■❍➑❍■❍ ❍➑❍■❍■❍➑❍ ✙ ● ✛ ❣❤❀❃✙✹✰✱✐❥❀❃✦✧✗✜★❧❦✪❀❃✰ ✫❃❇✣✫ ♠♥★✶♦✷✮✯★✶✛♣❂✪✙✜✺✻✐✷q✥★✩❀ ✫❃❇♣r➱ ✑
27
☛☎✆❑❏✟✑✟✄ ➽ ✞✡✑2004
➶ ➂ ✁➓➚❨✑✟❚☎☛✏✑✟✄ ➂ ❘❙❚➹☛✏✁❈❯✡➁✡✁☎❚ ➂ ✄❅❘✌❩❫✁☎❘❄☛✏✆✡✠ ✑✟✞◆➚ ➂ ❘➎❯★➁◆✁☎✞➒➚❙✑✟➁✦❏✡☛✬❯❲✑❑➁➒☛✌☞ ➷ ➁✡❘❨✑ ☛✏✁✪➁✡✁✏☛✌➶➃➚ ➂ ❭❢✑✟✞✡✞◆✑➑✆❬❯ ➂ ❘➎❯☞✠ ✞ ➂✬➀✏➀ ✆❑✑ ➀☎➂ ✞➒✁☎❚❈❯✡➁✡✁☎❚ ➂ ✄❅❘❄✆❑➚❙✑❑❏❑❯❲✞◆✠✎✄ ➂ ➐✎❚☎✆❬❯❲❘❙❩❫✁☎✑⑦➁◆✠✎✁☎➁✂➚ ➂ ✠✠✎✞◆✄❅✑⑦☛✌☞✍✁☎❚ ✌ ➂ ➁✡▲ ☛☎✑➆✞ ➂ ❈✎✠✬❚☎➁ ➐ ➂ ✄✝✄ ➂ ☛✼☞✁☎❚✏✑❅✆❑❚☎✑✟✞◆➐✎❘❙✑P➚ ➂ ✞✡➐✎✑❑✄❅✑❑❚❱❯⑦➁✡✁ ➀ ✆✟✞◆❘❙✑❑✁☎✞✡✑✎✍➹❯❲✠✎✁➢❯ ➂ ✁✏❯❲✞◆✑P✆❑➍✬✆✟❚☎✑❑✄❅✑❑❚❫❯ ✏ ➂ ✄ ➂ ❘❨➁❦✠ ➽ ➁✡✑❑✞◆➍✬✆★☛ ➂ ❚☎➁❾❚☎✠✬❯❲✞◆✑ ➐ ➂ ➚ ➂ ➘➢❘❨✑✒✑✙✎➶✬➪✔✓ ❍➾➬ ❘❙✑✟❚➡❩◗✁✏✑➏➚❙✑✥➁✡✑❑❏✟✠✎❚✏☛❼❯❲➁✡✁✏❚ ➂ ✄✝❘➢❚✌☞ ➂ ❘➎❯ ➀☎➂ ➁❾✑❑❚❫❯✡✞ ➂✖✕ ❚☎✆ ☛✏✑➡❏✟✠✬❚☎➁✡✆❑❩◗✁✏✑✟❚☎❏❑✑✟➁⑦☛☎✞ ➂ ✄ ➂ ❯❲❘❙❩❫✁☎✑❑➁➒❏✟✠✎✄✝✄❅✑ ➚❨✑ ➀ ✞✡✑✟✄✝❘❙✑❑✞✟➶✴✑✟❚➓➁✡✑❑✁☎➚❙✑❑✄❅✑❑❚❫❯➔☛☎✑❑✁➢➘➓☛☎❘➎➘➢❘❊❑✄❅✑❑➁➔☛✏✑➑➁◆✑❢❜ ❏❑✠✎❚☎☛☎✑✺➚ ➂ ➍ ➂ ➐✎✁☎✑✺☛✏✑ ➀ ▲☎✠➾❯❲✠✎❚☎➁➑✆✟❚☎✑❑✞✡➐✎✆❬❯❲❘❨❩◗✁✏✑✟➁➡❘❨✠✎❚☎❘❨➁ ➂ ❘➎❯ ➚❙✑✟➁➑❏✟✠✎✁✏❏▼▲☎✑✟➁❼➁◆✁ ➀ ✆✟✞✡❘❨✑✟✁☎✞◆✑✟➁❼☛✏✑✺➚✈☞ ➂ ❯✡✄❅✠ ❜ ➁ ➀ ▲✻❊❑✞✡✑✬➶ ➀ ✞✡✠③➍✎✠◗❩❫✁ ➂ ❚❱❯✂✁☎❚☎✑ ➀ ✑❑✞◆❯✡✁☎✞ ➽➃➂ ❯❲❘❙✠✬❚➹☛☎✑⑦❏✟✑❑✞◆❯ ➂ ❘❙❚☎✑❑➁✦❏✟✠✎✄✝✄❼✁☎❚✏❘❙❏ ➂ ❯❲❘❙✠✬❚☎➁➏✞ ➂ ☛☎❘❙✠✏➶➢✑❬❯➒➁ ➂ ❯✡✁☎✞ ➂ ❘➎❯ ➚❨✑✟➁❒☛☎✆❬❯❲✑✟❏❬❯❲✑❑✁☎✞✡➁ ☛✌☞✁✏❚☎✑➔❩❫✁☎❘❨❚✘✗ ➂ ❘❙❚☎✑✦☛☎✑✂➁ ➂ ❯❲✑✟➚❨➚❙❘➎❯❲✑✟➁ ❍✎➱ ☞✍✠✎✞✡❘❨➐✎❘❙❚☎✑➏☛☎✑➔❏❑✑❑❯◆❯❲✑✂☛☎✆ ✌ ➂ ➐✎✞ ➂ ❯✡❘❙✠✎❚P✑❑➁◆❯ ✞✡✆❬➍✎✆✟➚❨✆✟✑ ➀☎➂ ✞✦➚ ➂ ➷ ❖ ➷ ✑❬❯ ➀ ➚❙✁✏➁✡❘❙✑❑✁☎✞✡➁ ➂ ✁✏❯❲✞◆✑✟➁✦❘❙❚✏➁◆❯❲❘➎❯❲✁✏❯✡➁★➚❙✑18
✠✆❑➍◗✞◆❘❙✑✟✞2005
✑ ● ✓ ❍ ❮r➚❙➚❨✑➌✑✟➁ ❯ ➂ ❯✡❯✡✞✡❘ ➽ ✁☎✆✟✑ ➂ ✁ ✙ ✠ ✞✡✆❑✄❅❘❨➁✡➁✡✑❑✄❅✑❑❚❱❯✛✚✗☛✌☞✁✏❚❈✄ ➂ ➐✎❚✏✆❑❯ ➂ ✞✢✜▼➶☎➚❨✑ ❖✻❪ ✘❉✙③✢✎✩✬✭✹❜ ➪✬✩➢➶◗➁◆❘❨❯✡✁☎✆✣✍50 000
➂ ❚☎❚✏✆✟✑✟➁➒➚❨✁☎✄❅❘✵❊✟✞◆✑✗☛ ➂ ❚✏➁ ➚ ➂ ❏❑✠✎❚☎➁ ❯❲✑✟➚❨➚ ➂ ❯✡❘❙✠✎❚➳☛☎✁➇❖ ➂ ➐✎❘➎❯✡❯ ➂ ❘❙✞◆✑ ❍➃❋ ❚☎✑➑❘❨❚☎➁◆❯ ➂✬➽ ❘❨➚❙❘❨❯✡✆➌✄ ➂ ➐✎❚☎✆❬❯❲❘❙❩❫✁☎✑ ➂ ✁✏✞ ➂ ❘➎❯➔❘❨❚☎☛☎✁☎❘➎❯➒☛☎✑✟➁✂❯❲✑❑❚☎➁✡❘❨✠✎❚☎➁ ✍❅➚ ➂ ➁◆✁☎✞✛✠ ➂ ❏❑✑❼☛☎✑❼➚●☞ ➂ ➁◆❯❲✞◆✑ ➂ ➚❨➚ ➂ ❚❱❯ ✏ ✁☎➁◆❩◗✁✼☞✤✍➊✑✟❚✏➐✎✑✟❚☎☛✏✞✡✑✟✞✗✁☎❚↕☛☎✆✟❏▼▲✏❘❙✞✡✑❑✄❅✑❑❚❱❯⑦☛☎✑❼➁ ➂ ❏✟✞✡✠✦✥✏❯❲✑➾➶✼❘ ❍ ✑ ❍ ✁☎❚ ❯✡✞✡✑❑✄ ➽ ➚❙✑❑✄❅✑❑❚❱❯➑☛✼☞✆❬❯❲✠✎❘❨➚❙✑ ❍✌➱ ☞✍✆✟❚✏✑✟✞✡➐✬❘❙✑➆☛☎✁ ➁✡✆✟❘❨➁✡✄✝✑➆✑✟➁◆❯➑✆✟❩❫✁☎❘➎➍ ➂ ➚❙✑❑❚❫❯✡✑✎✍❈❏❑✑✟➚❙➚❨✑P☛☎❘✵◆❜✁☎➁◆✆✟✑ ➀➃➂ ✞ ➚❙✑P➁◆✠ ❜ ➚❨✑✟❘❨➚ ✑❑❚250 000
➂ ❚✏➁ ❍ ❮r➚❙➚❨✑ ➂ ✁✏✞ ➂ ❘➎❯➡✆❬❯❲✆➊➚❙❘ ➽ ✆❑✞✡✆❑✑✺✑✟❚➞✁✏❚➞❚◗✁ ➂ ➐✎✑➊☛✌☞✍✆✟➚❨✑✟❏❑❯✡✞✡✠✎❚✏➁❼✑❑❯P☛✏✑ ➀ ✠✎➁◆❘❨❯✡✞✡✠✎❚☎➁ ➁❑☞ ➂ ❚☎❚☎❘❙▲✏❘❙➚ ➂ ❚❫❯★✑✟❚❈➚ ➂P➽ ✠✬✁ ◆✼✆❑✑⑦☛☎✑ ✞ ➂ ❈✎✠✬❚☎➁➔➐ ➂ ✄❅✄ ➂ ✠ ➽ ➁✡✑✟✞ ➍✎✆❑✑ ❍ ➷ ➍✎✑✟❏➆➚❨✑✟➁⑦❚ ➂ ❘❨❚☎✑✟➁ ➽ ➚ ➂ ❚✏❏▼▲☎✑✟➁ ✑❑❯ ➚❨✑✟➁✗❯✡✞✡✠✎✁✏➁⑦❚☎✠✎❘❙✞◆➁✟➶❜➚❙✑✟➁⑦✆❬❯❲✠✎❘❨➚❙✑❑➁✧✍➊❚☎✑✟✁➢❯❲✞✡✠✬❚☎➁ ➁✡✠✎❚❱❯ ➚❙✑❑➁➌✠ ➽ ✏ ✑❬❯❲➁ ➚❨✑✟➁ ➀ ➚❙✁☎➁ ❏✟✠✎✄ ➀➃➂ ❏❬❯❲➁ ☛ ➂ ❚☎➁★➚●☞✁✏❚☎❘❨➍✬✑✟✞✡➁ ❍ ❮✓❯✡✠✎❘❙➚❨✑★✍■❚☎✑✟✁✏❯✡✞✡✠✎❚✏➁★✑✟➁ ❯✦✁☎❚☎✑ ➂➾➀☎➀ ✑❑➚❙➚ ➂ ❯❲❘❨✠✎❚➆➐✎✆✟❚☎✆❑✞✡❘❨❩◗✁✏✑✗❩❫✁☎❘ ✞◆✑✟➐✎✞◆✠✎✁ ➀ ✑✗✁☎❚✏✑➔➍ ➂ ✞✡❘❨✆❑❯✡✆➔☛✌☞ ➂ ➁ ❯❲✞✡✑❑➁★❏ ➂ ❯ ➂ ➚❨✠✎➐✎✁☎✆❑➁ ➁◆✑✟➚❙✠✬❚✺➚✈☞✍✆✟❚✏✑✟✞✡➐✬❘❙✑✬➶❫➚●☞❘❨❚❫❯✡✑✟❚☎➁◆❘❨❯✡✆✂✑❬❯★➚ ➂ ✠✞◆✆✟❩❫✁☎✑✟❚✏❏✟✑⑦☛☎✁ ✞ ➂ ❈✎✠✎❚☎❚✏✑✟✄✝✑✟❚❱❯✦✆✟➚❨✑✟❏❬❯❲✞✡✠✬✄ ➂ ➐✬❚☎✆❑❯✡❘❙❩❫✁☎✑✂❩◗✁✼☞❘❨➚❙➁➏✆❑✄❅✑❬❯✡❯✡✑✟❚❱❯ ❍ ✤➏✑✟➁★✆❬❯❲✠✎❘❨➚❙✑❑➁ ✠✎❚❱❯➏✑✟❚➹❏❑✠✎✄❅✄➡✁☎❚➹➚❙✑❑✁☎✞✥✠✎✞✡❘❜ ➐✬❘❙❚☎✑ ❊ ➚❨✑✟➁r➁◆✁ ➀ ✑❑✞✡❚☎✠③➍ ➂ ✑✂☛☎✑➒❯ ❈ ➀ ✑✂✃✡✃ ❴❬➶❱➚❨✑✟✁☎✞r✄ ➂ ➁◆➁✡✑➒☛✌☞✍✑✟❚❱➍◗❘❙✞✡✠✬❚1.5 M
⊙
✑❬❯➏➚❨✑✟✁☎✞r✞ ➂ ❈✎✠✎❚❅☛☎✑➒➚✈☞✍✠✎✞✡☛☎✞◆✑ ☛✏✑10 km
❍➾❋ ❚☎✑ ❯❲✑✟➚❨➚❙✑❒✞✡✑❑➚ ➂ ❯✡❘❙✠✎❚■✄ ➂ ➁✡➁◆✑❢❜❐✞ ➂ ❈✎✠✎❚P❘❨✄ ➀ ➚❨❘❙❩❫✁☎✑r❩❫✁☎✑★➚ ➂ ☛☎✑❑❚☎➁✡❘➎❯❲✆ ☛☎✑★➚ ➂ ✄ ➂ ❯❲❘❊❑✞✡✑❒☛ ➂ ❚✏➁✓➚❙✑ ❏❑✠➢✑❑✁☎✞❒☛☎✑➒➚✈☞✍✆❑❯✡✠✎❘❙➚❨✑ ➀ ✠✎✁☎✞✡✞ ➂ ❘❨❯ ❝❑❯❲✞◆✑ ✏ ✁☎➁✡❩❫✁✌☞✩✍10
✠✠✎❘❙➁r➁◆✁ ➀ ✆❑✞✡❘❨✑✟✁☎✞◆✑✒✍⑦➚ ➂ ☛✏✑✟❚☎➁◆❘❨❯❲✆➒☛☎✑➒➚ ➂ ✄ ➂ ❯✡❘❊❑✞✡✑★❚❫✁✿❜ ❏❑➚❙✆ ➂ ❘❙✞◆✑✥❚✏✠✎✞✡✄ ➂ ➚❙✑ ❍③➷ ❏❑✑✟➁ ➀ ✞✡✑✟➁◆➁✡❘❨✠✎❚☎➁❾✑ ➘◗❯❲✞❩❝❑✄❅✑❑➁✟➶➾❘❙➚❱✑✟➁ ❯ ➂ ❯◆❯❲✑❑❚☎☛☎✁❼❩❫✁☎✑ ➚ ➂ ➁◆❯❲✞◆✁☎❏❑❯✡✁☎✞✡✑➏☛☎✑ ➚ ➂ ✄ ➂ ❯❲❘✵❊✟✞◆✑ ➁◆✠✎❘❨❯ ✄✝✠➢☛☎❘➎❳➃✆✟✑➒➁◆✠✎✁☎➁➏➚●☞✑❢◆✼✑❬❯➏☛✏✑ ➀ ✞◆✠➢❏❑✑✟➁✡➁◆✁☎➁★❏❑✠✎✄ ➀ ➚❙✑❬➘➢✑❑➁➏❏✟✠✬✄❅✄✝✑➒➚ ➂ ➁✡✁ ➀ ✑✟✞ ✌ ✁☎❘❙☛✏❘❨❯❲✆✂☛☎✑➔❚☎✑✟✁✏❯✡✞✡✠✎❚✏➁✟➶ ➚ ➂ ❏❑✠✎❚☎☛☎✑❑❚☎➁ ➂ ❯❲❘❙✠✬❚✺☛☎✑❑➁π
−
✑❑❯✫✪✕✠✎✁✺☛☎✑❑➁K
−
➶❫➚ ➂ ❏❑✠✎❚☎❏✟✑❑❚❱❯❲✞ ➂ ❯❲❘❙✠✬❚✺☛✌☞✍▲ ❈ ➀ ✆✟✞◆✠✎❚☎➁❑➶➢➚❨✑➔☛☎✆❑❏✟✠✎❚➢❳➃❚☎✑✟✄✝✑✟❚❱❯ ☛✏✑✟➁■❩◗✁ ➂ ✞❩❨❫➁ ✑❑❯■☛☎✑❑➁➑➐✎➚❨✁☎✠✎❚☎➁⑦✠✬✁ ➚ ➂ ✠ ✠✎✞✡✄ ➂ ❯✡❘❙✠✎❚➇☛✏✑✝✄ ➂ ❯✡❘❊✟✞◆✑❼✆❑❯✡✞ ➂ ❚✏➐✎✑➆➁◆❯ ➂➾➽ ➚❙✑✬✑✫➢➶❦✭✔✓ ❍ ✤➏✑✟✞ ❯ ➂ ❘❨❚☎➁ ☛✏✑P❏✟✑✟➁ ➀ ✞✡✠◗❏✟✑❑➁✡➁✡✁✏➁ ➀ ✑✟✁➢➍✎✑✟❚❱❯ ❝❑❯✡✞✡✑ ➀ ✞✡✠◗☛☎✁☎❘❨❯✡➁✗✑❑❚↕➚ ➂✬➽ ✠✎✞ ➂ ❯❲✠✎❘❨✞✡✑ ➂ ✁↕✄✝✠✜❈✬✑✟❚↕☛☎✑➡❏✟✠✎➚❨➚❙❘❙➁◆❘❙✠✎❚✏➁✂☛✼☞❘❨✠✎❚☎➁ ➚❨✠✎✁☎✞◆☛☎➁ ❊ ✁☎➚❨❯✡✞ ➂ ❜❰❴ ✞◆✑✟➚ ➂ ❯❲❘❨➍◗❘❨➁◆❯❲✑❑➁ ❍ ✤✗☞✑❑➁◆❯➌❚✏✠✬❯ ➂ ✄✝✄✝✑✟❚❱❯➒➚❙✑ ❏ ➂ ➁✗☛☎✑■➚ ➂ ❏✟✠✬❚☎☛☎✑✟❚✏➁ ➂ ❯✡❘❙✠✎❚➓☛☎✑✟➁K
−
✑❑❯➔☛☎✁ ☛✏✆✟❏✟✠✬❚✏❳➃❚☎✑❑✄❅✑❑❚❫❯➒☛✏✑✟➁✦❩❫✁ ➂ ✞❵❨◗➁✦✑❬❯✦☛☎✑❑➁✦➐✎➚❙✁☎✠✬❚☎➁➏☛☎✠✬❚❫❯★➚✈☞✍✆❑❯❲✁✏☛☎✑✗✑ ➘ ➀ ✆✟✞◆❘❙✄✝✑✟❚❱❯ ➂ ➚❙✑✬➶❫➍◗❘ ➂ ➚❨✑✟➁★❏❑✠✎➚❙➚❨❘❙➁◆❘❙✠✎❚☎➁ ☛✼☞❘❨✠✎❚☎➁➒➚❙✠✎✁✏✞✡☛☎➁ ❊ ✁☎➚❨❯✡✞ ➂ ❜❰❴ ✞✡✑❑➚ ➂ ❯✡❘❨➍◗❘❙➁ ❯❲✑❑➁✟➶✭✠ ➂ ❘❨❯➒➚●☞✠ ➽ ✏ ✑❑❯➒☛☎✑❑➁➒☛☎✑✟✁➢➘ ➀☎➂ ✞◆❯✡❘❙✑✟➁✦☛✏✑■❏❑✑ ☛☎✠➢❏❑✁☎✄✝✑✟❚❱❯ ❍ ➱ ✑✟➁➒❏✟✠✬➚❙➚❙❘❨➁✡❘❨✠✎❚☎➁★☛✌☞✍❘❙✠✬❚☎➁➒➚❙✠✎✁☎✞◆☛☎➁ ❊ ✁☎➚➎❯❲✞ ➂ ❜ ❴❰✞✡✑✟➚ ➂ ❯❲❘➎➍◗❘❙➁◆❯✡✑✟➁ ➁✡✠✎❚❱❯➔✁✏❯❲❘❨➚❙❘❙➁◆✆✟✑❑➁✦☛☎✑ ➀ ✁✏❘❙➁➒✁☎❚☎✑ ❯❲✞◆✑✟❚❱❯ ➂ ❘❨❚☎✑ ☛✼☞ ➂ ❚✏❚☎✆✟✑❑➁ ➀ ✠✎✁☎✞⑦✆❑❯✡✁☎☛☎❘❨✑✟✞ ✑✟❚❂➚ ➂✬➽ ✠✎✞ ➂ ❯❲✠✎❘❨✞✡✑➡➚❨✑✟➁ ➀ ✞◆✠ ➀ ✞✡❘❨✆❑❯✡✆✟➁ ☛☎✑➆➚ ➂ ✄ ➂ ❯❲❘✵❊✟✞✡✑➡❚◗✁✏❏✟➚❙✆ ➂ ❘❙✞◆✑➆➁✡✠✎✁☎✄✝❘❙➁◆✑ ✍➞☛☎✑❑➁➳❏✟✠✎❚☎☛✏❘❨❯❲❘❨✠✎❚☎➁➊✑ ➘➢❯✡✞❩❝❑✄❅✑❑➁❈☛✏✑❺❯✡✑✟✄ ➀ ✆❑✞ ➂ ❯✡✁☎✞✡✑↕✑❬❯➳☛☎✑ ➀ ✞✡✑❑➁✡➁◆❘❙✠✎❚ ❍➒➱ ☞✍❘❙☛☎✆❑✑↕➁✡✠✎✁✏➁❉❜✏ ➂ ❏✟✑✟❚❱❯✡✑ ✑❑➁◆❯ ✮✰✯✲✱✴✳✶✵✡✷✩✸✤✹✻✺✽✼✾✹❀✿✾✳✶❁❂✵✰✼✔❃✟✹✛✼★❁❂✵✫✳❅❄❆✳❂✷✩✵✡✼❈❇❉✷✤✼✾✷✩✳✶✷❊❄✫✸✤✹✲❋✟❁❅❄✫●✔✷✤❍■✹❏✹❑✳▲✺◆▼❅❖✔❄✰P◆●★P☞❄✰◗✰✼✾❘❀✳✶✷❊❙✡✿✔✹❚✷✤✼❯✳✶✹❀✼✖❃❱✹☞❲❳❆❨❩✯➂✬➽ ➀ ➂ ➂ ➂ ➂ ➂ ➂ ➂ ➂ ❊ ➚❙✠✬❘❙❚❼☛☎✁ ➀ ✠✎❘❙❚❱❯r☛☎✑✦➁ ➂ ❯❲✁✏✞ ➂ ❯✡❘❙✠✎❚✴❴ ➶✬❏➾☞✑❑➁◆❯✽✍➌☛☎❘❙✞◆✑✦☛☎✑➒☛☎✆❑❳➃❚✏❘❙✞✓➚❨✑✟➁r❏✟✠✬❚☎☛☎❘❨❯✡❘❙✠✎❚✏➁❾❯❲▲☎✑❑✞✡✄✝✠➢☛✿❈➢❚ ➂ ✄❅❘❨❩❫✁☎✑✟➁ ☛✌☞✑ ➘➢❘❙➁◆❯✡✑✟❚☎❏❑✑ ☛☎✑⑦➁✡✑❑➁✂☛✏❘✵◆❜✆✟✞✡✑❑❚❱❯❲✑✟➁ ➀ ▲ ➂ ➁✡✑❑➁➒✑❑❯➒➚ ➂ ❚ ➂ ❯❲✁✏✞✡✑⑦☛☎✑❑➁★❯❲✞ ➂ ❚☎➁✡❘➎❯❲❘❙✠✬❚☎➁★✑✟❚❱❯✡✞✡✑⑦❏✟✑❑➁ ➀ ▲ ➂ ➁◆✑✟➁ ❍✴➱ ✑ ❏▼▲ ➂ ✄ ➀ ☛✌☞✍❘❙❚❱➍✬✑✟➁◆❯✡❘❙➐ ➂ ❯❲❘❙✠✬❚❂✑❑➁◆❯➑✑✟❚ ✠ ➂ ❘❨❯ ❏✟✠✬❚☎➁✡❘❨☛☎✆✟✞ ➂✬➽ ➚❙✑❑✄❅✑❑❚❱❯ ➀ ➚❙✁☎➁ ✆❑❯✡✑✟❚☎☛✏✁ ➀ ✁☎❘❨➁✡❩❫✁☎✑❅➚ ➂ ☛☎✑✟➁◆❏✟✞◆❘ ➀ ❜ ❯❲❘❙✠✬❚➊✄ ➂ ❏❑✞✡✠✎➁◆❏✟✠ ➀ ❘❙❩❫✁☎✑⑦☛✌☞✍✁☎❚☎✑ ➀ ▲ ➂ ➁✡✑ ☛✌☞✍✁☎❚➳➁❵❈◗➁◆❯❩❊✟✄✝✑ ➀☎➂ ➁✡➁◆✑■➐✬✆✟❚☎✆❑✞ ➂ ➚❨✑✟✄✝✑✟❚❱❯ ➀➃➂ ✞✦➚ ➂ ☛☎✑✟➁◆❏✟✞◆❘ ➀ ❯✡❘❙✠✎❚ ✄❅❘❨❏✟✞✡✠✬➁✡❏✟✠ ➀ ❘❙❩❫✁☎✑➆☛☎✑❅➁✡✑✟➁➑❏✟✠✎❚✏➁◆❯❲❘➎❯❲✁ ➂ ❚❫❯✡➁➡✑❬❯❼☛☎✑✝➚❙✑❑✁☎✞✡➁■❘❙❚❱❯❲✑❑✞ ➂ ❏❬❯❲❘❨✠✎❚☎➁ ❍ ✖✗✑ ➀ ➚❙✁✏➁✟➶❦➚❙✑➆➁❵❈◗➁ ❯❋❊✟✄✝✑➹❚❫✁✿❜ ❏✟➚❙✆ ➂ ❘❙✞◆✑ ➀ ✞◆✠➢☛✏✁☎❘❨❯ ➀☎➂ ✞★❏✟✠✬➚❙➚❙❘❨➁✡❘❨✠✎❚❅☛✼☞❘❨✠✎❚☎➁✦➚❙✠✬✁☎✞✡☛☎➁➏✑✟➁◆❯➒❏ ➂ ✞ ➂ ❏❑❯❲✆❑✞✡❘❨➁✡✆ ➀➃➂ ✞✦☛☎✑✟➁✦✑❢◆✼✑❬❯❲➁➒▲☎✠✎✞◆➁★✆✟❩❫✁☎❘❨➚❙❘ ➽ ✞✡✑ ❩◗✁✼☞❘❨➚ ✠ ➂ ✁✏❯❼✄ ➂✖✕ ❯❲✞◆❘❙➁✡✑❑✞ ➂ ➍ ➂ ❚❱❯P☛✌☞▲❝❑❯✡✞✡✑➊✑❑❚ ✄✝✑✟➁◆✁☎✞✡✑✺☛✌☞✑ ➘◗❯❲✞ ➂ ❘❙✞✡✑➊➚❨✑✟➁❼❘❨❚✢✠✠✎✞◆✄ ➂ ❯✡❘❙✠✎❚✏➁ ➀ ✑✟✞ ❯❲❘❨❚☎✑✟❚❱❯❲✑❑➁ ❍ ❮❒❚
30
➂ ❚☎❚☎✆❑✑✟➁➒☛☎✑⑦✞✡✑❑❏▼▲☎✑✟✞◆❏▼▲☎✑✟➁❑➶➃❯ ➂ ❚❱❯➒➁✡✁✏✞✦➚❙✑ ➀ ➚ ➂ ❚✺❯✡▲☎✆✟✠✎✞◆❘❙❩❫✁☎✑⑦❩❫✁☎✑⑦➁◆✁☎✞✦➚❙✑ ➀ ➚ ➂ ❚➊✑ ➘ ➀ ✆✟✞◆❘❙✄✝✑✟❚❱❯ ➂ ➚✈➶ ➚ ➂ ➁◆❘❨❯✡✁ ➂ ❯❲❘❨✠✎❚ ➂ ❏✟✠✎❚✏➁✡❘❙☛✏✆✟✞ ➂➾➽ ➚❙✑❑✄❅✑❑❚❫❯➏✆❑➍✬✠✎➚❙✁☎✆✗❏✟✠✎✄✝✄❅✑✂➚✈☞✍❘❙➚❨➚❙✁☎➁ ❯❲✞◆✑✦➁✡❏▼▲☎✆❑✄ ➂ ❯✡❘❙❩❫✁☎✑❑✄❅✑❑❚❫❯★➚ ➂ ❳☎➐✎✁☎✞✡✑➑✙ ❍ ❭❪✠✎✁➢❯❲✑✡✠✠✬❘❙➁✟➶➏➚❙✑✟➁➊❚✏✠✎✄ ➽ ✞◆✑✟✁☎➁◆✑✟➁❈❩◗✁✏✑✟➁◆❯✡❘❙✠✎❚✏➁❈❩❫✁☎❘⑦☛✏✑✟✄✝✑✟✁☎✞◆✑✟❚❱❯ ➂ ✁ ✏ ✠✎✁☎✞◆☛✌☞✍▲◗✁✏❘⑦➁ ➂ ❚☎➁➳✞◆✆ ➀ ✠✎❚☎➁✡✑❺✄✝✠ ❜ ❯❲❘❨➍✬✑✟❚❱❯➑➚ ➂➳➀ ✠✎✁✏✞✡➁✡✁✏❘❨❯❲✑➆☛☎✁ ➀ ✞✡✠✬➐✎✞ ➂ ✄✝✄✝✑ ➂ ➍✬✑✟❏❅❚☎✠✬❯ ➂ ✄❅✄✝✑✟❚❱❯■➚❙✑➆☛☎✆❬➍✎✑✟➚❨✠ ➀☎➀ ✑✟✄✝✑✟❚❱❯➑☛☎✑❅❚✏✠✎✁✏➍✎✑ ➂ ✁➢➘ ❏✟✠✎❚☎❏❑✑ ➀ ❯✡➁➏❯❲▲✏✆✟✠✎✞◆❘❙❩❫✁☎✑✟➁➏✑❑❯★➚ ➂ ✄✝❘❙➁◆✑➔✑❑❚➊➁✡✑❑✞◆➍◗❘❙❏❑✑✗☛✌☞ ➂ ❏✟❏❑✆✟➚❨✆✟✞ ➂ ❯❲✑✟✁✏✞✡➁ ➀ ➚❨✁☎➁ ➀ ✁☎❘❙➁◆➁ ➂ ❚❱❯❲➁➏✑❑❯★☛✏✑✗✄✝✠✜❈✬✑✟❚☎➁ ☛☎✑ ☛☎✆❑❯✡✑✟❏❑❯✡❘❙✠✎❚ ➀ ➚❨✁☎➁ ➀ ✑❑✞✛✠✠✎✞◆✄ ➂ ❚❫❯✡➁ ❍0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
50
100
150
200
250
early universe
LHC
µ
B
(GeV)
T (MeV)
RHIC
SPS
AGS
SIS
atomic
nuclei
neutron stars
Lattice QCD
critical point
chemical freeze-out
hadron gas
quark-gluon
plasma
✁✄✂✆☎✞✝❒✙✠✟☛✡✞☞✍✌✏✎✒✑✏✓✕✔✖✌✘✗✏✓✚✙✘✓✜✛✣✢✘✤✒✓✦✥✚✧✩★✦✤✒✓✜✛✫✪✬✓✦✤✒✛✭✧✩✮✯✗✏✛✞✙✰✌✱✙✰✧✲☞✍✳✴✤✵☞✍✥✚✥✶✓✶✙✘✓✷✢✘✑✸☞✯✛✒✓✜✛✞✙✘✓✷✹✲☞✺✥✻☞✍✼✭✧✩★✦✤✒✓✽✗✾✌✰✿ ✎✦✹✩❀❁☞✍✧❂✤✒✓❃✓✦✗✠❄❁❅✬❆✯❇✰❈✍❉❋❊✰✼✭✤✵☞✍✧❂✼●✙✘✓■❍❏❆▲❑▼❈▲◆❖✓✜✛●☞✍✌✘✼✒✓✦✌✘✤✒✛❋✙✘✓P❍❏❆✍❑◗✎✜✮✯✥✚✥✶✓✦✗✾✼✒✓✦✗❘✼●❙✴❈✜❈✜❈❯❚❃✓❱✓❲❊✰✢✖✓✜✎✦✼●☞❳✢✘✑✸☞✯✛✵✓❱✙✰✧✲☞✍✳✴✤✵☞✍✥ ✮✍❨❩✼✭✑✏✓✄❬◗✧❂✗✏✙✶✧❂✗✏✙✰✧✩✎❁☞✍✼✒✓✜✙✺✧❂✗✠❭●✧❂✳✏❈✸❄✴❈◗❪❫✑✏✓❴✼✭✤✭✌✏✓✄✢✘✑✸☞✯✛✒✓■✙✰✧✲☞✍✳✴✤✵☞✍✥❵✥✻☞❁❛✠☞✯✎✦✼✭✌✸☞✍✹❂✹❂❛✶❜✖✓P✛✭✌✘❜✏✛✒✼✵☞✍✗✾✼✭✧✲☞✍✹❂✹❂❛✶✥✶✮✯✤✒✓ ✎✜✮✯✥✚✢✘✹✩✓❲❊❝❈✜❈✜❈❡❞✵❈✏❢■✤✒✮✯✧❂✼✒✓✕✔✘✪✬✓✦✤✒✛✭✧✩✮✯✗❣✛✒✧❂✥✚✢✘✹❂✧✐❤✸❀✜✓✫✙✰✌❣✙✰✧✲☞✍✳✴✤✵☞✍✥✚✥✶✓❥✙✘✓■✢✘✑✸☞✯✛✒✓✜✛❴✙✘✓✣✹✲☞✷✥✻☞✍✼✭✧✩★✦✤✒✓✫✗✾✌✏✎✦✹✩❀❁☞✍✧❂✤✒✓❥✓✦✗ ❦✴❧✴❧ ❇✰❈✸♠❳✙✏☞✍✢✘✼✒❀✫✙✘✓✶❍♦♥♣❑▼❈ ➱ ➂➫➀ ✞✡✑✟✄✝❘ ❊❑✞✡✑ ➀➃➂ ✞◆❯✡❘❙✑ ☛☎✑ ❏❑✑❝☛☎✠◗❏✟✁☎✄✝✑✟❚❱❯↕✑❑➁◆❯↕❏❑✠✎❚☎➁ ➂ ❏✟✞◆✆✟✑ ✍➫➚●☞✆❬❯❲✁☎☛✏✑❝☛☎✑ ➚ ➂➸➀ ✞◆✠➢☛✏✁☎❏❑❯✡❘❙✠✎❚ ☛✌☞✆❬❯❲✞ ➂ ❚☎➐✎✑❬❯❲✆ ➂ ➍✎✑❑❏❈➚❨✑✺☛☎✆❬❯❲✑❑❏❑❯❲✑❑✁☎✞✝✧✥■ ✣r✃ ❊ ✧✥■➌✁☎✞π
❴➑☛ ➂ ❚☎➁P➚❨✑✟➁❼❏❑✠✎➚❙➚❨❘❙➁◆❘❙✠✎❚☎➁■☛✌☞✍❘❙✠✎❚✏➁❼➚❙✠✎✁✏✞✡☛☎➁ ➂ ✁➢➘ ✆✟❚☎✑❑✞✡➐✎❘❨✑✟➁➡☛✏✁ ❖➢✃ ❖ ❊ ❖◗❏▼▲❁▼ ✑✟✞◆✃❐✠✎❚☎✑❑❚✿❜ ❖❃❈◗❚☎❏▼▲✏✞✡✠✬❯✡✞✡✠✎❚✴❴❼☛☎✁ ❪■❖➢✃ ❊ ❪ ✑❑➁✡✑❑➚❙➚❙➁◆❏▼▲ ➂ ✠②❯❈✠rq☎✞P❖➢❏▼▲ ▼ ✑✟✞◆✃❐✠✎❚☎✑✟❚❃❜ ✠ ✠✎✞✡➁◆❏▼▲◗✁✏❚☎➐❫❴P☛☎✑❈✖ ➂ ✞✡✄✝➁◆❯ ➂ ☛✏❯ ❊➷ ➚❙➚❨✑✟✄ ➂ ➐✎❚☎✑✜❴ ❍❪➷ ❏❑✑✟➁➆✆✟❚✏✑✟✞✡➐✬❘❙✑✟➁❑➶r➚✈☞✍✆❑❯✡✞ ➂ ❚☎➐✬✑❑❯❲✆➳✑❑➁◆❯ ➀ ✞✡✠◗☛☎✁☎❘➎❯❲✑ ➂ ✁ ➍✎✠✎❘❨➁✡❘❙❚ ➂ ➐✎✑➆☛☎✁ ➁✡✑✟✁✏❘❙➚❒✑❑❯■✞✡✑ ➀ ✞✡✆❑➁✡✑❑❚❫❯✡✑➹✁☎❚☎✑✝✠ ➽ ➁◆✑✟✞ ➍ ➂➾➽ ➚❙✑➆✁☎❚☎❘❨❩❫✁☎✑ ➀ ✠✎✁☎✞ ✑ ➘ ➀ ➚❙✠✎✞◆✑✟✞■➚❙✑✟➁ ➀ ✞◆✠ ➀ ✞◆❘❙✆❑❯✡✆✟➁ ☛☎✁➓✄✝❘❙➚❨❘❙✑❑✁➹❚❫✁☎❏✟➚❨✆ ➂ ❘❨✞✡✑✣✍P➐✎✞ ➂ ❚☎☛☎✑ ☛☎✑✟❚✏➁✡❘❨❯✡✆ ➽➃➂ ✞❵❈✬✠✎❚☎❘❨❩◗✁✏✑ ❍❿❋ ❚☎✑ ➂ ❯◆❯❲✑❑❚❫❯✡❘❙✠✎❚ ➀➃➂ ✞◆❯❲❘❨❏✟✁☎➚❨❘❊❑✞✡✑➌✑❑➁◆❯ ➀ ✠✬✞❉❜ ❯❲✆✟✑ ✍ ➚●☞✆❬❯❲✁☎☛✏✑✪☛☎✑❑➁❅❏ ➂ ✞ ➂ ❏❬❯❲✆❑✞✡❘❙➁ ❯❲❘❨❩◗✁✏✑✟➁✺☛✏✁ ➀ ✠✬❯❲✑❑❚❫❯✡❘❙✑❑➚K
❜ ❚❫✁☎❏✟➚❨✆✟✠✎❚➸❩◗✁✏✑ ➀ ➚❨✁☎➁✡❘❨✑✟✁☎✞◆➁ ➂✬➀✏➀ ✞✡✠◗❏▼▲☎✑✟➁ ❯❲▲☎✆❑✠✎✞✡❘❨❩◗✁✏✑✟➁ ➀ ✞◆✆✟☛☎❘❨➁✡✑❑❚❫❯ ❝❑❯❲✞◆✑✒✠ ➂ ❘ ➽ ➚❙✑❑✄❅✑❑❚❱❯➏✞◆✆ ➀ ✁☎➚❨➁✡❘✠ ➀ ✠✬✁☎✞➏➚❨✑✟➁K
+
✑❑❯✽✠✠✬✞◆❯❲✑❑✄❅✑❑❚❱❯ ➂ ❯◆❯❲✞ ➂ ❏❑❯❲❘✠ ➀ ✠✎✁☎✞ ➚❙✑✟➁K
−
❍ ✤➏✑ ➀ ✠✬❯❲✑❑❚❱❯❲❘❙✑❑➚❄➁✡✁☎➐✬➐P❊✟✞◆✑➑➚ ➂❼➀ ✠✎➁◆➁✡❘ ➽ ❘❙➚❨❘❨❯❲✆➔☛✌☞✍✁☎❚✪✄✝✆✟❏ ➂ ❚☎❘❙➁◆✄❅✑⑦☛✏✑■❏❑✠✎❚☎☛☎✑❑❚☎➁ ➂ ❯❲❘❙✠✬❚➓☛☎✑❑➁K
−
➂ ➂ ➂ ➂ ➀ ➂ ➂ ➂ ☛✏✑✟➁✂✆❑❯❲✠✬❘❙➚❙✑❑➁☞✍➆❚☎✑✟✁✏❯✡✞✡✠✎❚✏➁❈✑✙③✩✖✓ ❍ ➱ ➂ ☛☎✑✟✁➢➘➢❘✵❊✟✄✝✑ ➀☎➂ ✞◆❯✡❘❙✑↕☛☎✑❺❏✟✑❺☛☎✠◗❏✟✁✏✄❅✑❑❚❫❯❈✑❑➁◆❯❈❏✟✠✎❚✏➁ ➂ ❏❑✞✡✆✟✑ ✍➥➚✈☞✍✆❑❯❲✁✏☛☎✑↕☛☎✑ ➚ ➂ ➀ ✞◆✠➢☛☎✁✏❏❑❯❲❘❨✠✎❚ ☛✏✑✟➁➳➁ ➂ ➍✎✑❑✁☎✞✡➁➳➚❨✠✎✁☎✞✡☛✏✑✟➁ ➂ ➍✎✑❑❏❺➚❙✑➇☛☎✆❬❯❲✑❑❏❑❯❲✑❑✁☎✞ ➷➌➱ ✃ ✤★❮ ❊ ➷ ➱ ➂ ✞✡➐✬✑↕✃❐✠✎❚✸✤➏✠✎➚❙➚❨❘❙☛☎✑❑✞✺❮❾➘ ➀ ✑✟✞✡❘❨✄❅✑❑❚❱❯ ❴ ☛ ➂ ❚☎➁P➚❙✑❑➁❼❏✟✠✬➚❙➚❙❘❨➁✡❘❨✠✎❚☎➁■☛✌☞❘❨✠✎❚☎➁❼➚❨✠✎✁☎✞◆☛☎➁ ➂ ✁◗➘➞✆✟❚✏✑✟✞✡➐✬❘❙✑✟➁P☛✏✁ ➱ ✔✗✤ ❊❶➱ ➂ ✞✡➐✎✑➹✔ ➂ ☛☎✞◆✠✎❚ ✤➏✠✎➚❨➚❙❘❙☛✏✑✟✞▼❴⑦☛☎✁ ✤★❮❒✘✂ ❊ ❖◗✁☎❘❙➁◆➁✡✑③❴ ❍✌➱ ✑ ➀ ✞✡✠✎➐✎✞ ➂ ✄✝✄❅✑ ☛☎✑❑➁➌❏✟✠✎➚❨➚❙❘❨➁✡❘❙✠✬❚☎➁✦☛✌☞✍❘❙✠✎❚☎➁➔➚❙✠✎✁✏✞✡☛☎➁ ➂ ✁ ➱ ✔➌✤ ➁◆✑❼➁✡❘➎❯❲✁☎✑➑☛ ➂ ❚☎➁➔➚ ➂ ❏❑✠✎❚❱❯❲❘❨❚◗✁✏❘❨❯❲✆ ☛☎✑❑➁➒✑❬➘ ➀ ✆❑✞✡❘❨✑✟❚☎❏❑✑✟➁✗✞◆✆ ➂ ➚❨❘❙➁◆✆✟✑✟➁ ✍➆➚✈☞ ➷ ❪■❖ ❊ ➷ ➚➎❯❲✑✟✞◆❚ ➂ ❯✡❘❨➍✎✑ ❪⑦✞ ➂ ☛☎❘❙✑❑❚❫❯➒❖❃❈◗❚☎❏▼▲☎✞✡✠➾❯❲✞✡✠✬❚✴❴❬➶ ➂ ✁ ❖➢✣ ❖ ❊ ❖◗✁ ➀ ✑❑✞✂✣❒✞◆✠✬❯❲✠✬❚➇❖❃❈◗❚☎❏▼▲✏✞✡✠✬❯✡✞✡✠✎❚✴❴★✑❬❯ ➂ ✁➓✘✂✔➔✃ ✤ ❊ ✘➒✑✟➚ ➂ ❯❲❘➎➍➢❘❨➁◆❯✡❘❙❏➌✔✂✑ ➂ ➍❁❈➳✃❐✠✎❚➓✤➏✠✎➚❙➚❨❘❙☛☎✑❑✞▼❴ ❍ ✃❐➚ ➂ ➀ ✠✎✁☎✞ ➽ ✁✏❯ ➀ ✞✡❘❨❚☎❏✟❘ ➀➃➂ ➚✼➚ ➂ ✄❅❘❨➁✡✑⑦✑❑❚❈✆❬➍◗❘❙☛☎✑❑❚☎❏✟✑■✑❑❯✂➚✈☞✍✆❑❯✡✁☎☛☎✑⑦☛☎✁❈☛☎✆❑❏✟✠✎❚✏❳☎❚☎✑✟✄✝✑✟❚❱❯✂☛☎✑✟➁✂❏✟✠✬❚☎➁◆❯✡❘❨❯❲✁ ➂ ❚❱❯❲➁ ☛✏✑✟➁➒▲ ➂ ☛☎✞◆✠✎❚☎➁✦✑❑❚➓✁☎❚ ➀ ➚ ➂ ➁✡✄ ➂ ☛☎✑⑦❩❫✁ ➂ ✞❩❨❫➁➒✑❑❯➒☛☎✑ ➐✎➚❨✁☎✠✎❚☎➁ ❊ ❬❫❪■✣✥❴ ❍ ✤➏✑❑❯◆❯❲✑ ➀ ▲ ➂ ➁◆✑ ☛☎✑⑦➚ ➂ ✄ ➂ ❯❲❘✵❊✟✞◆✑ ❚❫✁☎❏❑➚❙✆ ➂ ❘❙✞◆✑➑✑❑➁◆❯ ➀ ✞✡✆✟☛✏❘❨❯❲✑ ➀➃➂ ✞✂➚ ➂ ❏▼▲☎✞◆✠✎✄❅✠◗☛ ❈◗❚ ➂ ✄✝❘❙❩❫✁☎✑ ❩❫✁ ➂ ❚❱❯✡❘❙❩❫✁☎✑ ❊ ❬ ✤★✖⑦❴✂✑❬❯ ➂ ✁✏✞ ➂ ❘➎❯➔❏❑✠✎❚☎➁ ❯❲❘❨❯✡✁☎✆ ➚●☞✁✏❚☎❘❨➍✬✑✟✞✡➁➏❩◗✁✏✑✟➚❙❩❫✁☎✑❑➁➒✄❅❘❨❏✟✞✡✠✬➁✡✑✟❏❑✠✎❚☎☛☎✑❑➁ ➂✬➀ ✞❵❊✟➁★➚❨✑ ➬ ❘❨➐ ➬ ➂ ❚✏➐ ❍ ✖❤❊❑➁
1975
➶◗☛☎✑✟➁★❯✡✞ ➂ ➍ ➂ ✁➢➘ ➽➃➂ ➁✡✆❑➁✦➁✡✁☎✞ ➚ ➂➇➀ ✞✡✠ ➀ ✞✡❘❨✆❑❯❲✆✺☛☎✑➳➚❙❘ ➽ ✑✟✞ ❯❲✆ ➂ ➁❵❈◗✄ ➀ ❯❲✠✬❯✡❘❙❩❫✁☎✑➊☛☎✑➊➚●☞❘❨❚❱❯❲✑✟✞ ➂ ❏❑❯✡❘❙✠✎❚ ✠✠✎✞◆❯✡✑ ➂ ❚☎❚☎✠✬❚☎❏✟✑❑❚❫❯✝➚ ➂➇➀ ✠✎➁◆➁✡❘ ➽ ❘❙➚❨❘❨❯❲✆ ☛✼☞✑ ➘✏❘❨➁◆❯✡✑✟❚☎❏❑✑➡☛☎✑ ❏✟✑❬❯✂✆❑❯ ➂ ❯➒☛☎✑ ➚ ➂ ✄ ➂ ❯❲❘❊❑✞✡✑➌☛ ➂ ❚☎➁➒➚❙✑⑦❏❑✠➢✑❑✁☎✞➒☛☎✑✟➁➒✆❑❯✡✠✎❘❙➚❨✑✟➁ ✍P❚☎✑❑✁✏❯❲✞◆✠✎❚☎➁ ✑➎✙✬✙❯✓ ❍ ✣❪✠✬✁☎✞➔❏❑➚❙✠✎✞◆✑➑❏❑✑❑❯◆❯❲✑➡❘❨❚❱❯❲✞✡✠◗☛☎✁☎❏❬❯❲❘❨✠✎❚✌➶☎❚☎✠➾❯❲✠✎❚☎➁➔❩❫✁☎✑➡➚ ➂ ❏❑✠✎❚☎❚☎✑❑❏❑❯❲❘❨✠✎❚✪❏❑✠✎➚❙➚❨❘❙➁◆❘❙✠✎❚☎➁➏☛✌☞❘❨✠✎❚☎➁✂➚❙✠✎✁✏✞✡☛☎➁ ❜ ✆❬❯❲✠✎❘❨➚❙✑❑➁✣✍➳❚✏✑✟✁✏❯✡✞✡✠✎❚☎➁■❚✌☞✍✑✟➁ ❯ ➀☎➂ ➁ ☛☎❘❙✞◆✑✟❏❑❯✡✑➆✑✟❚ ✞ ➂ ❘❨➁✡✠✎❚↕☛☎✑❑➁➑❏❑✠✎❚☎☛☎❘➎❯❲❘❨✠✎❚☎➁⑦☛☎❘❖◆✼✆❑✞✡✑✟❚❱❯✡✑✟➁ ❩❫✁☎❘r✞❩❊❑➐✎❚☎✑✟❚❱❯ ☛ ➂ ❚☎➁★➚❨✑✟➁➏☛✏✑✟✁➢➘✺➁❵❈◗➁◆❯❩❊✟✄✝✑✟➁✌✒✏➚❙✑✗➁❉❈◗➁◆❯❋❊❑✄❅✑ ➀ ✞✡✠◗☛☎✁☎❘➎❯ ➀➃➂ ✞➏❏✟✠✬➚❙➚❙❘❨➁✡❘❨✠✎❚➆☛✌☞❘❨✠✎❚☎➁ ➚❙✠✎✁☎✞◆☛☎➁➏✑❑➁◆❯✦❏▼▲ ➂ ✁☎☛✌➶➢➁✡✠✎❚ ➀ ✠✬❯✡✑✟❚❱❯❲❘❨✑✟➚❄❏▼▲☎❘❨✄❅❘❨❩◗✁✏✑ ➽➃➂ ✞❵❈✬✠✎❚☎❘❨❩◗✁✏✑➑✑❑➁◆❯ ✠ ➂ ❘ ➽ ➚❨✑➌✑❑❯✂➚❨✑✟➁ ➀➃➂ ✞ ❯❲❘❙❏❑✁☎➚❙✑❑➁ ❈➳✆❑➍✬✠✎➚❙✁☎✑❑❚❱❯ ➂ ➍✬✑✟❏➡☛✏✑✟➁✂❘❙✄ ➀ ✁☎➚❖❜ ➁◆❘❙✠✎❚✏➁✓❳➃❚☎❘❙✑❑➁ ➂ ➚❙✠✬✞✡➁✓❩❫✁☎✑➒➚❙✑✦❏❑✠➢✑❑✁☎✞r☛✌☞✍✁☎❚☎✑➒✆❑❯✡✠✎❘❙➚❨✑☞✍➌❚☎✑❑✁✏❯❲✞◆✠✎❚☎➁❒✑✟➁ ❯ ✠ ✞◆✠✎❘❙☛✼➶✬➁✡✠✬❚ ➀ ✠✬❯✡✑✟❚❱❯❲❘❨✑✟➚☎❏▼▲☎❘❨✄❅❘❨❩❫✁☎✑ ➽☎➂ ✞❵❈✬✠✎❚☎❘❙❩❫✁☎✑ ✑❑➁◆❯➒➐✎✞ ➂ ❚☎☛➊✑❑❯➒➚❨✑✟➁ ➀➃➂ ✞◆❯❲❘❨❏✟✁☎➚❨✑✟➁ ❈✺➁✡✠✎❚❱❯ ➀ ✞◆✠➢☛✏✁☎❘❨❯✡✑✟➁ ➂ ✁➊✞◆✑ ➀ ✠✎➁ ❍➃➱ ➂ ➁✡❘❨✄❅❘❨➚❙❘➎❯❲✁☎☛☎✑➒✑❑❚❫❯✡✞✡✑ ➚❨✑✟➁➆✄✝✆✟❏ ➂ ❚☎❘❙➁◆✄❅✑❑➁ ➀ ✠✎✁✏➍ ➂ ❚❱❯✝➁✡✑❈☛☎✆❬➍✎✑✟➚❨✠ ➀☎➀ ✑✟✞✝☛ ➂ ❚☎➁✝❏✟✑❑➁✺☛☎✑❑✁➢➘ ➁❵❈◗➁ ❯❋❊✟✄✝✑✟➁❅✑✟➁ ❯❅❯✡✠✎✁✏❯❲✑✰✠✠✎❘❙➁✂✠ ➂ ➁✡❏✟❘❜ ❚ ➂ ❚❱❯❲✑➳✑❑❯➆➚❨✑✟✁☎✞❼✆❬❯❲✁☎☛✏✑➊✞✡✑✟➁ ➀ ✑❑❏❑❯✡❘❨➍✎✑❈✑✟❚❱❯✡✞✡✑➊☛ ➂ ❚✏➁P➚❙✑➊❏ ➂ ☛☎✞✡✑➊➐✎✆❑❚☎✆✟✞ ➂ ➚★☛☎✁➞❯✡✑✟➁◆❯➆☛✏✑➊➚ ➂ ❬ ✤★✖ ➀➃➂ ✞ ➚●☞✑ ➘ ➀ ➚❙✠✎✞ ➂ ❯❲❘❨✠✎❚➹➁❉❈➢➁ ❯❲✆❑✄ ➂ ❯✡❘❙❩❫✁☎✑■☛☎✁❈☛☎❘ ➂ ➐✬✞ ➂ ✄✝✄❅✑✂☛☎✑ ➀ ▲ ➂ ➁◆✑✟➁➒☛☎✑ ➚ ➂ ✄ ➂ ❯❲❘✵❊✟✞◆✑➌❚❫✁☎❏✟➚❨✆ ➂ ❘❨✞✡✑ ❍✁✄✂✆✎✪✌✏✒ ✝ ☎ ✄ ☎✣☎✣✎✣✡ ✎✟✄ ✁ ✡ ✟ ✆P✎✟✄ ✁ ✡ ☎✟✄ ✆✠✒ ✟ ✡ ✁ ✆✞✝ ✟ ✁ ✝☛✒✡✠ ✎✞✝☛✡ ✟✝✆ ☛ ☛ ➱ ✑✟➁➑❏✟✠✎➚❨➚❙❘❙➁◆❘❙✠✎❚✏➁➌☛✌☞✍❘❙✠✎❚☎➁➑➚❙✠✎✁✏✞✡☛☎➁ ➂ ✁➢➘ ✆❑❚☎✑✟✞◆➐✎❘❙✑❑➁➡☛☎✁➥❖◗✃ ❖ ❊
0.1 − 2 AGeV
❴ ➀ ✑❑✞✡✄✝✑❑❯◆❯❲✑✟❚❱❯➡☛☎✑ ➁◆✠✎❚☎☛☎✑❑✞❼➚ ➂ ✄ ➂ ❯❲❘✵❊✟✞✡✑➆❚❫✁☎❏❑➚❙✆ ➂ ❘❙✞✡✑✝✄✝✠➢☛☎✆❑✞✡✆❑✄❅✑❑❚❫❯➡❏▼▲ ➂ ✁☎☛✏✑ ❊T ∼ 90 MeV
❴ ✍✪☛✏✑✟➁➡☛✏✑✟❚☎➁◆❘❨❯❲✆❑➁ ➽➃➂ ❜ ✞❉❈✎✠✎❚✏❘❙❩❫✁☎✑✟➁➔☛☎✑✟✁◗➘ ✍➆❯❲✞◆✠✎❘❙➁☞✠ ✠✎❘❨➁✂➁◆✁ ➀ ✆✟✞✡❘❨✑✟✁☎✞◆✑✟➁★✍❅➚ ➂ ☛☎✑❑❚☎➁✡❘➎❯❲✆➑❚☎✠✎✞✡✄ ➂ ➚❨✑ ❍ ✖ ➂ ❚☎➁✗❏❑✑✟➁✗❏❑✠✎❚☎☛☎❘➎❯❲❘❨✠✎❚☎➁✟➶➃➚❨✑ ➁❉❈◗➁◆❯❋❊❑✄❅✑ ✠✠✎✞✡✄✝✆❅➚❨✠✎✞✡➁■☛☎✑❅➚ ➂ ❏✟✠✎➚❨➚❙❘❙➁◆❘❙✠✎❚↕✑❑➁◆❯P❏❑✠✎❚☎➁ ❯❲❘❨❯✡✁☎✆✺☛✏✑✺❚❫✁☎❏✟➚❨✆✟✠✎❚✏➁❈✠✠✎✞ ❯❲✑✟✄✝✑✟❚❱❯➑✑❬➘➢❏✟❘➎❯❲✆❑➁❼☛☎✠✎❚❱❯ ➚❨✑✟➁❅❘❙❚❱❯❲✑❑✞ ➂ ❏❬❯❲❘❙✠✬❚☎➁❅❏❑✠✎❚☎☛☎✁✏❘❙➁✡✑❑❚❱❯✬✍❂➚ ➂ ✠✠✎✞◆✄ ➂ ❯✡❘❙✠✎❚➥☛☎✑➓✞✡✆❑➁✡✠✎❚ ➂ ❚☎❏✟✑❑➁✟➶★☛☎✑ ➀ ❘❙✠✬❚☎➁❅✑❬❯➹☛✌☞✍✆❑❯✡✞ ➂ ❚✏➐✎✑❑❯✡✆ ❍ ➱ ☞✍✆❑❯✡✁☎☛☎✑➊☛☎✑❑➁ ➀ ✞✡✠ ➀ ✞✡❘❙✆❬❯❲✆❑➁❼☛☎✑✟➁ ➀ ✞✡✠◗☛☎✁☎❘❨❯✡➁➡☛☎✑✺➚ ➂ ❏❑✠✎➚❙➚❨❘❙➁✡❘❨✠✎❚❺✑✟➁ ❯✎✍➇➚✈☞✍✠✎✞✡❘❨➐✎❘❙❚☎✑➆☛✌☞✍❘❙❚❱❯✡✑✟❚☎➁◆✑✟➁ ➂ ❏❬❯❲❘❨➍◗❘❜ ❯✡✆✟➁✂❯❲▲☎✆❑✠✎✞✡❘❨❩◗✁✏✑✟➁✂✑❑❯➔✑❬➘ ➀ ✆❑✞✡❘❨✄❅✑❑❚❫❯ ➂ ➚❙✑❑➁➔☛✏✑ ➀ ✁☎❘❨➁ ➀ ➚❙✁☎➁◆❘❙✑✟✁✏✞✡➁ ➂ ❚☎❚☎✆❑✑✟➁ ❍❜❋ ❚✏✑ ➂ ❯◆❯❲✑✟❚❱❯✡❘❙✠✎❚ ➀➃➂ ✞ ❯❲❘❙❏❑✁☎➚❙❘✵❊✟✞◆✑ ✑❑➁◆❯ ➀ ✠✎✞ ❯❲✆✟✑ ➂ ✁➇❏❑✠✎✄ ➀ ✠✎✞ ❯❲✑❑✄❅✑❑❚❫❯➔❏✟✠✬➚❙➚❙✑❑❏❑❯✡❘✠❪☛☎✑❼➚ ➂ ✄ ➂ ❯❲❘✵❊✟✞✡✑ ❚❫✁☎❏❑➚❙✆ ➂ ❘❙✞✡✑➾➶ ✍✝➁✡✠✎❚ ➀ ✠✎✁➢➍✎✠✎❘❨✞➔☛✌☞ ➂ ✞◆✞❩❝❑❯✟➶ ➂ ✁➢➘❺❏✟✠✬✞✡✞✡✆❑➚ ➂ ❯✡❘❙✠✎❚✏➁⑦✑✟❚❱❯❲✞◆✑✝➚❨✑✟➁ ✆ ✏ ✑❑❏❑❯✡❘❙➚❙✑❑➁⑦✑❑❯❈✍➳➚ ➂➹➀ ✞◆✠➢☛☎✁✏❏❑❯❲❘❨✠✎❚❺☛☎✑ ✠ ✞ ➂ ➐✬✄❅✑❑❚❫❯✡➁ ✑❑❯■☛☎✑ ➀➃➂ ✞ ❯❲❘❙❏❑✁☎➚❙✑❑➁ ❊ ➍✎✠✎❘❨✞ ✑➎✙ ➪■✓ ➀ ✠✬✁☎✞➳✁☎❚☎✑❺✞✡✑❬➍➢✁✏✑❂✞◆✆✟❏✟✑❑❚❱❯❲✑③❴ ❍➔➷ ✁♠☛✏✑✟➚❩✍➞☛☎✑❺➚●☞✆❑➚ ➂✬➽ ✠✎✞ ➂ ❯❲❘❙✠✬❚➺☛☎✑❺➚✈☞✍✆✟❩❫✁ ➂ ❯✡❘❙✠✎❚✚☛✌☞✍✆❑❯ ➂ ❯ ❚❫✁☎❏❑➚❙✆ ➂ ❘❙✞◆✑✬➶❢❏✟✑✟➁❼❯✡✞ ➂ ➍ ➂ ✁➢➘❝➁✡✠✎❚❱❯P✆❑➐ ➂ ➚❨✑✟✄✝✑✟❚❱❯❼✄✝✠✬❯❲❘➎➍✎✆❑➁ ➀➃➂ ✞➡➚❙✑✟➁ ➀ ✞✡✆❑☛☎❘❙❏❬❯❲❘❨✠✎❚☎➁➑❯✡▲☎✆✟✠✬✞✡❘❙❩❫✁☎✑❑➁❼☛✌☞✍✁☎❚☎✑ ➀ ✠✎➁◆➁✡❘ ➽ ➚❙✑✗✞◆✑✟➁ ❯ ➂ ✁☎✞ ➂ ❯❲❘❨✠✎❚ ➀➃➂ ✞◆❯❲❘❨✑✟➚❨➚❙✑✂☛☎✑➌➚ ➂ ➁❵❈◗✄✝✆❑❯❲✞◆❘❙✑➌❏▼▲✏❘❙✞ ➂ ➚❙✑✂❩◗✁✏❘✌❏✟✠✎❚✏☛☎✁☎❘❙✞ ➂ ❘❨❯✟➶❫☛☎✑★✠ ➂✌☞ ✠✎❚ ➀ ➚❙✁✏➁➏✠✎✁ ✄✝✠✎❘❨❚☎➁➌☛☎❘❨✞✡✑✟❏❬❯❲✑➾➶ ✍➊➚ ➂ ✄✝✠➢☛☎❘➎❳➃❏ ➂ ❯❲❘❙✠✬❚✪☛☎✑❑➁ ➀ ✞✡✠ ➀ ✞◆❘❙✆❬❯❲✆✟➁⑦☛✏✑✟➁ ▲ ➂ ☛☎✞◆✠✎❚☎➁⑦☛ ➂ ❚☎➁ ➚❙✑❼✄✝❘❙➚❨❘❙✑✟✁➓☛☎✑✟❚✏➁✡✑✝✑❑❯ ❏▼▲ ➂ ✁☎☛ ❍ ✤➏✑✺➁✡❏❑✆✟❚ ➂ ✞✡❘❙✠➓❏✟✠✎❚✏❚ ➂✖✕ ❯■✁☎❚❂➍➢❘✠★➁◆✁☎❏✟❏✖❊✟➁ ➂ ✁➢➘ ✆❑❚☎✑✟✞◆➐✎❘❙✑❑➁➡☛☎✁➞❖✏✣✥❖ ➀ ✁☎❘❨➁✡❩❫✁✌☞✍❘❙➚ ➀ ✑❑✞✡✄✝✑❑❯➑☛☎✑ ✞◆✑ ➀ ✞◆✠➢☛✏✁☎❘❙✞◆✑➑❏❑✠✎✞✡✞◆✑✟❏❑❯✡✑✟✄✝✑✟❚❱❯➔➚✈☞ ➂ ✁☎➐✎✄✝✑✟❚❱❯ ➂ ❯❲❘❙✠✬❚❈☛✏✁➓❯ ➂ ✁➢➘❈☛☎✑■☛☎❘❙➚❨✑ ➀ ❯✡✠✎❚☎➁➒☛☎✑ ➽➃➂ ➁✡➁◆✑➡✄ ➂ ➁✡➁◆✑➑✄✝✑✟➁◆✁✿❜ ✞◆✆✟➁ ➀➃➂ ✞➆➚❨✑✟➁P❏✟✠✬➚❙➚ ➂➾➽ ✠✎✞ ➂ ❯❲❘❨✠✎❚☎➁➡✤★❮❒✘➔❮✥❖ ❊ ✤★❮r✞✡✑❑❚✻❨✬✠③➍➸✘✂❘❨❚☎➐❺❮r➚❙✑❑❏❑❯❲✞◆✠✎❚➸❖ ➀ ✑✟❏❑❯✡✞✡✠✎✄✝✑❑❯✡✑✟✞❲❴✬✑✙ ● ✓★✑❑❯ ✔➔❮ ➱ ✃❉■ ❖❁❜ ●❺❊ ✔✂❘❙➐✎▲✿❜❐❮r❚☎✑✟✞◆➐✧❈ ➱ ✑ ➀ ❯❲✠✬❚ ➂ ❚☎☛↕✃❐✠✎❚ ❖ ➀ ✑✟❏❬❯❲✞◆✠✎✄❅✑❬❯❲✑❑✞▼❴ ✑✙ ❑ ✓❪➍◗❘ ➂ ✁☎❚✏✑P☛☎❘❙✄✝❘❙❚❫✁✏❯✡❘❙✠✎❚❈☛☎✑ ➚ ➂ ✄ ➂ ➁✡➁✡✑✦☛✏✁ρ
✠✎✁➆✁☎❚➆✆✟➚ ➂ ✞✡➐✬❘❙➁✡➁◆✑✟✄✝✑✟❚❱❯r☛☎✑➒➁ ➂ ✠✠✬❚☎❏❑❯✡❘❙✠✎❚P➁ ➀ ✑❑❏❑❯❲✞ ➂ ➚❙✑ ❊ ➍✎✠✎❘❨✞☞✑✙ ✫✔✓ ➀ ✠✎✁☎✞✓✁✏❚☎✑➒✞✡✑❑➍◗✁☎✑✜❴ ❍ ✃❐➚❜➁✡✁☎➐✬➐P❊✟✞◆✑✗❩❫✁☎✑➌☛☎✑❑➁★✑✖◆❜✑❑❯✡➁★☛☎✑➌✄✝❘❙➚❨❘❙✑❑✁✝❏❑✠✎✄ ➀➃➂ ✞ ➂➾➽ ➚❙✑❑➁ ➀ ✠✎✁☎✞◆✞ ➂ ❘❨✑✟❚❱❯➏➁◆✑➌✄ ➂ ❚☎❘✠ ✑❑➁◆❯✡✑✟✞ ✍ ➀ ➚❙✁✏➁ ➽➃➂ ➁◆➁✡✑ ✆❑❚☎✑✟✞◆➐✎❘❙✑❈✑❑❯ ➀ ✠✎✁☎✞✡✞ ➂ ❘❙✑❑❚❱❯ ➂ ◆✼✑❑❏❑❯❲✑❑✞✟➶✥❚☎✠✎❚➸➁✡✑✟✁✏➚❙✑✟✄✝✑✟❚❱❯❅➚❙✑❑➁❅✄✝✆✟➁◆✠✎❚☎➁➆➍✎✑✟❏❬❯❲✠✎✞◆❘❙✑❑➚❙➁✟➶❒✄ ➂ ❘❙➁ ➂ ✁✏➁✡➁✡❘➒➚❨✑✟➁ ✄✝✆✟➁◆✠✎❚☎➁ ➀ ➁◆✑✟✁☎☛☎✠✹❜❐➁✡❏ ➂ ➚ ➂ ❘❙✞✡✑❑➁➒✑❑❯➒❚☎✠✬❯ ➂ ✄✝✄❅✑❑❚❫❯➒➚❨✑✟➁ ❨ ➂ ✠✎❚✏➁ ❊ ➍✎✠✎❘❨✞✣✑➎✙✜✭✏➶✌✙✜❏➢➶✼✙③✢✖✓ ➀ ✠✎✁☎✞✦☛☎✑❑➁✂✞◆✑❑➍◗✁☎✑❑➁▼❴ ❍ ➱ ✑✟➁ ➀☎➂ ✞◆❯✡❘❙❏✟✁✏➚ ➂ ✞◆❘❨❯❲✆❑➁ ☛✏✑➌➚ ➂➡➀ ✞✡✠◗☛☎✁☎❏❑❯✡❘❙✠✎❚✺☛☎✑➌➚✈☞✍✆❑❯✡✞ ➂ ❚✏➐✎✑❑❯✡✆✗☛ ➂ ❚✏➁★➚❙✑❑➁★❏✟✠✎➚❨➚❙❘❨➁✡❘❙✠✬❚☎➁❒☛✌☞❘❨✠✎❚☎➁★➚❨✠✎✁☎✞◆☛☎➁ ➂ ✁➢➘❺✆✟❚✏✑✟✞✡➐✬❘❙✑✟➁ ☛☎✁❝❖➢✃ ❖↕➁✡✠✎❚❱❯ ➀ ✞✡✆❑➁✡✑❑❚❫❯✡✆✟✑❑➁➡☛ ➂ ❚✏➁■➚ ➂ ➁✡✑✟❏❬❯❲❘❨✠✎❚❺➁✡✁☎❘➎➍ ➂ ❚❫❯✡✑ ❍❦➱ ✑✟➁ ➀ ✞◆❘❙❚☎❏❑❘ ➀➃➂ ✁◗➘↕✞✡✆❑➁✡✁☎➚❜ ❯ ➂ ❯❲➁✝✑❬➘ ➀ ✆✟✞◆❘❙✄✝✑✟❚❱❯ ➂ ✁◗➘ ✑❑❯ ➀ ✑❑✞✡➁ ➀ ✑❑❏❑❯❲❘➎➍✎✑❑➁ ✠✁✏❯✡✁☎✞✡✑❑➁❅☛ ➂ ❚☎➁❅➚❨✑➳☛☎✠✎✄ ➂ ❘❙❚☎✑➊➁◆✠✎❚❱❯✺☛✏❘❙➁✡❏❑✁✏❯❲✆❑➁❅☛ ➂ ❚☎➁✝➚ ➂ ➁◆✑✟❏❬❯❲❘❙✠✬❚➸✙ ❍ ➪ ❍✼➱ ✑➆☛☎✆❬❯❲✑❑❏❑❯❲✑❑✁☎✞■✧✥■ ✣r✃➔✑❑❯ ➁✡✠✬❚ ➀ ✞◆✠✎➐✎✞ ➂ ✄❅✄✝✑➡☛✏✑ ➀ ▲❁❈◗➁◆❘❙❩❫✁☎✑✝➁✡✠✎❚❱❯ ☛☎✆❑❏✟✞✡❘➎❯❲➁ ☛ ➂ ❚✏➁⑦➚ ➂ ➁◆✑✟❏❬❯❲❘❙✠✬❚ ✙ ❍●✏❍ ❮r❚✏❳➃❚✌➶➃➚❨✑✟➁★➁◆✑✟❏❑❯✡❘❙✠✎❚✏➁■✙ ❍❍❑ ➶❜✙ ❍ ✫➡✑❑❯ ✙ ❍ ✭❼❘❙➚❨➚❙✁☎➁ ❯❲✞✡✑❑❚❱❯✦➚❙✑❑➁★☛☎✆❑❯ ➂ ❘❙➚❨➁★☛☎✑❑➁ ➂ ❚ ➂ ➚❖❈➢➁◆✑✟➁✦✑❬❯➒☛☎✑✟➁ ✞◆✆✟➁◆✁☎➚❨❯ ➂ ❯❲➁✦✑ ➘ ➀ ✆✟✞◆❘❙✄✝✑✟❚❱❯ ➂ ✁➢➘➊✞◆✑✟➚ ➂ ❯❲❘✠➁◆✍❼➚ ➂ ✄✝✑✟➁✡✁✏✞✡✑⑦☛☎✁ ✌ ✠✚▼➭☛✏✑✟➁K
+
➶☎☛☎✁➳✞ ➂✬➀☎➀ ✠✎✞◆❯K
−
/K
+
✑❑❯ ☛✏✁❈❯ ➂ ✁➢➘➳☛☎✑ ➀ ✞◆✠➢☛✏✁☎❏❑❯✡❘❙✠✎❚➳☛☎✑❑➁Ξ
−
❍➱ ☞✍❘❙❚❱❯❲✆❑✞❩❝❬❯➔✑❑➁✡➁◆✑✟❚❱❯❲❘❨✑✟➚❢❩◗✁✏✑ ➀ ✞✡✆✟➁◆✑✟❚❱❯❲✑➑➚ ➂P➀ ✞◆✠➢☛☎✁✏❏❑❯❲❘❨✠✎❚➳☛☎✑✟➁ ❨ ➂ ✠✎❚☎➁➒☛ ➂ ❚☎➁➒➚❙✑✟➁➒❏❑✠✎➚❙➚❨❘❙➁✡❘❨✠✎❚☎➁ ☛✌☞❘❨✠✎❚☎➁ ➚❙✠✎✁☎✞◆☛☎➁ ➂ ✁➢➘❼✆✟❚☎✑❑✞✡➐✎❘❨✑✟➁r☛☎✁✺❖➢✃ ❖❼✑✟➁ ❯✥❩◗✁✏✑✂❏❑✑➒☛☎✠✎✄ ➂ ❘❙❚☎✑ ☛✌☞✍✆✟❚☎✑❑✞✡➐✎❘❨✑✂➁◆✑✦➁✡❘➎❯❲✁☎✑ ➂ ✁P➍✬✠✎❘❙➁◆❘❙❚ ➂ ➐✬✑★☛☎✁✝➁✡✑✟✁✏❘❙➚ ☛☎✑ ➀ ✞✡✠◗☛☎✁☎❏❬❯❲❘❨✠✎❚❼☛☎✑❑➁
