ContentslistsavailableatScienceDirect
Energy
and
Buildings
jo u r n al h om ep age :w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / e n b u i l d
Assessing
household
energy
uses:
An
online
interactive
tool
dedicated
to
citizens
and
local
stakeholders
Anne-Franc¸
oise
Marique
a,∗,
Simon
Cuvellier
b,
André
De
Herde
b,
Sigrid
Reiter
aaUniversityofLiège,Urban&EnvironmentalEngineering,LEMA,AlléedelaDécouverte9(Bât.B52/3),Liège4000,Belgium bUniversitécatholiquedeLouvain,LOCI,ArchitectureetClimat,PlaceduLevant1,Louvain-La-Neuve1348,Belgium
a
r
t
i
c
l
e
i
n
f
o
Articlehistory:
Received2November2015
Receivedinrevisedform22March2017 Accepted29June2017
Availableonline8July2017 Keywords: Buildings Transportation Energyuses Energyconsumption Tool Localactors Sustainability Urbanform
a
b
s
t
r
a
c
t
ThispaperpresentstheSOLENintegratedonlinetool,dedicatedtocitizensandlocalauthorities.This methodology,developedtoallowpreciseenergyassessment(heating,cooling,ventilation,lighting, appliances,andcookingbutalsolocalproductionofrenewableenergy)ofhouseholdenergyuses,is firstlyintroduced.SOLENusesatypologicalclassificationofbuildingsandthermalsimulations.Many parametersaredefinedandtakenintoaccounttocapturethespecificitiesofnumeroustypesof build-ingsexhaustively(e.g.typeofbuildings;numberoffloors;commonownership;orientation;thermal performancesofthewalls,floors,roofs,andwindows;andventilationtype).Theseresultsrelatedto buildingenergyconsumptionarethencrossed,inanintegratedapproach,withseveralindicatorsof urbansustainability,totakeintoaccountinthebalanceoftheimpactofthelocationofbuildingson transportationenergyconsumptionortheimpactoftheurbanformontheproductionofsolar renew-ableenergy.Thistoolmakesaccessibletoalargenon-specializedaudiencetheresultsofathree-year scientificresearchstudyinWallonia(Belgium)andwasawardedanEnergyGlobeAward(Belgium)in 2014.Thefirstfeedbackfromusersispresentedtoconcludethiscontribution.
©2017ElsevierB.V.Allrightsreserved.
1. Introduction
Thereis an urgent need to reduceenergy uses in ourbuilt environments,includingcities, suburbanareas, aswell asrural settlements.InEurope,energyconsumption inthebuilding sec-toraccountsfor morethan 40%of thefinal energy suppliedto thecustomers[1],representingthemostimportantsector,above transportationandindustry.Buildingsarethusconsideredasmajor contributorstoclimatechangebecauseoftherelease ofcarbon dioxideandothersgreenhousesgases,andpromotingenergy effi-ciencyinbuildingsisoftenpresentedasaviableapproachtothe mitigationofclimatechange.Energyefficiencyinthebuilding sec-torhasthusbeenthefocusofextensiveworldwideresearchover thepastdecades.Numerousresearcheffortshavehighlightedthe needtoproducemoreefficientbuildings,butalsotoretrofitthe existingbuildingstock,especially inEuropewhere therenewal rateofbuildingsisquitelow[2–4],thustheexistingbuildingstock shouldbethemaintargettosignificantlyreduceenergy consump-tion.
∗ Correspondingauthor.
E-mailaddress:afmarique@ulg.ac.be(A.-F.Marique).
Theuseofmathematicalmodelsandsimulationtoolsisoften presentedasthemostcredibleapproachtomodelthebehaviour andtopredicttheenergyconsumptionofasystem[5,6].Mostof theseexistingmodelsfocusontheheatingrequirementsof resi-dentialortertiarybuildings,attheindividualbuildingscale.More recently,therolethaturbanformplaysininfluencingtheenergy consumptionofindividualsbuildingshasalsobeenstudied exten-sively[7–9];theimportanceofthelocationofabuildingandthe characteristicsoftheneighbourhoodinwhichitislocated(density, diversityoffunction,accesstoamenities,etc.)onthegenerationof mobilitypatternsandqualityoflifehasbeenhighlighted.Infact, itseemscounterproductivetoproduceorretrofitefficient build-ingswithoutanyconcernforthelocationofthebuildingandits impactonthemobilityofitsinhabitants.Amongsttheir numer-ousadvantages,theapproachesbasedonmathematicalmodelsand simulationtoolscanaccountforalargenumberofparametersthat areknowntoactupontheenergyconsumptionofasystemandcan utilizeparametricvariationstotesttheimpactofenergyefficiency strategies.
Last but not least, several research and empirical results have demonstrated the significant impactof the lifestyles and behavioursofhousingoccupantsonenergyconsumption[10,11]. Citizensandlocalauthoritiesmustbeconsideredasthefirstactors thatcanconcretelyaltertheenergyconsumptioninbuildingsand http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2017.06.075
A.-F.Mariqueetal./EnergyandBuildings151(2017)418–428 419 incities.Therateofprivateownershipin theresidential
build-ingsectorishighinmostEuropeanregions(especiallyinBelgium wherealmost70%ofhouseholdoccupantsareownersoftheirown dwellings[12]).Privateownershaveacentralroleintheretrofitting ofthebuildingstock.Smalladaptationstoindividualbehaviours (e.g.thermostat,heatedarea,etc.)canhelptoreduceenergy con-sumptiondrastically.However,researchmethodsandtoolsthat allowprecisequantificationofenergyusesinbuildingsandenergy savingsrelated tovariousactions(insulatingtheroof,changing theglazing,behaviouralchanges, etc.)remaindedicatedmostly totrained professionalusers [13–15], thusneglecting thehuge potentialenergysavingslinkedtoindividualactionsundertakenby citizensintheirdwellings.Moreover,althoughanincreasing num-berofhouseholdoccupantsarepayingattentiontotheirenergy consumptionandaremotivatedtoundertakelightorheavy renova-tion,theydonotknowwhatactionstoundertakeandareunaware oftheimpactsofrenovationintermsofcomfort,energysavings, costs,etc.Raising publicawarenessoftheimpactofcitizenson energyefficiencyiscrucial andcouldquicklyleadtosignificant reductionsinthetotalenergyconsumptionofaterritory.
Thedisseminationofacademicresearchtothepublic(citizens, local authorities, policymakers, etc.) is crucial toensure more sustainabledevelopmentofourterritoriesandtoreduceenergy consumptioninbuildings.Thus,themainaimofthisresearchwas toencouragepositivechangesintheenergyefficiencyofthe build-ingstock,by providingan onlineinteractivetoolthat willhelp citizensandlocalstakeholderstoassessenergyusesintheirhouses andneighbourhoods,startingattheindividualscale.Thistoolwas intendedtotransferthemainresultsofa three-yearstudytoa non-specializedaudience.Theneedforthistypeofresearchlies inthefactthatitsdisseminationisforpeoplethatdo nothave specificknowledgeintheenergyfield,butforthemtohavethe necessaryinformationtoconductthemselvesintheirhomesand neighbourhoodsmoreenergyefficiently.
In this context, this paper presentsthe SOLENtool, a novel integrated urbantool, developed withinthe“Solutionsfor Low EnergyNeighbourhoods”projectanddedicatedtocitizensandlocal authorities.Theaimofthistoolistoaddressthepreviously high-lightedmainchallenges, inanintegratedapproach, byallowing theusertoperformanentireassessmentofenergyusesfrom res-identialbuildingsand dailymobility, aswellastoquantifythe
energyefficiencyofseveraltypesofretrofitsandchangesindaily habits.Thistoolisbasedonapreviousversion,developedtoassess onlysuburbanhousesandneighbourhoods[16].Majorupdatesand complementsweredevelopedtostronglyimproveandenrichthe firstversionandarepresented,especially:
• Themethodologytoassessenergyusesinbuildingswasstrongly improvedtoalsoconsiderlighting,appliances,andcooking; • Theupdatedversionofthetoolallowsthelocalproductionof
renewableenergy, suchasPV panels,solarheating,etc.tobe takenintoaccount;
• Theimpactoftheneighbourhoodinwhichthebuildingislocated istakenintoaccount;
• Themethodologyusedtoassesstransportationenergyuseswas modifiedtoincludealltypesoftravel,includingchainedtrips; • Several sustainability indicators were developed and crossed
withenergyconsumptioninbuildings;and
• Itisnowalsopossibletoobtainfinancialgainsrelatedtoenergy consumptionsandpotentialenergysavings.
TheSOLENinteractivetoolwasbuiltuponnumerousmethods, tools,anddatathat cannotbepresented extensivelyina single paper.Asthispaperfocusesonthepresentationof the interac-tivetool,enablingthetransferofscientificmethods andresults toanon-specializedaudience,theinterestedreadercanreferto severalpreviousscientificpapersinwhichallpartsofthe meth-ods and related assumptions have been extensively presented [10,16–18,29,33–36].The methodsthathavebeendeveloped to buildtheSOLENtoolaresummarized inthetwofollowing sec-tions.Section2brieflypresentsthemethodologythatenablesa preciseassessmentofenergyusesinbuildings(heating,cooling, ventilation,lighting,appliances,cooking,andproductionoflocal renewableenergy).ThismethodologywasappliedtotheWalloon (Belgium)buildingstockandahugedatabaseincludingmorethan 250,000individualresultswasproduced.Then,Section3presents severalindicatorsofurbansustainabilitythatweredevelopedto betakenintoaccountintheonlineinteractivetool,includingthe impactofthelocation orurbanformonenergyproductionand consumption.InSection4,theSOLENonlineintegratedurbantool, developedbasedonpreviousmethodologiesandtheirapplication, ispresented.Thistool, especiallydedicatedtocitizensand local
stakeholders,makesaccessibletoalargenon-specializedaudience theresultsofathree-yearscientificresearchstudythatcombined numerousscientifictools.Themainfindingsandsuggestionsfor furtherresearcharefinallysummarizedinSection5.
Fig.1illustratesthearticulationbetweenthedifferent compo-nentsoftheresearch.
2. Methodologytoassessresidentialenergyuses
A methodology was developed to assess residential energy uses(energyrequirementsforspaceheating,cooling,ventilation, electricalappliances,cooking,and domestic hotwater) andthe localproduction of renewable energy, based ona “bottom-up” approach.Itallowsforpreciseassessment ofenergyusesatthe individualbuildingscale,butalsoforthedrawingoftrends,atthe neighbourhood,city,andregionalscales,byaggregating individ-ualresults.Thismethodologyisbasedonseveralcomponentsand relatedassumptionsthathavealreadybeenextensivelypresented inpreviouspapers(referencedinthefollowingsections).Themain elementsandassumptionsofthesecomponentsaresummarized andreferencedbelow,astheyarethebasisonwhichthe inter-activetoolwasbuilt.Thenewinsightsandassumptionsarealso presented.
2.1. Energyusesinbuildings
Thismethodologycombinesseveralresearchmethodsandtools [16–18],includingatypologicalclassificationofbuildings,dynamic thermalsimulations,andsurveyscarriedoutbytheregional insti-tutesinchargeofenergyyearbooks[19].Theenergyconsumption levels related to heating, cooling, and ventilation are derived fromdynamicthermalsimulations.Theenergyconsumption lev-elsrelatedtodomestichotwater,electricalappliances,andcooking arebasedonregionalempiricalsurveysandarelinkedtothe num-berofinhabitantsineachdwelling.Thismethodologywasapplied totheWalloonbuildingstock.However,thisworkisreproducible forotherterritories.Forterritorieswithsimilarbuildingstocks, buildingconstructiontechniques,and heating systems(such as France,Luxemburg,andtheNetherlands),theclimateconditions (degree-days)andmeanconsumptionforhotwater,cooking,and appliancescanbeadapted.Forterritorieswithverydifferenttypes ofbuildings,constructiontechniques,andheating/coolingsystems, themethodsarereproduciblebutthetypologyofbuildingsand neighbourhoodsmustberedefined.Theproposedresultsdefine energyconsumptioninkWh/m2year,primaryenergy consump-tioninkWh/m2year,andCO
2emissionsinkgCO2/m2. 2.1.1. Energyconsumptionforspaceheating–ESH,cooling– ECO,andventilation–EV
Basedona typologicalapproach,60maintypesofdwellings weredefinedtorepresenttheWalloonresidentialbuildingstock, basedonthemaincharacteristicsofWalloondwellings[18,20,21]. Thetypologycomprises housesandapartments.Forhouses,the characteristicsthatweretakenintoaccounttobuildthetypology aretheorientation(B.1,seeTable1),thenumberoffloors(B.2) (oneandhalf,two,three,orfour),thecommonownership(B.3) (detached,semi-detached,orterracedhouse),andtheorientation (B.4)ofthebuilding.Forapartments,thecharacteristicsaretheplan configuration(B.1)(widecrossing,narrowcrossing,threefronts, onefront,orcornerapartment),theposition(B.3)oftheapartment inthebuilding(groundfloor,intermediatefloor,ortopfloor),and theorientation(B.4)ofthebuilding(north,east,south,orwest). Foralltypesofdwellings,theceilingheightwasdeemed2.4m; noattachmentsweremodelledwithsuch,buttheycanbetaken intoaccountbyincludingtheminthetotalareaofthedwelling. Eachofthe60typeswasmodelledwithseveraldifferentheated
areas.Asfarasthethermalperformancesofthehousingare con-cerned,two typesofwall(C.1)aredefined(solidorcavity).The insulationmaterialconsideredinthemethodhasathermal con-ductivity(-value)of0.040W/mK.Theinsulationintheslabsand thewalls(C.2andC.3)canvaryfrom0to30centimetres,andthatin theroofs(C.4)canvaryfrom0to35centimetres.Theglazingtype (C.5) maybe simple (U-value=5.8W/m2K),double-old (typical fromthe1970’sandthe1980’s,U-value=2.83W/m2K), double-new(new generationof double-glazing,U-value=1.05W/m2K), ortriple(U-value=0.6W/m2K).Theglazingsurfaceareaoneach fac¸ade isdefined accordingtothehousingtype, usingatypical window-to-wallratioforeachtype,asdevelopedin[22]forthe Walloonbuildingstock.Threeventilationmodes(C.6)aredefined: naturalventilation(typeA),ventilationwithmechanicalextraction (typeC),anddouble-flowventilationwithheatrecovery(typeD). ForventilationoftypeA,thewindowsareopenedforaninternal temperaturehigherthan25◦Candareclosedwhenthis tempera-turedropsdownto23◦C[39–41].Inthecaseofventilationoftypes CandD,airflowsaredefinedaccordingtotheBelgianrequirements [23].Theheatrecoverysystemefficiencyissetat85%.Threetypes ofsetpoints(C.7)aredefinedaccordingtoBelgianregulations[26] andnorms[42]:18◦Cduringdayandnight,20◦Cduringdayand night,and20◦Cwithareductionto16◦Cinadailyworkpattern andduringnight.Thesethreetypesofsetpointsaredefinedto ensurethermalcomfort.Becauseofthenumberofsimulationto proceedandtothenumerousenergyperformancestudied(very lowtoveryhighenergyperformancethatcorrespondtoverylong toveryshortheatingseasons),noannualprofilehasbeendefined. Acoupleofrulesofcombinationswerefinallydefinedtoeliminate non-realisticcases(forexample,abuildingwith20cmofinsulation andsimpleglazing).Inall,250,000typesofbuildingsweredefined. The TRNSys thermal simulation software was then used to automaticallyperformanenergyconsumption analysisofspace heatingneeds(ESH)andelectricityneedsforventilationsystems (EV)foreachofthe250,000casesinastandardcontext(the cli-mate of Brussels withoutany surroundings buildings).Because ofthetemperateclimateinBelgium(meantemperatureinJuly from 1981 to 2010=18.4◦C [24]), cooling was not considered in thisanalysis becausecoolingneedsare verylow in Belgium andmainlyconcernofficebuildings.Inthesesimulations, inter-nalgainsweredefinedaccordingtoMassartandDeHerde[25]as 70W/personforoccupationand6W/m2and4W/m2fornominal powerlightingandappliances,respectively.Theyarefunctionsof thedwelling’ssurfaceandofthenumberofoccupantswhichare setinthefunctionofthetypeofhousing.Internalgainsarealsoset accordingtoadailyandweeklyschedule.Inadditiontothe sim-ulationresults, threeenergystandardsdefinedbytheEuropean EnergyPerformanceofBuildingsDirective(EPBD)wereaddedin thedatabase:thelow-energystandard,theverylow-energy stan-dard,andthepassivestandard,whichcorrespondtoannualheating requirementslowerthan60kWh/m2year,30kWh/m2year,and 15kWh/m2year,respectively.
Next,energyconsumptionforspaceheating(ESH)and venti-lation(EV) wereobtainedbyapplyingtothesimulation results (energyneeds),aconversionfactor,dependingontheefficiency oftheheatingsystem(production,distribution,andemission)and thetypeoffuelused;eighttypesofheatingsystems(C.8)and11 typesoffuel(C.9)weretakenintoaccount.Foreachtype,the con-versioncoefficientthatwasusedcomesfromBelgianregulations [26,27](seealsoAppendixA).
Finally,twocorrectionfactorsweredefinedandappliedtothe previoussimulationresults,totakeintoaccountthelocalclimate (adaptationofdegree-daysincomparisonwiththeUccle-Brussels climate,A1in Table1)andtheimpactof theneighbourhoodin whichthebuildingis located(density,shadows,A2in Table1). Asfarasthelocalclimateisconcerned,1347possibilitieswere
A.-F. Marique et al. / Energy and Buildings 151 (2017) 418–428 421 Table1
Parametersrelatedto(A)theenvironmentinwhichthebuildingislocated,(B)thecharacteristicsofthebuilding,and(C)thethermalperformancesoftheenvelopeandthesystemswhicharetakenintoaccounttocalculatethe annualenergyconsumptionforspaceheating.
A.ENVIRONMENT B.TYPOLOGY C.THERMALPERFORMANCESANDSYSTEMS 1.Climate 2.
Neighbourhood
1.Housingtype 2.Numberof floor
3.Joint ownership
4.Orientation 1.Walltype 2.Slabinsulation [cm]
3.Wall insulation[cm]
4.Roof insulation[cm]
5.Glazing 6.Ventilation 7.Thermostats 8.Heating system 9.Fueltype Choiceamongst 1347locations Dense downtown
Widehouse 1.5 Detachedor semi-detached
North Solid 0 0 0 Simple,
double-oldor double-new
A 18 ◦ Cor20 ◦ Cor 20 ◦ C(day)–16 ◦ C (night)
Hotwaterboiler condensing
Naturalgas
Terraced NorthorEast 16
Continuous urban
2 Detachedor semi-detached
North 3 3 3 Hotwaterboiler
noncondensing Gazole
Terraced NorthorEast 16
Semi-continuous urban
Narrowhouse 1.5 Detachedor semi-detached
North 6 6 6 Electric
resistance heating
Propane
Terraced NorthorEast 16
Homogeneous semi-continuous orsocialdistrict 2 Detachedor semi-detached North 10 10 10 Double-newor triple
CordD Heatpump Butane
Terraced NorthorEast 20 Double-old,
double-newor triple Villageorrural
core
3 Semi-detached North Cavity 15 15 15 Double-newor
triple
Heatpump water
LPG
Terraced NorthorEast 30 Double-old,
double-newor triple
Suburbanarea 4 Terraced NorthorEast 20 20 20 Double-newor
triple
Microcombined heatandpower
Coal Widecrossing apartment 1 Top, intermediate, ground
NorthorEast 30 Double-old,
double-newor triple Isolatedrural Narrowcrossing
apartment
1 Top,
intermediate, ground
NorthorEast 25 25 25 Double-newor
triple Stove Wood Threefronts apartment 1 Top, intermediate, ground North 35 Double-old, double-newor triple "Greatsets" Onefront
apartment 1 Top, intermediate, ground North,East, South,West 30 30 30 Double-newor triple Radiatoror electricheater Wood(3 variants) Comer apartment 1 Top, intermediate, ground North,East, South,West 35 Double-old, double-newor triple
2EPBDrequirements(accordingtoUmax) Electricstorage
heater
Electricity 3EPBDthermalstandards(lowenergy–verylowenergy–passive)
Table2
Correctionfactorsdefinedaccordingtothetypeofneighbourhood.
Typeofneighbourhood Correction
factorfor roofs
Correction factorfor facades
1.Denseurbancore 0.72 0.42
2.Continuousurbanneighbourhood 0.82 0.69
3.Semi-continuousurbanneighbourhood 0.96 0.78
4.Homogeneoussemi-continuousneighbourhood 0.95 0.79
5.Villagesandruralcore 0.98 0.85
6.Suburbanneighbourhood 0.98 0.90
7.Isolatedruralarea 1.00 1.00
8.Greatsets 0.96 0.60
defined,based ontheheating degree-days(15/15) provided by theNationalMeteorologyInstitute(diffusedthrough[32])tocover thevariationoftheclimateineverymunicipalityofWalloonia,in comparisonwiththerepresentativeclimateofBrussels.A coeffi-cientbasedondegree-dayswasattributedtoeachlocation and thenappliedtothethermal simulationresults(performedwith therepresentativeBrussels’climate).Itisworthmentioningthat thedifferencesbetweenthedifferentlocationsremainedsmall, asBelgiumisasmallcountrywithatemperateclimate(Northern Europe).
Toaccountfortheimpactoftheneighbourhood(urbanform)in whichthebuildingislocated,eightmaintypesofresidential neigh-bourhoodsweredefinedbasedonthetypologicalclassificationof theWalloonbuildingstock[29].Theseeighttypesarethedense urban core,continuous urbanneighbourhood, semi-continuous urbanneighbourhood,homogeneoussemi-continuous neighbour-hood(includingsocialhousing),villagesandruralcores,suburban neighbourhoods,isolatedruralareas,andgreatsets.
Three representative cases of each neighbourhood category wereselectedinWalloonia.Simulationswereperformedonthese 24selectedneighbourhoods withTownscope,a software devel-opedvia[30]toassessdirect,diffused,andreflectedsolarradiation easilyaswellasthermalcomfortwithinbuiltenvironments,based on3Dmodels.Onthefacadesandroofsofeachneighbourhood,500 pointswererandomlydefined,andanassessmentofsolargainswas performedinordertodefinecorrectionfactorstoapply,according tothedensityoftheneighbourhoodandshadowingeffects.Asolar factor,M,wascalculatedforeachtypeofneighbourhoodtoreflect theimpactofsolarmasksandurbanformonthesolarresource, andthisfactorwasalsousedtoassessthelocalproductionofsolar energy(seebelow).Thesecorrectionfactorsaccordingtothetype ofneighbourhoodarelistedinTable2.
Thecorrectionfactorsrelating toclimateand tothetype of neighbourhoodwerefinallystoredinthedatabaseandthenapplied totheresultsofthethermalsimulationsofbuildings,inorderto takeintoaccount,respectively,thelocalclimateandthediminution ofsolargainsonfacadesandroofs,accordingtothebuiltdensityof theneighbourhoodinwhichtheconsideredbuildingwaslocated. 2.1.2. Energyconsumptionforelectricalappliances(EEA)and energyconsumptionforcooking(ECK)
EEA(Eq.(1))andECK(Eq.(2))arecalculated basedondata fromregionalyearbooks.TheWalloonInstituteforenergyand sus-tainabledevelopment(ICEDD)[19]highlightsthateachhousehold uses2.827kWhannuallyforelectricappliancesand461kWhper yearforcooking.Therefore,theconsumptionforelectrical appli-ancesandcookingarecalculatedusingstatisticsfromtheICEDD butweightedaccordingtothenumberofpeople(N)perhousehold andthecorrespondingyieldcoefficient(YeaandYck).
EEA =(−40N2+550N+1765)Yea (1)
ECK=(200N)Yck (2)
2.1.3. Energyconsumptionfordomestichotwater(EHW)
AnnualEHWisobtained(Eq.(3))bymultiplyingthevolumeof water(L)neededannuallybyalltheinhabitants(N),thedifference intemperature(T)betweenthehotandcoldwater,andtheheat capacityofwater(C).Itisestimated,basedonregionalaverages, thatanoccupantuses40Lofhotwaterand100Lofcoldwaterper day.Thetemperaturesofthehotandcoldwateraresetrespectively at60◦Cand10◦C.Finally,asforheating,11systemsproducinghot waterwereusedtoreflecttheperformanceofthesystem(Yhw).
EHW =NLTCYhw (3)
2.1.4. Storageoftheresultsinthedatabase
Theresultsoftheenergyassessments(spaceheating,cooling, ventilation,appliances,cooking,andhotwater)werestoredina hugedatabasecomprised of sevenparts:Part1 isdedicatedto thebaseddegree-dayscoefficient,Part2storesthesolarfactors dependingonthebuiltdensityoftheneighbourhoodinwhichthe buildingislocated,Part3isdedicatedtospaceheating require-mentsandelectricityneedsfortheventilationsystem,Part4relates to the characteristics of the heating systems, Part 5 addresses domestichotwaterrequirements,Part6relatestocooking require-ments,andPart7isdedicatedtoelectricalappliancerequirements. Part3(spaceheatingenergyneedsandelectricityneedsforthe ventilationsystem)iscomprisedofsevencolumns,asillustrated inTable3.Thefirstcolumnincludesauniquenumericcodethat allowsonetoidentifythecorrespondingbuildingandits charac-teristicsdirectlyandeasily:eachitemofthecodecorrespondstoa specificvariationofacoefficientandprovidestheidentitycardof thetestedcase.
Columns2and3areusedtostoretheslope(mq)andthe inter-cept(pq),respectively,ofthelinearextrapolationusedtogeneralize spaceheatingenergyneedsobtainedthroughthermalsimulations toanysimilarbuildingthatpresentsadifferentheatedsurfacearea. Columns4and5(msandps,respectively)storecoefficientsrelated tosolargains.Thetwolastcolumns(mvandpv)areusedtocalculate theelectricalneedsoftheventilation’sfans.
Thecoefficientsthatareusedtotransformenergyneedsinto fuelconsumption, primaryenergy consumption,and CO2 emis-sionsintoanestimationoftheannualcostarealsostoredinthe database.CoefficientsrelatedtoprimaryenergyandCO2emissions comefromthecurrentthermalregulations[26,27].Ameanenergy priceisproposedforeachtypeofenergyandcanbechangedbythe userintheonlinetool.
2.2. Localproductionofrenewableenergy
2.2.1. Electricityproductionfromphotovoltaicpanels−EPV Thepotentialofurban,suburban,andruralbuildingsforactive solarheatingandphotovoltaicelectricityproductionisobtainedvia numericalsimulationsperformedwithTownscopesoftware[30]. Townscopeallowsfortheattainmentofdirect,diffuse,and reflect-ingsolarradiationreachingapointandradiationdistributionona surface,underaclearsky,whichisnotrepresentativeoftheBelgian climate.AcorrectionfactorM(differencebetweenthevalues cal-culatedfortheassessedneighbourhoodandthesamesitewithout anybuildings)isthuscalculatedandappliedtothemeansolar radi-ation(MSR)fortheconsideredlatitude(MSR=1000kWh/m2year forBelgium).AcorrectionfactorFisthenappliedtoaccountforthe orientationandinclinationoftheroofs[31].Solarenergyreceived bytheconsideredsurface(Esol)isobtainedusingEq.(4).
Esol =MSRFM (4)
Thepotentialof roofsfor photovoltaicelectricity production (EPV,inkWhperyear)isobtainedusingEq.(5).InEq.(5),S repre-sentsthesurfaceareaoftheconsideredroofs,Cthepercentageof
A.-F.Mariqueetal./EnergyandBuildings151(2017)418–428 423
Table3
Exampleofthedatabaseforthespaceheatingandventilationneeds(Part3).
Code mq[kWh/m2] pq[kWh] ms[kWh/m2] ps[kWh] mv[kWh/m2] pv[kWh] 1321clg321 41.9 38.6 8.1 486 2.2 −23.1 1 321clg322 54.1 142.3 13.9 768.9 2.2 −23.1 1321clg323 49.1 105.5 8.1 486 2.2 −23.1 1321clg331 24.7 558.9 8.1 486 6.9 −73 1321clg332 32.4 792.5 11.3 646.2 6.9 −73 1321clg333 30.2 681.6 8.1 486 6.9 −73
theroofscoveredbypanels(maximum0.80),Ypvtheyieldofthe photovoltaicpanels,Yinvtheyieldoftheinverter,anda correc-tionfactortakingintoaccountelectricitylosses.Intheonlinetool, theyieldofthephotovoltaicpanelsisfixedat0.145,theyieldof theinverterat0.96,andelectricitylossesat0.2.
EPV =EsolSCYpvYinv(1-) (5)
2.2.2. Solarheating–ETH
Thepotentialofroofsforheatinghotwaterthroughthermal panelscannotbeassessedthroughtheequationusedfor photo-voltaicelectricity becausethesystemsare quitedifferent.Solar energy receivedannually bytheroof is determinedviaEq. (4). Eq.(6)allowsforthedeterminationiftheroofsofthehousesof theneighbourhoodsareadaptedtotheproductionofhotwater. InEq.(6),Esolrepresentsthesolarenergyreceivedbytheroofs, Sthesurfaceareaofthepanel,andYththeyieldofthethermal panels.Itisassumedthat55%oftheproductionofhotwaterof eachhouseholdmustbecoveredthroughthermalpanels(froma technical-economicpointofview,theoptimumisoftenconsidered toliebetween50%and60%).Underthiscondition,theyieldofthe systemis0.35.
ETH= EsolSYth (6)
2.2.3. Biomass–EBIO
Theuseofbiomassasarenewableenergysourceistakeninto accountbychoosingaheatingsystemusingbiomassasfuel(see AppendixA).Inthiscase,thespaceheatingenergyconsumptionis notequaltozerobutCO2emissionsare.Infact,inaccordancewith EUlegislation[32],biomassis consideredcarbon neutral,based ontheassumptionthatthecarbonreleasedwhensolidbiomassis burnedwillbereabsorbedduringvegetativegrowth.
2.2.4. Micro-cogeneration–ECHP
Amicro-CHPisaheatingsystemabletoproducethermaland electrical energy. Therefore, following a space heating demand DSH,anamountofelectricityisproducedandcanbeconsidered renewableenergy.ThisproductionofelectricityECHPcanbe cal-culatedusingEq.(7),whereYsystistheyieldofheatdistribution andemissionsystems,istheportionofspaceheatingthatneeds tobeconvertedbythemicro-CHP,Ychpéistheelectricalyieldof themicro-CHP,andYchpthisthethermalyieldofthemicro-CHP.
ECHP= (DSH/Ysyst)(Ychpé/Ychpth) (7)
2.2.5. Heatpump–EHP
Heat pumps allow for the use of renewable energy in our environment.Theuseofthis energyisrecognizedthroughhigh efficiencyheatingsystems,andtheconsumptionofelectricityis theenergyconsumptionforspaceheatingESHcalculatedusinga specificsystemyieldforheatpumps(seeAppendixA).
2.2.6. Windturbines–EWT
Asnumerouspoliticaluncertaintiesstillexist,regardingwind turbinesin Walloon,theelectricityproductionofwindturbines EWTisnotconsideredintheonlinetool.
3. Othersustainabilityindicatorsrelatedtoresidential
energyuses
Energyconsumptioninbuildingsisamajorcontributortothe (un)sustainability of our builtenvironment. However, previous studieshavealsohighlightedthehugeimpactofother parame-tersrelatedtourbanform,location,andtransportationhabitsof inhabitants[33,34].Toincludethesechallengesintheenergy bal-anceprovidedintheSOLENtool,resultsrelatedtobuildingenergy usescanbecomparedtoothersustainabilityindicators.Amongst theindicatorsdevelopedduringtheresearchandprovidedinthe SOLENtool,thefollowingarehighlightedinparticular.
3.1. Transportationenergyuses
Based on a quantitative methodology previously developed bytheauthorsandextensivelypresentedin[17],transportation energyusesfordailymobilityofinhabitantscanbeassessedand compared tobuildingenergyusesand productionofrenewable energy (inkWh,Fig.3).The previouslydeveloped methodwas improvedtoallowfortheaccountingofchainedtripsandto pre-ciselyrepresentthemobilityoftheusers.Modeoftransportation, travelleddistance,typeof vehicle,consumption ofthevehicles, numberofpeople,etc.canbedefinedbytheuserofthetool,to adapttoeachparticularsituation.
3.2. Urbanaccessibility
TocompletethequantitativeapproachpresentedinSection3.1, otherindicatorsrelated toaccessibilityandpotentialitiesof the urbancontextinwhich thebuildingislocatedweredeveloped. Theseindicatorswereallvalidatedbytheregionalauthoritiesin chargeofurbanplanningpolicies,intheframeworkofaregional handbookforsustainableneighbourhoods[35,36].Allthe thresh-oldvaluespresentedbelowarethosedevelopedandvalidatedin thishandbook[35,36]:
• Trainservices:thiscriteriontakesintoaccountthedistancefrom theneighbourhoodtothetrainstationandthetypeofstation (regionalorlocal).Thedistancetoaregionaltrainstationmust belessthan1500morthedistancetoalocaltrainstationmust belessthan1000m.
• Busservices:thiscriteriontakesintoaccountthenumberofbuses perdayintheareasurroundingtheneighbourhood(the assess-menttakesplaceinanareaof700maroundtheboundariesofthe neighbourhood).Targetvaluesareadaptedaccordingtothe loca-tionoftheneighbourhood:minimum34busesperdayinurban coresandcitycentresandminimum20invillagesandruralcores. • Diversityoffunctions:theneighbourhoodmustbelocatedina mixed-useenvironmenttofavouractivecommutingandreduce travelleddistance.Thetargetvaluesareatleast15different func-tions(alimentary shops,bakeries,postoffices,etc.)inanarea of700maroundtheboundariesoftheneighbourhoodinurban coresandcitycentresandatleast5invillagesandruralcores. Moreover,atleast,threedifferentcategoriesoffunctionsmust
Table4
Summaryoftheinputdataneededinthesimplifiedassessmentandinthedetailedassessment.
Simplifiedassessment Detailedassessment
Urbanform Typeofneighbourhood(8possibilities,fromcitycentreto
ruralsettlement)
Typeofneighbourhood(8possibilities,fromcitycentreto ruralsettlement)
Locationand householdcomposition
Nameofthedistrict/municipality(1348choices) Nameofthedistrict/municipality(1348choices)
Numberofadults/childreninthehousehold Numberofadults/childreninthehousehold
Transportation Numberofkmtravelledeachyearbycar/bus/train/bike/on
foot
Foreachtransportationtrip:
– originandintermediaryandfinaldestinations – mode(s)oftransportation
– characteristicsofthemode(s)oftransportation(e.g.for privatecar:typeoffuel,consumptionofthecar,number ofpeopleinthecar,etc.)
– travelleddistances
– numberoftripsperweekandperyear
Typeofdwelling Typeofhouse/apartment Typeofhouseapartment
Surfacearea Orientationofthemainfacade
Yearofconstruction Surfacearea
Yearofconstruction
Constructivedetails (Providedbythetool,basedontheyearofconstruction) Typeofinsulationintheslab/walls/roofs Typeofwindows
Typeofventilationsystem Heatingset-point
Heatingsystem Typeofboiler Typeofboiler
Typeoffuel Typeoffuel
Hotwater/electricity (Meanvalueprovidedbythetool) Typeofboiler
Typeoffuel
Typeofelectricitynetwork
Renewableenergy PVandthermalpanels:surfacearea,slope,andorientation PVandthermalpanels:surfacearea,slope,andorientation Biomass
Micro-cogeneration Heatpump
Costs (Providedbythetool) Annualcostfortransportation,bymode
Annualcost(frominvoices)forheatingandelectricity
berepresented(amongstsupermarkets,shops,leisure,services, andpublicservices).
• Proximityofschoolfacilities:thereisaleastoneschoolinthe surroundingsoftheneighbourhood.
Theseindicatorscanbeassessedonebyonebutalsocombined intoanintegratedindicatorofsustainability(fromaverylow acces-sibilitytoaveryhighaccessibility).Thiscombinedindicatorallows forcomparisonofthepotentialfordifferentresidentiallocations, takingintoaccounttheactivitiesgoingonintheconsidered loca-tions.
4. SOLENonlineinteractivetool 4.1. PresentationoftheSOLENtool
TheSOLENonlineinteractivetoolwasdeveloped,basedonan initialonlinetool(thatwasdedicatedtoonlysuburbanbuildings andneighbourhoods[16]).Thistool,availablefreeat www.solen-energie.be,makesaccessibletoalargenon-specializedaudience, thenumerous resultsofa three-yearstudydedicatedtoenergy usesinbuildingsandneighbourhoods.Thewebsitecomprisesthree differentassessmenttools,eachwithdifferentobjectives.The sim-plifiedassessmentisveryeasyandquicktouseandisdedicated toa user/householdwithout any specific knowledge of energy consumptionandbuildings.Thedetailedassessmentallowsfora preciseassessmentofenergyusesinabuilding,butthe question-nairetakeslongertocompleteandrequiresspecificinformation (suchasthecentimetresofinsulationinthewall,thetypesof win-dows,etc.).Table4summarizestheinputdataneededforthesetwo typesofassessments,focusingonhouseholdenergyconsumption. Lastbutnotleast,theneighbourhoodassessmentisdedicatedto localauthorities,architects,andprivatedevelopersandallowsfor assessmentofanentire(existingorplanned)neighbourhood, tak-ingintoaccountbothbuildingandtransportationenergyuses.The
methodologiesandindicatorspresentedinthispaperarerelated totheassessmentofindividualbuildings.Theyhavebeenadapted duringtheresearchtoallowforthedevelopmentofthe “neighbour-hoodassessmenttool”,buttheseadaptations arenotpresented here,becauseofthelengthlimitforthispaper.Formore informa-tionontheneighbourhoodassessmenttool,theinterestedreader canreferto[43].
To ensure a wide diffusion of the SOLEN online portal, the questionnairesusedintheevaluationtoolsaresimple,intuitive, andeasytocomplete,asillustratedinFig.2.Theresultsarealso expressedinaverysimpleform,asseeninFig.3,forenergyusesin theconsidereddwelling,andinFig.4,fortheannualenergybalance (dwelling+transportation+renewableenergy)ofahousehold.
Severalstrategiestoimprovetheenergyefficiencyofthetested buildingarethenprovidedtotheuser(suchasinsulationofthe roof,changeoftheglazing,insulationofthebuilding’senvelope, behaviouralchanges,etc.).Theyarepersonalizedaccordingtothe characteristicsofeachdwelling.Quantification(inkWh/year,in%, andinD)ofthepotentialenergysavingslinkedtoeachstrategyis alsoprovidedbasedontheresultsstoredinthedatabaseandthe uniquecodeusedtostoretheresults(Table1).
4.2. Validationandaccuracyoftheresults
Allthesoftwareusedinthedevelopmentofthedatabaseandthe SOLENtoolwerevalidated.TRNSysthermalsimulationsoftwareis awholebuildingenergysimulationprogramthatwasdeemedasa BESTESTreferencestandard[37]andthemethodsdevelopbythe researchteamhavebeenextensivelypresentedandvalidatedin previouspapers[10,16–18,29,33–36].Individualresultsobtained throughthemethodologiespresentedinthispaperhavebeen com-paredwithdatafromregionalyearbooksandsurveystoensure theiraccuracy[19].ThetotalenergyconsumptionoftheWalloon buildingstockwascalculatedviathemethodologypresentedinthis
A.-F.Mariqueetal./EnergyandBuildings151(2017)418–428 425
Fig.2. Exampleofuser’sinputinterfaceprovidedintheSOLENonlineportal(here,todefinethemaincharacteristicsofthedwelling).
Fig.3. ExampleofresultsprovidedintheSOLENonlineportal(energyconsumptioninthedwelling,pertypeofconsumption).Theenergyconsumptionofthehouseholdis alsocomparedwithareferencecasecorrespondingtocurrentthermalregulations.
paperandtheresultwascomparedwitharegionalyearbook(data collectedbyICEDD[19]).Thedifferencebetweenthecalculatedand therealvaluewasonly8.2%,whichwasconsideredacceptable.
Severalretrofittingscenariosofthebuildingstockwerefinally testedandquantifiedduringtheresearch.Theyprovide informa-tionregardingthedevelopmentofspecificpoliciesadaptedtothe
particularcharacteristicsofmaintypesofbuildingsandofthe envi-ronmentinwhichtheyarelocated.Theseresultsalsoshowthe importanceoftheretrofittingoftheprivatebuildingstockandthe relevanceoftakingintoaccount,inanintegratedapproach, build-ingenergyusesandtransportationenergyusesincludingurban characteristics.
Fig.4.Exampleofresultsprovidedintheonlinetool:comparison,inprimaryenergy,oftheannualenergyconsumptionofahouseholdfortransportation(permodeof transport);energyconsumptioninthedwelling(forheating,appliances,domestichotwater,cooking,andventilation);andtheproductionofrenewableenergyofthis household(here,PVpanels,thermalpanels,andmicro-combinedandheatingpowerareconsidered).
4.3. “Usability”testing
ThefinalversionoftheSOLENtoolhasbeenonlinesinceofthe endof2014atwww.solen-energie.be(onlyinFrench).Realusers (80individuals)tested thefinalversion oftheonline tool.Two initialtestsessionswereorganizedwiththehelpoftheregional authorityinchargeofenergy.Theygathered58professionalusers deeplyinvolvedinthefieldsofsustainablearchitectureandenergy efficiencyintheirdailywork.Theseuserscamefromtheregional departmentsofenergyandurbanplanning(24),local administra-tions(19),architectureorengineeringagencies(11),andprivate developergroups(4)currentlydevelopingorinterestedinenergy efficiencyin retrofitting projects.Then, two more test sessions wereorganized withstudents in architecturalengineering (15) andresearchersin energyefficiency(7). Aftera presentationof theresearchbytheresearchteamandatestsessionoftheentire SOLENtoolincludingthethreetypesofevaluationandthe speci-ficationsheets,participantswereaskedtoansweraquestionnaire individuallyandafterhavingtestedthetoolalonebyapplyingit totheirownprojects.Feedbackfromtheseinitialuserswasquite positive,with93.1%oftherespondentsclassifyingtheSOLENtool “fromusefultoveryuseful”,intheframeworkoftheirprofessional orpersonalpractice.Theassessmenttoolthatreceivedthemost voteswasthedetailedevaluationone(62.1%).
Themostpositiveaspectshighlightedbythetesterswere(1) thepossibilitytoeasily,quickly,andaccuratelyassessenergy con-sumptioninbuildings(thefactthatthetoolisbaseduponscientific researchwashighlyappreciatedbytherespondents),inparticular inordertodefinethemostefficientretrofittingtodo(changingthe glazing?Insulatingtheroof?Withhowmanycentimetres?)and(2) thepossibilitytocomparebuildingenergyusesandtransportation energyuses(asnumeroustestersdidnotrealizetheenvironmental
impactsandthecostoftheirmobilitybehaviours).Alargemajority ofrespondents(93.1%)consideredthetoolveryeasytouse;the webinterfacefriendly;andtheresultsnumerous,wellpresented, anddirectlyrelevanttothem.
Asfarasconcreteactionsareconcerned,84.6%ofthe respon-dentsdeclared that the useof the tool is “from susceptible to verysusceptible”toledthemtoconcretelyinvestinretrofitting toreducetheenergyconsumptionoftheirdwelling;whereas72% oftherespondentsdeclaredthattheuseofthetoolis“from sus-ceptibletohighlysusceptible”toencouragebehaviouralchangesin theirhouseholdtothosethataremoreenergyefficient.Behavioural changesrelatedtobuildings(reducingthetemperature,etc.)were moreappreciatedthanbehaviouralchangesrelatedtomobilityand transportation(modalchanges,etc.).Changingmobilitybehaviours ismoredifficult,namelybecauseofhousinglocation(farfromcity centres,withnoalternativestocars).
InadditiontothedevelopmentoftheSOLENonlinetool, numer-ousactionshavebeen—andwillbe—undertakenbytheresearch teamtopromote this initiative and toextensivelyraise aware-nessontheimportanceofimprovingenergyefficiencyinbuildings, startingfromtheindividualscale.Theseactionsarededicatedtoa widerangeofactors:studentsinarchitectureandurbanplanning, researchers,localand regionalstakeholders,privatedevelopers, architects,and,ofcourse,citizens.
5. Conclusion
Thispaperpresentedamethodologythatenablesoneto pre-cisely assess energy needs and energy consumption for space heating, cooling, ventilation, lighting, appliances, and cooking withinindividualdwellingsbasedona“bottom-up”approach.This methodologywasbasedonatypologicalclassificationofbuildings,
A.-F.Mariqueetal./EnergyandBuildings151(2017)418–428 427 thermalsimulations,and localyearbooks,tocoverawiderange
ofbuildingsandparameters.Theimpactsoftheclimateandofthe locationinwhichadwellingislocatedhavebeentakenintoaccount viatheapplicationofcorrectionfactorsbasedonthebuiltdensityof theneighbourhood.ThismethodologywasappliedtotheWalloon residentialbuildingstocktobuildahugedatabasethatincluded morethan 250,000individualresults. Thisestablished database wasmobilizedtobuildtheSOLENonlineinteractiveportalthat aimstoraisepublicawarenessofenergyefficiencyinbuildings. Thus,citizensareabletoassessthesourcesofenergy consump-tionforbuildingseasily.Theymayalsocomparethesedifferent energyconsumptionsourcesinordertodeterminerelevantand personalizedrecommendationswithwhichtoreducetheirenergy consumption.Thisinteractiveonlineportal representsthemain resultofanimportantthree-yearscientificresearchproject dedi-catedtoenergyefficiencyinWalloonthatisaccessibletoalarge non-specializedaudience,whichiscrucialinthescopeof sustain-abledevelopment.Thetool,availablesince 2014,wastestedby realusersandthefeedbackwasquitepositive.TheSOLENtoolhas beenawardedthe“2014Nationalenergyglobeaward−Belgium” toapplauditseffortstowardsmoresustainabilityinthebuilt envi-ronment,startingattheindividualscale[38].
Acknowledgements
This research wasfunded by the Walloon region (Belgium) under the “SOlutions for Low Energy Neighbourhoods” project (SOLEN).WethankJulienWinantforthewebdevelopmentofthe tool.
AppendixA. Heatingsystemyieldcoefficientusedtoget
theenergyconsumptionforspaceheating[26,27]
Combustionheating system
Naturalgas Gazole Propane ButaneLPG
Coal Wood Hotwatercondensing
boiler
0.78 0.82 0.80 0.84 0.81 Hotwaternon
condensingboiler
0.70 0.74 0.72 0.75 0.73 Domesticmicro
combinedheatand power
0.75 0.77 – – 0.77
Collectivemicro combinedheatand power
0.61 0.63 – – 0.62
Stove 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.61 0.59
Electricalheatingsystem
Resistanceheating 0.87
Storageheatingwithexternalsensor 0.92 Storageheatingwithoutexternalsensor 0.85 Radiator/convectorwithelectronicregulation 0.96 Radiator/convectorwithoutelectronicregulation 0.90
Airheatpump 2.18
Hotwaterheatpumpwithsurfaceheating 1.78 Hotwaterheatpumpwithradiator/convector 1.07
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