Implementing an Integrated Reading/Writing Instruction through Reading Response Journals for Better EFL Teacher Trainees: The Case of Third-Year Learners at ENS.C

ةیروھمجلا ةیرئازجلا

ةیطارقمیدلا ةیبعشلا

T HE P EOPLE ’ S D EMOCRATIC R EPUBLIC OF A LGERIA

ةرازو میلعتلا يلاعلا ثحبلاو يملعلا

M INISTRY OF H IGHER E DUCATION AND S CIENTIFIC R ESEARCH

ةعماج ةنیطنسق 01

U NIVERSITY OF C ONSTANTINE 01 Faculty of Letters and Languages Department of Letters and English

Thesis submitted to the Department Letters and English in

Candidacy for the Degree of Doctorat Ès-Sciences in Applied Linguistics

By: Ahlem LABIOD Supervisor: Prof. Hacène HAMADA

Board of Examiners:

Chairwoman: Prof. Abdrrahim Farida………. University of Mentouri Brothers, Constantine Member: Prof. Labed Nacif………University of Mentouri Brothers, Constantine Member: Prof. Abdellatif-Mami Nawel……….University of Sétif 02

Member: Dr. Merrouche Sarah………..University of Oum El Bouaghi

2016

Implementing an Integrated Reading/Writing Instruction

through Reading Response Journals for Better EFL Teacher Trainees:

The Case of Third-Year Learners at ENS.C

DEDICATION

To my son Taha Yacine

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

My deepest gratitude goes to my supervisor Prof. Hacène Hamada for his academic guidance and moral support. I will always be grateful to the insightful comments and highly motivating encouragements he generously offered along a number of years. I acknowledge his help contributed largely to making this thesis come into being.

My sincere thanks are due to the board of examiners for accepting to discuss and evaluate this work.

I am also thankful to third-year trainees at École Normale Supérieure, Constantine for accepting to be part of the empirical research and for their collaboration along data collection.

My special thanks extend to my dear friends and colleagues Mrs Radia Bouguebs and Mrs Faiza Bader for the long motivational discussions and advice that nurtured my patience.

I am indebted to my husband for his assistance with statistical tools, for being patient, comprehensive and positive.

I will never forget the great love and support of my family along the elaboration and completion of this thesis. Mum and Dad; I will never love you enough. My brothers and sisters; I will never thank you enough.

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ABSTRACT

Several studies acknowledge the importance of wedding reading and writing in one

classroom instruction but few EFL contexts seem to consider this claim. Teachers' Training

School of Constantine (ENS.C henceforth), Algeria, is a standing case where these two

language skills are till nowadays taught as discrete subjects neglecting their interwoven

nature and the benefits each brings into the other. The objective of this research work is to

evidence the inefficiency of teaching reading/writing in separation and to call for adopting

an integrated system aiming at bettering learners' achievements. To gather data, three

complementary research tools were used choosing third-year EFL trainees at ENS.C as a

target population. First, global and partial correlation tests were run to inspect about the

link between trainees’ reading and writing performances. Second, a quasi-experimental

study was carried out to investigate about the impact of the implementation of an

integrated reading/writing instruction through an exemplary practice; reading response

journals (RRJs), on trainees' achievements in these two skills. A treatment intervention was

applied for the experimental group with a reading and writing Pre/post-tests procedure for

both groups. Third, a questionnaire was administered to the experimental subjects to

inquire about their attitudes towards reading/writing integration. The results revealed a

moderately high positive global correlation between reading and writing achievements and

a partial low positive link for the expository text and a high positive one for the narrative

genre. The quantitative and qualitative analysis of the experiment's data confirmed that

teaching reading and writing in an integrated way through RRJs helped to enhance trainees'

level who eventually, and after analyzing the questionnaire's responses, expressed positive

attitudes towards the adoption of an integrated reading/writing course.

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CG: Control Group

EFL: English as a Foreign Language ESL: English as a Second Language

ENS.C: Ecole Normale Supérieure de Constantine EG: Experimental Group

EWA: Expository Writing Achievement ERA: Expository Reading Achievement FL: Foreign Language

L1: First Language L2: Second Language

MSL: Mean of Sentence Length NRA: Narrative Reading Achievement NWA: Narrative Writing Achievement PSM: Percentage of Spelling Mistakes Q: Question

RRJs: Reading Response Journals RA: Reading Achievement

SL: Second Language WA: Writing Achievement

%: Percentage

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Key Reading Strategies ... 37

Figure 2:Recursive Stages of Writing ... 60

Figure 3: Reading and Writing as Opposite Processes ... 87

Figure 4:Reading and Writing as Parallel Processes ... 87

Figure 5: Standard Scatter Plot of RA by WA ... 138

Figure 6 : The Smoothing Relationship between RA and WA ... 139

Figure 7: Left Scheme: ERA by EWA; Right Scheme: NRA by NWA ... 140

Figure 8: Overview of the Study Method ... 148

Figure 9: RA Pre-test Scores of CG and EG ... 156

Figure 10: RA Pre-test Scores Frequency Distribution ... 158

Figure 11: WA Pre-test Scores of CG and EG ... 160

Figure 12: WA Pre-test Scores Frequency Distribution ... 161

Figure 13: RA Post-test Scores of CG and EG ... 165

Figure 14: RA Post-test Scores Frequency Distribution ... 166

Figure 15: WA Post-test Scores of CG and EG ... 170

Figure 16: WA Scores Frequency Distribution ... 172

Figure 17: Trainees' Consciousness about the Similarities between Reading and Writing……….. 219

Figure 18: Reading/Writing Separation Robs Language Communicative Purposes ... 220

Figure 19: Reading/Writing Integration to Increase Motivation ... 221

Figure 20: Other Activities Which Connect Reading and Writing ... 222

Figure 21: Teaching Reading as One Subject by the Same Instructor ... 223

Figure 22: Implementation of an Integrated Reading/Writing Instruction ... 224

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LIST OF TABLES

Table1: Three Levels of Formality and Complexity in English Writing ... 69

Table 2: RRJs Activating Metacognitive Strategies ... 114

Table 3: Trainees' Reading and Writing Achievements ... 130

Table 4: Statistical Data: Reading and Writing Achievements ... 135

Table 5: Calculation of Correlation Coefficient r between RA and WA ... 135

Table 6 : RA Pre-Test Scores for CG and EG ... 155

Table 7: RA Pre-test Descriptive Statistics ... 156

Table 8: WA Pre-test Scores for CG and EG ... 159

Table 9: WA Pre-test Descriptive Statistics ... 160

Table 10: RA Post-test Scores for CG and EG ... 164

Table 11: RA Post-test Descriptive Statistics ... 165

Table 12: WA Post-test Scores for CG and EG ... 170

Table 13:WA Post-test Descriptive Statistics ... 171

Table 14: Litrary Responses Coded According to Levels of Reading Comprehension .... 178

Table 15: Response Word Count ( Indicator of Fluency ) ... 189

Table 16: Spelling Mistakes Count ( Indicator of Accuracy) ... 190

Table17: Mean of Sentence Length ( Indicator of Syntactic Complexity) ... 192

Table 18: Trainees' Attitudes Towards Reading/Writing Integration Before the Experiment……….... 205

Table 19: Trainees' Attitudes Towards Reading/Writing Integration through RRJs After

the Experiment ... 210

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CONTENTS

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1. Statement of the Problem ... 1

2. Aims of the Study ... 3

3. Research Hypotheses ... 4

4. Research Methodology and Tools of Investigation ... 5

5. Structure of the Thesis ... 7

CHAPTER ONE: On Reading Introduction ... 10

1.1. Hints into the History of Reading ... 11

1.2. Nature of Reading ... 13

1.2.1. Data-Driven Model Definition ... 14

1.2.2. Concept-Driven Model Definition ... 15

1.2.3. Interactive Model Definition ... 16

1. 3. Reading Benefits ... 17

1.3.1. Linguistic Benefit ... 18

1.3.2. Communicative Benefit ... 19

1.3.3. Cognitive and Psychological Benefits ... 20

1.3.4. Social Benefits ... 22

1.4. Reading Comprehension ... 23

1.4.1. Definition of Reading Comprehension ... 23

1.4.2. Levels of Reading Comprehension ... 25

1.5. Reading Purposes ... 27

1.6. Factors Affecting Reading Comprehension ... 29

1.6.1. Reader's Schematic Knowledge ... 29

1.6.2. Reader's Motivation ... 30

1.7. Reading Comprehension Instruction ... 31

1.7.1. Direct Instruction ... 31

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1.7.2. Indirect Instruction ... 33

1.8. Reading Strategies ... 34

1.9. Reading Comprehension Assessment ... 40

1.9.1. Cognitive Assessment ... 41

1.9.2. Affective Assessment ... 42

Conclusion ... 43

CHAPTER TWO: On Writing Introduction ... 45

2.1. Hints into the History of Writing ... 45

2.2. Nature of Writing ... 47

2.3. Importance of writing ... 50

2.3.1. Writing as an Aid to Communication ... 50

2.3.2. Writing as an Aid to Thinking ... 50

2.3.3. Writing as an Aid to Learning and Academic Success ... 51

2.3.4. Writing as an Aid to Professional and Life Success ... 52

2.4. Types of Writing ... 53

2.4.1. Open-ended Writing vs. Loop Writing ... 53

2.4.2. Controlled or Guided Writing vs. Free Writing ... 54

2.4.3. Writing to Communicate vs. Writing to Learn ... 54

2.5. Approaches to Teaching Writing ... 55

2.5.1. Product-Oriented Teaching ... 56

2.5.2. Process-Oriented Approach ... 57

2.5.3. Genre-oriented Approach ... 58

2.6. Writing Phases ... 60

2.7. Writing Difficulties ... 61

2.7.1. The Writer's Schematic Knowledge ... 61

2.7.2. The Writer's Motivation ... 63

2.8. Levels of Writing ... 65

2.9. Essential Elements in Effective EFL Writing Instruction ... 70

2.9.1. Writing Goals ... 70

2.9.2. Audience Awareness ... 71

2.9.3. Feedback ... 73

2.9.4. Frequent Practice ... 74

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2.10. Writing Assessment ... 74

2.10.1. Holistic and Analytical Assessment ... 75

2.10.2. Summative and Formative Assessment ... 75

2.10.3. Requirements of Writing Tests ... 77

Conclusion ... 78

CHAPTER THREE: On Reading/Writing Integration Introduction ... 80

3.1. Reading/writing Integrated History ... 81

3.2. Theoretical Bases of Reading and Writing Connections ... 83

3.3. Benefits of Reading/Writing Integration ... 88

3.3.1. Benefits of Reading in Writing Performance ... 88

3.3.1.1. Reading as an Aid to Schemata Building in Writing ... 88

3.3.1.2. Reading as an Aid to Writing Accuracy ... 89

3.3.1.3. Reading as an Aid to Writing Fluency ... 90

3.3.1.4. Reading as an Aid to Developing Rhetorical Organization in writing ... 90

3.3.1.5. Reading as an Aid to Developing Audience Awareness in Writing ... 90

3.3.1.6 Reading as a Motivational Device in Writing ... 91

3.3.1.7. Reading as an Aid to Critical Thinking and Imagination in Writing ... 92

3.3.1.8. Reading as an Aid to Develop Strategies Used in Writing ... 93

3.3.2. Benefits of Writing in Reading Performance ... 93

3.3.2.1. Writing as an Aid to Reading Comprehension ... 93

3.3.2.2. Writing as an Aid to Recall and Memory Capacity ... 94

3.3.2.3. Writing as an Aid to Reading Fluency and Accuracy ... 94

3.3.2.4. Writing as an aid to Vocabulary Acquisition ... 95

3.3.2.5. Writing as an Aid to Develop Rhetorical Knowledge while Reading ... 95

3.3.2.6. Writing as a Motivational Device for Reading ... 96

3.3.2.7. Writing as a Device in Critical Reading and Imagination in Reading ... 96

3.3.2.8. Writing as an Aid to Develop Strategies Used in Reading ... 97

3.4. Implementing a Reading/Writing Integrated Instruction ... 98

3.4.1. Definition of Reading/Writing Integrated Instruction ... 100

3.4.2. Objectives of Reading /Writing Integrated Instruction ... 100

3.4.3. Integrated Reading /Writing Strategies and Activities ... 102

3.5. RRJs as an Exemplary Integrated Reading /Writing Practice ... 103

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3.5.1. Definition of RRJs ... 103

3.5. 2. Theoretical Framework of RRJs ... 105

3.5.3. Benefits of RRJs ... 108

3.5.3.1. RRJs as a Stock for Inspiring Ideas and Vocabulary ... 108

3.5.3.2. RRJs to Improve Rhetoric and Grammar ... 109

3.5.3.3. RRJs to Improve Accuracy and Fluency ... 109

3.5.3.4. RRJS to Improve Creativity ... 110

3.5.3.5. RRJs as a Motivational Device ... 111

3.5.3.6. RRJs to Improve Critical Thinking and Reflection ... 112

3. 5.3.7. RRJs to Foster Comprehension ... 113

3.5.3.8. RRJs to Develop Learning Strategies ... 114

3.5.3.9. RRJs as Tools for Evaluation... 115

3.5.4. RRJs' Form and Rationale ... 115

3.5.5. RRJs' Instruction and Evaluation ... 117

Conclusion ... 120

CHAPTER FOUR: Correlation between Reading and Writing Achievements Introduction ... 122

4.1. Methodological Issues ... 122

4.1.1. Target Population ... 123

4.1.2. The Sample ... 125

4.1.3. Participants ... 126

4.1.4. Research Instruments ... 126

4.1.4.1. Reading Achievement Test ... 127

4.1.4.2. Writing Achievement Test ... 127

4.2. Data Analysis ... 128

4.2.1. Global Correlation Between Reading Achievement and Writing Achievement ... 128

4.2.1.1. Presentation of the Raw Data ... 128

4.2.1.2. Calculating the Coefficient Correlation between RA and WA ... 131

4.2.1.3. Testing the Statistical Significance of the Correlation Coefficient ... 136

4.2.1.4. Graphical Check of the Correlation between RA and WA ... 137

4.2.2.Partial Correlation Between Reading and Writing ... 140

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4.3. Discussion and Interpretation ... 141

Conclusion ... 145

CHAPTER FIVE: Quantitative and Qualitative Investigation Introduction ... 147

5.1. Overview of the Method ... 147

5.1.1. Population ... 149

5.1.2. Pre-test ... 149

5.1.3. Post-test ... 150

5.1.4. Treatment ... 150

5.2. Quantitative Data Analysis ... 154

5.2.1. Presenting Pre-test Raw Data ... 154

5.2.1.1. RA Pretest Raw Data ... 155

5.2.1.2. WA Pre-test Raw Data ... 158

5.2.2. Discussing RA and WA Pre-test Findings ... 162

5.2.3. Presenting Post-test Raw Data ... 164

5.2.3.1. RA Post-test Raw Data ... 164

5.2.3.2 Statistical Significance of RA posttest Results ... 167

5.2.3.3. WA Raw Data of Post-test ... 169

5.2.3.4. Statistical Significance of WA Post-test Results ... 173

5.2.4. Discussing RA and WA Post-test Findings ... 173

5.3. Qualitative Data Analysis ... 175

5.3.1. Qualitative Analysis of Literary Responses ... 177

5. 3.1.1. Literary Responses Coded at Level 1 of Reading Comprehension ... 178

5.3.1.2. Literary Responses Coded at Level 2 of Reading Comprehension ... 180

5.3.1.3. Literary Responses Coded at Level 3 of Reading Comprehension ... 182

5.3.1.4. Literary Responses Coded at Level 4 of Reading Comprehension ... 183

5.3.2. Discussing Qualitative Analysis of Literary Responses ... 185

5.3.3. Qualitative Analysis of Expository Responses ... 188

5.3.3.1. Response Word Count (Indicator of Fluency) ... 188

5.3.3.2. Spelling Mistakes Count (Indicator of Accuracy) ... 190

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5.3.3.3. Mean of Sentence Length (Indicator of Syntactic Complexity) ... 191

5.3.4. Discussing Qualitative Analysis of Expository Responses ... 192

Conclusion ... 195

CHAPTER Six: Results Evaluation and Research Implications Introduction ... 196

6.1. Questionnaire Objectives ... 197

6.2. Questionnaire Description ... 198

6.2.1. Section One: Learners' Background Information ... 199

6.2.2. Section Two: Trainees' Attitudes about Reading/Writing Integration Before the Experiment ... 199

6.2.3. Section Three: Trainees' Attitudes towards Implementing an Integrated Reading/Writing Instruction through RRJs After the Experiment ... 200

6.3.Questionnaire Administration ... 201

6.4. Data Analysis ... 201

6.4.1. Data Analysis of Section One: Trainees' Background Information ... 202

6.4.2. Data Analysis of Section Two: Trainees 'Attitudes Towards Reading/Writing Integration before the Experiment ... 204

6.4.3. Data Analysis of Section Three: Trainees' Attitudes Towards Implementing an Integrated Reading/Writing Instruction through RRJs after the experiment ... 209

6.4.4. Contrasting Trainees' Attitudes Before and After the Experiment ... 218

6.4.4.1.Contrasting Q17 and Q42 ... 218

6.4.4.2. Contrasting Q18 and Q24 ... 220

6.4.4.3. Contrasting Q19 and Q32 ... 221

6.4.4.4.Contrasting Q20 and Q41 ... 222

6.4.4.5.Contrasting Q21 and Q43 ... 223

6.4.4.6.Contrasting Q22 and Q44 ... 224

6.5.Pedagogical Implications and Future Research Recommendations ... 225

6.5.1. Pedagogical Implications ... 225

6.5.1.1. Adoption of an Integrated Reading /Writing Course ... 226

6.5.1.1.1.Re-analyzing Trainees' Needs ... 226

6.5.1.1.2.Defining Course Objectives ... 227

6.5.1.1.3.Describing the Integrated Course Syllabus ... 228

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6.5.1.1.4.Teacher/Learner Responsibilities ... 229

6.5.1.2. Integrated Reading/Writing Course: Preparatory Phases ... 230

6.5.1.2.1.Teachers' Integrated Reading/Writing Workshops ... 231

6.5.1.2.2. Learners' Integrated Reading/Writing Remedial Workshops ... 231

6.5.1.2.3.Using Reading Response Journals ... 232

6.5.1.3. Integrated Reading/Writing Instruction: A Step into Interdisciplinarity ... 232

6.5.2 Findings Consistency with Past Research ... 234

6.5.3. Future Research Recommendations ... 237

Conclusion ... 238

General Conclusion List of References ... 245

Appendixes ... 261

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GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1. Statement of the Problem

A large body of research claims for the multifaceted and interwoven nature of reading and writing in first/second/foreign language contexts and advocates their integration in the language classroom (Lynch, 1983; Flora, 1995; King, 1996 & Allred, 1994). However, in English as a foreign language (EFL) educational settings, bringing theory into practice and opting for an integrated instruction seems to be a less considered option (Oxford & Leaver, 1996; O' Day, 2002 & Hefferman, 2006).

The English department at the Teachers' Training School of Constantine (ENS.C) is a standing EFL case where reading and writing are taught as totally discreet units and even cease to figure out in the curriculum once learners move to advanced levels in their training. To work, first/second/ third-year students' reading and writing abilities, they are made to receive the following subjects: "Reading Techniques", "Written Expression" and

"Writing and Grammar". The first subject is based mainly on a reading comprehension

instruction approach through which teachers attempt to work learners' reading strategies

and want to read as over all aims by frequent reading practices. For the second and third

subjects, "Written Expression and Writing and Grammar", stress is put mainly upon the

teaching of writing mechanics and grammatical rules resorting to continuous practice

coupled with teachers' feedback. In fact, no clear instruction is devoted to reading and

writing connections at the level of these modules. Teachers never come to understand why

extra composition practice does not give the right fruit nor do trainees grow in time of

practice to start loving writing and thus perform better. Similarly, teachers still find it

dreamy to see their trainees hooked by books or at least land at advanced levels of

comprehension.

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The present study assumes that trainees' problems and difficulties to learn reading and writing which stand as key competences to determine their language proficiency and over all academic achievement stem from the actual segregated tradition. Teachers as well as learners need to be aware about the importance and the benefits each skill brings into the other and if they are aware, the problem still appears at the level of bringing such awareness into a practical reality of an efficient integrated reading/writing course. In fact, integrating skills in the language classroom falls under the holistic approach to language learning and teaching which allows the real-life communicative purposes to prevail (Oxford, 2001, Mekheimer, 2011). Hence, teaching reading and writing in a rather natural communicative way may serve as a possible effective remedial solution.

The prevailing split between reading and writing and hanging-up to the skill-based tradition are exercising a negative impact on learners and consequently on teachers.

Unbalanced learning behaviors are established among trainees where amount of practice and motivation are directed mostly; but in a modest manner, to reading at the expense of writing. Indeed, the attained levels in both subjects stay away from the desired outcomes and reflect moderately teachers' instructional efforts. The EFL classroom at ENS.C is not taking advantage of the transactional attributes to these two significant skills thus depriving learners from a natural communicative language experience.

Theoretically speaking, the reading/writing relationship is viewed throughout three

models: 1) The reading to write model: reading influences writing. 2) The writing to read

model: writing influences reading. 3) Interactive model: reading influences writing and

writing influences reading. These models are examined by Shanahan and Lamox (1986)

who favored the interactive model over the two other ones and stressed the importance of

teaching reading and writing together. In this current research work, the attempt is to free

research findings from their academic boundaries and bring them into practice through

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investigating the possibility of implementing an integrated reading/writing instruction to better EFL trainees’ achievements adopting the direction of the interactive model. The present case study; which takes ENS.C as a setting and third-year trainees as a target population, inspects about the correlation relationship between reading and writing, examines the impact of the implementation of an integrated reading/writing instruction through the use of an exemplary practice; reading response journals ( RRJs), and surveys about trainees' attitudes prior and after trying the integrated instruction. These inquiries address the following questions:

1. Is there correlation between reading and writing achievements of third-year EFL trainees at ENS.C?

2. Does implementing an integrated reading/writing instruction through reading response journals help enhance third -year EFL trainees' reading and writing achievements?

3. What are the attitudes of third-year EFL trainees towards the integrated reading/writing instruction before and after its implementation?

2. Aims of the Study

The present research project aims at shedding light on the importance of raising

ENS.C EFL learners and teachers awareness about the existing interdependent

relationships between reading and writing. Both, should recognize and consider that these

two skills are two faces of the same coin. Therefore, participating in changing the long-

buried belief about the utility of the traditional separated teaching method may hopefully

push EFL teachers at ENS.C to rethink the place of reading and writing in the curriculum

and its philosophy of teaching to meet successfully trainees' needs and the expected

outcomes of the whole training. Moreover, the study gives a small contribution suggesting

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a possible way to implement the reading/writing connection through a call for adopting one fused reading/writing course. Theoretical and practical clarifications are provided to describe the smooth steps into this innovative integrated system. The ultimate goal is then to boost trainees' academic achievement through bettering these two key skills in the learning and teaching process. Furthermost, this thesis serves as a means for Algerian or abroad EFL teachers to enrich and nurture their instructional actions as well as a humble academic input which may motivate reading/writing EFL researchers to achieve more progress in the field of language learning and teaching.

3. Research Hypotheses

In an attempt to answer the research questions and achieve the research aims, the current study examines the following three hypotheses:

 Hypothesis one: Third-year EFL trainees' at ENS.C reading achievements are likely to correlate with their writing achievements and vice-versa.

 Hypothesis two: Implementing an integrated reading/writing instruction for third- year EFL trainees at ENS.C through the use of reading response journals as an exemplary practice is likely to enhance both their reading and writing achievements.

 Hypothesis three: Third-year EFL experimental trainees may show different attitudes towards the implementation of an integrated reading/writing instruction before and after the experiment.

The second hypothesis stands as the main idea of this research work. It is coupled with the

first introductory hypothesis which serves to prepare and clarify the grounds for the

experiment and the last hypothesis which intends to give much support to the experiment

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and to pave the way for suggesting the work pedagogical implications. Brought together, the results of testing these three hypothesises will give the study’s final conclusion.

4. Research Methodology and Tools of Investigation

To test the three stated hypotheses, three means of research are used namely a correlation test, a quasi-experimental design and a students' questionnaire. These methods seem to be the most suitable to reach the aims of this study.

The correlation test aims to test the study first hypothesis. It intends to inspect if there is a link between third-year EFL trainees' reading and writing achievements with no reference to the cause/effect relationship. Forty four (44) participants sat for a reading comprehension test and a writing test. The reading comprehension test included reading two selections; a literary and an expository one followed by reading comprehension exercises. For the writing test, the participants wrote an expository essay and a narrative production on two assigned topics. The average of the obtained scores in the two tests was compared to decide on the type of correlation between the samples’ reading and writing scores. Then, a correlation t-test was run to check the statistical significance of the obtained results.

The second means in this investigation is a quasi-experimental design destined to

checking hypothesis two. It used two third-year EFL already formed groups at the English

department of ENS.C. This experiment aims to demonstrate the effectiveness of

implementing an integrated reading/writing instruction through the use of reading

response journals as a reading/writing integrated exemplary practice on trainees'

performance in these two language skills (Reading Achievement; RA and Writing

Achievement; WA). The two groups were identified as a control group (CG) and an

experimental one (EG) each consisting of twenty two (22) students. Participants’ reading

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and writing achievements were tested prior to the experiment. After analysing the pre-test results, the experiment was conducted. The control group received the traditional instruction where reading and writing are taught separately. The experimental subjects studied reading and writing in separation too in addition to receiving the study treatment which is the use of RRJs as an integrated reading/writing practice. Through this integrated activity, the experimental learners read and wrote in response to literary and expository texts. The experiment lasted 16 weeks during the first semester of the academic year 2013- 2014. At the end of the experiment, both the experimental and control groups' reading and writing achievements were post-tested. The obtained results of the experimental subjects were compared to those gained by the control ones. Finally, a student t-test was used to provide a quantitative analysis for the findings. This latter is followed by a qualitative investigation of trainees' produced reading response journals using some criteria of evaluation.

The third tool of this research project is a questionnaire administered to the

experimental subjects with the objective of verifying hypothesis three. The questionnaire’s

main concern is to inspect about trainees' attitudes towards the implementation of an

integrated reading/writing instruction through reading response journals. It is divided into

three main sections administered in two time reference points: section one and two before

the experiment and section three after the experiment. This division helped to elicit

information about trainees’ opinions and perceptions prior to and after the conduction of

the experiment to determine the nature of learners' attitudes and to draw a comparison of

learners' changing perceptions.

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5. Structure of the Thesis

The present thesis comprises six chapters. The first three chapters provide the theoretical background for the raised issue namely reading/writing integration from theory to practice. The fourth and fifth chapters are the field work of the investigation aiming at testing the first and second stated hypotheses. The sixth chapter is devoted to results post evaluation through testing hypothesis three and then presenting some pedagogical implications and further research recommendations. The thesis closes with a general conclusion emphasizing the study findings.

The first chapter entitled "On Reading" intends to give insights about the reading skill. It starts by looking at some elements into the history of reading and attempting definitions of reading in accordance to three reading modes stressing its importance. Then, it moves to considering the notion of comprehension being at the heart of reading. In this part, reading comprehension is defined, and its levels are discussed. In addition, reading purposes are presented, and the factors affecting reading comprehension are reported and explained. The chapter also hands out basic information about reading comprehension instruction and the used classroom strategies and activities. The end of the chapter purports on the idea of reading comprehension assessment being an integral part in the teaching of reading.

The second chapter entitled "On Writing" aims to bring clarifications into the

complexity of the writing skill. The attempt here is to provide hints into the history of

writing, define the nature of this skill and emphasise its importance in academic, personal

and social life. Moreover, types and phases of writing are presented and approaches to its

teaching are referred to. The chapter also shows a number of difficulties which hinder

learners' writing improvement. In addition, levels of writing are also discussed

demonstrating some essential elements in the writing process. The chapter ends by

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shedding light on teachers' and researchers' preoccupations to objectively assess and measure learners' productions.

The third chapter entitled "On Reading/Writing Integration" reveals the interdependent relationship between reading and writing and provides theoretical support favouring an integrated system. It starts by tracing back the connectedness of reading and writing. Interesting aspects are covered namely reading and writing early separated traditions, reading and writing correlation studies and reading and writing convergences.

The stress is put on the many similarities between these two language skills leading to diagnosing the benefits of reading in writing achievements as well as the benefits of writing in reading achievements. The chapter's main focus is the successful implementation of an integrated reading/writing connection to boost learners' performances. First, this innovative instruction in the EFL context is defined showing its objectives and classroom strategies and activities. In addition, the qualities of the reading/writer instructor are determined. A large portion of this chapter is devoted to reading response journals as an exemplary integrated reading/writing practice to be used as the experiment treatment. Theoretical details about the origins of this practice, rationale and forms, benefits, practice and evaluation are discussed.

The field investigation will be the content of the fourth, fifth and sixth chapters. In

the fourth chapter, the correlation test is run presenting the participants, the used tests and

materials and then the results of the partial and global correlations are described and then

analysed. The fifth chapter of this practical side of the thesis is devoted to the conduction

of the experimental design. The target population is defined and the principle of sampling

is identified. Methodological issues and the procedure of the experiment are explained

providing detailed explanations about the experiment treatment and conditions. Pre-tests

and post-tests are also described. The t-test is used to better show the significance of the

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obtained results. The gathered data is analysed quantitatively as well as qualitatively. The sixth chapter reports about the questionnaire's results. It starts by determining the objectives of this survey, then it moves to describing its different sections and finally the obtained results are presented and discussed in order to confirm or disconfirm the third stated hypothesis. In the light of the obtained results, some pedagogical implications and possible future research actions are suggested. The main suggestion recommends the inclusion of a new subject for third-year EFL learners at ENS.C which puts the integrated reading/reading instruction into practice. The attempt here is to suggest a preparatory phase for this change and to state clear objectives for the new module with a syllabus description.

The chapter also presents a comparison of the findings consistency with past research findings and provides some suggestions for further research to enlarge the scope of the present work to other levels with the ultimate goal of ending up with the tradition of teaching reading and writing in a separated way to ensure better literacy achievements.

The thesis closes by a general conclusion which provides a summary of the obtained results twined with the study stated hypotheses confirmations or disconfirmations.

Of course, no research work is perfect. The study limitations and difficulties are indicated.

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CHAPTER ONE: On Reading

Introduction

No one can deny the importance of reading in being the source of a person’s growth

and thus a whole society development but who spends much of him on reading? In his

book A History of Reading, Fischer says: “Those who have read widely and wisely, who

command the written word and thus their language and culture, as a rule enjoy their

society’s greatest esteem. This will never be otherwise. For, in truth, there has always been

only one ‘end’ of reading: Knowledge” (2003: 342). This explains third world countries

underdevelopment and the giant jumps made by the developed countries. In fact, a simple

daily routine of giving a bath to a newly born baby with a bath book shows the extent to

which reading turned to be a culture dominant component in some countries and leaves no

wonder to see this child growing into a future leader. When third world countries,

including the case of Algeria, are still away from the book, the key remaining solution is

the effective teaching of reading whatever the language used to in store a habit and love for

this language skill. Then, through this chapter, the aim is to know about reading in general

as well as in the classroom context. First, hints into the history of reading are presented

followed by attempts to define this process. Second, the chapter discusses the different

competences developed thanks to the act of reading. A big portion of the chapter is devoted

to effective teaching of reading reporting about a key concept which is reading

comprehension. Accordingly, reading comprehension levels, reading purposes, and factors

affecting reading comprehension, reading comprehension instruction and reading

comprehension strategies are tackled. The chapter ends by shedding light on reading

comprehension assessment.

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1.1. Hints into the History of Reading

The first form of reading dates back to nearly six thousand years ago with the scripts of Sumerians (the cuneiforms) written as signs on tablets of clay (Harrison, 2004:

9). At that time, its use was limited to records in agriculture, law, commerce and daily life activities and its practice was equal to "aural hallucination". This theory described the practice of reading as "a matter of hearing the cuneiform that is, hallucinating the speech from looking at its picture-symbols" (Fischer, 2003:13-14). Although the late pictographic cuneiform scripts of Mesopotamia were altered into phonetic symbols that helped in the appearance of all alphabetic languages (Harrsion, 2004: 11-12), reading continued to be the same practice of oral recitation. Just after, and because of the impact of Sumarian scribes, Ancient Egyptians story with reading started with the hieroglyphs (Geoffrey, 1990: 78).

For them and as expressed by Fischer (2003: 37): "reading is an act of recreation". That is to say, they believed that out loud reading brings back people to life. This in fact contributed in settling more the aural tradition of speech as the first form of reading that will last for many centuries to come. Therefore, reading emerged initially to facilitate early life where the human being faced ambiguities in communication and memory inability to record and save accurate oral information.

During the classical antiquity, the practice of reading was very basic. Under the

Greek fashion, reading was mainly to repeat orally the Latin alphabet by order then from

backwards, then to work on combing consonants with the vowels to form syllables, then to

read out loud the composed words of syllables and the same fashion was adopted for the

English alphabet that followed the Roman phonetic system as early as the twelfth century (

Gunderson, 2008: 2). A good standing illustration of the supremacy of the aural practice

during the Greek period is checked in Plato's Republic (380 BC) where the methodology

of any educational action is done through "question/answer" form exemplified in the

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Socratic dialogues, the Sophists repetitious methods or simply the Greek tradition of story tellers. In spite of this oral primacy, some philosophers attempted a kind of clarification of reading. The Greek philosopher Aristotle who favored the "intromission theory" explains his understanding of reading as letters letting fly light rays that get in the reader's eyes. In the contrary, Euclid; Greek-Roman philosopher, defender of the "extromission theory"

states that the reader possesses a "visual spirit" that goes in the page to be read (Williams, 2004: 589). Whatever theory in the classical antiquity, reading needed other centuries to reach an important level of consideration.

It is important to have a quick look at the history of reading during the Middle Ages. Fisher (2003) reports in a whole chapter about the fact that Middle Ages reading was a daily recitation for Christians, Muslims and Jews. In Europe, romances, epics and passages from the Bible where read out loud in front of audiences. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the church took control and Monastic teaching dominated where reading was considered as a sacred act through which Christians learnt the holly revelations.

Interestingly, Harrison (2004:14) talks about St. Hugh' model which suggests that reading

is the act by which light is imported back to the world from which sin has captured it. He

compares reading to a pilgrimage that brings light to the text and to the world; simply a

search for wisdom. Reading for him was a matter of monks practicing storage and retrieval

of knowledge based on memorization forward-or backward. Comparatively, in the Islamic

world, poetry and the holly book Coran were recited orally. As well, Muslims believed

that the secret of the holly Coran lies in its oral recitation where the oral performance is

accompanied by a divine presence. In fact and as early as the eleventh century, an Iraquian

great medieval scholar; Al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), who made a revolution in

the science of optics, attempted a new vision of the act of reading building on what

Aristotle suggested in the Greek antiquity. He was the first to relate reading not only to the

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act of seeing but also to cognitive functions termed perception. Moreover, the Jews considered reading as an act of discovery and continuous revelation. Their focus was also on their religious book Torah where oral recitation was the law. The limited use of reading during the early and mid-Middle Ages maintained orality and gave no chance for attempting more sophisticated forms and practices till late times in this era.

After being equal to speaking during the Middle Ages, Renaissance period shaped a new history for reading. Revival of the Greek heritage, Islamic influence for the crusaders, scientific growth, invention of the printing machine and availability of paper characterized that era. Books spread widely and a need to relook at reading nature after the penetration of writing was essential. This period started a new age which considered reading as a concept to go under macro as well as micro investigations. Different views were reported going hand in hand with the development of the learning and teaching approaches. This is exactly the point where reading nature started to be discussed by different language educators and scholars.

1.2. Nature of Reading

Providing a definition of reading is a such complicated task. It is, in fact, a complex

process which needs the mastery of a number of skills and a long time of practice

(Moreillon, 2007: 10). Thus, no single definition is fully informing about the interpretation

of being able to read. Attempting to reach a complete understanding is no way to gather

clarifications, explanations, characteristics and features stated by reading theorists and

researchers whom each helped to add to the sense of reading. Tracing back the intricacies

of each view will help to determine what reading is.

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1.2.1. Data-Driven Model Definition

A simple view of reading is suggested by Hoover and Gough (1990) where reading has the formula: reading= decoding x comprehension (in Flynn & Stainthorp, 2006: 42). It is thus the translation of the print to discover the hidden language without any reference to more elaborated processes the mind goes through. By decoding, he means to come to find the relationship between the graphic symbols and the words they constitute leading to meaning construction. That is to say, the reader moves gradually in a linear path from, letters to words, to meanings while reading. McGuinness (2005) provides a definition that goes with this model:

The skill part of reading is not under voluntary control. It builds indirectly through repetitive acts of analyzing patterns of print, with the only instruction being that eyes look in a left-to-right order and from the top to the bottom of the page. Knowledge of the code is the key, because the reader must find a match for a string of letters to something known and understood before moving on. (402)

These two definitions sum up the fact that the earliest views of reading regarded reading as a passive and receptive act. They are better illustrated under the "bottom-up" view of reading which is also called "data-driven" model of reading that was initiated by Gough (1972). He states that the reader proceeds in one direction from the low to high data provided in the text. In other words, he starts from letter analysis, to word analysis, to reach memory check, to finish by identifying the incoming information (Williams, 2004:

589). Reading was seen as the mere mastery of sub-skills in a discreet manner; acquiring

phonology, vocabulary, etc. with no reference to the reader hidden cognitive processes.

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1.2.2. Concept-Driven Model Definition

A rather more elaborated definition is addressed by Williams (2006: 282) who considers reading as a very complex cognitive process. He quotes the following:

 A definition of reading requires some recognition that a reader engages in phonological processing, morphological processing, syntactic processing, semantic processing, discourse processing, goal setting, text-summary building, interpretive elaborating from knowledge resources, monitoring and assessment of goal achievement, various adjustments to enhance comprehension, and repairs to comprehension processing as needed. Moreover, these processes are integrated in working memory under intense processing-time constraints.

It is clear through this elaborated definition that any attempt to define reading needs to take into account numerous areas of study. A huge cognitive effort is made to sink into the meaning of a written word. Therefore, reading is not simply a skill we are born with; it is the result of hard work and time investments. The reader is not a passive recipient of the content exposed in the text; he/she is not a sponge to absorb meaning with no mental nor psychological effort. This conception was advanced by many scholars and reading theorists namely Thorndike (1917), Goodman (1967), and Smith (1971). It is clearly expressed by Judy who sees reading as a matter of anticipation made by the reader relying on his prior knowledge and what the text offers as new information (2008 : 6). This prediction stands as a hypothesis about the text's meaning to be confirmed, modified or rejected as the reader moves ahead with the text.

This active view of reading goes under the "top-down model" of reading or what is

also termed "concept-driven" model of reading. Where the "data-driven" model departs

from the text, this model, championed by Goodman (1967) in his approach called "reading

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as a guessing game" and also advocated by Smith (1971) stresses the active role of the reader. For both reading theorists, reading starts from the reader's mind using his already stored background knowledge to make predictions which will be confirmed or disconfirmed as the reader moves along the texts (Williams, 2004: 590).

1.2.3. Interactive Model Definition

The reader is a not a robot decoding mechanically letters, words, and encoding new inputs. As well, he is not a top-down guessing machine, processing limitless anticipations.

In reading, there is a text and a reader. Therefore, reading definition should consider both at once. Any definition of reading should show the connection between the reader and the text he reads.

Both the "data-driven" and "concept-driven" definitions prove not to provide a full understanding of reading. That is why reading theorists attempted more inclusive clarifications among which we have Rumelhart (1977) & Stanovitch (1980) who fused the above mentioned models. The first one considers that the reader should read using both the bottom-up skills as well as the top-down processes in a parallel way. The second theorist;

and through the name of the model, suggests a "compensatory interactive model of reading" which entails that the reader should compensate what is missing in the bottom- level with the presence of the top-down proficiency and vice-versa (Williams, 2004:590).

In other words, reading happens in all directions in an interactive way; using all bottom-up and to-down processing modes.

Within and even beyond the scope of the interactive definition, reading is viewed as

a transactional process meaning that it is not just a classroom activity but a human

behavior. Accordingly, defining reading should move from the classroom context to a

wider one which is life. In others words, an as (Wallas, 2005: 94) states: "We move from

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the role of the reader from text interpreter to text user". On the same idea, Scott ( 2000: 1) argues that reading a text should refer to rather larger scopes for nowadays we have

‘social literacy’, ‘political literacy’, ‘emotional literacy’, ‘technological literacy’, ‘visual literacy’ and ‘personal literacy’. In fact, these views are inspired by the transactional theory of Louise M. Rosenblatt (1988) were the reader does not only interact with the text to get meaning but also to reach personal growth within a community through stressing

"efferent/esthetic" responses. Reading is thus an event that takes place during the transaction happening between the reader and the text (Rosenblatt,2004: 4).That is to say, reading is not reader-based nor text-based, it is something happening while the reader transacts with the text. Hence, we can say that reading is a responsive process helping in shaping human beings and empowering them through a jump from the surface of the text and its meaning to the critical analysis of what it hides. In a net shell, and as stated by Geoff (2004: 75): " the reading of print is only one instance of a much more widely applied human faculty". It really needs further explanations related to all linguistic, cognitive, affective and social components of the human faculty.

1. 3. Reading Benefits

Reading is of a great importance to learners at any level of their formal education, of a significant relevance to teachers in their teaching instructions and, in general, of an essential priority to human beings development. It should be placed at the core of any educational situation, whether it is performed in a mother tongue or a second /foreign language context. In particular, the EFL student rarely makes use of English in his daily life contexts, although the utility of reading is very clear due to the fact of the great amount of information in English nowadays (Eskey, 2005 as cited in Zhou & Syriyothin,2008: 12).

Accordingly, EFL learners enlarging and bettering their reading experience of the English

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text will give them a huge space of possible profit. Indeed, they will be awarded countless and overlapping gains which are mainly grouped into linguistic, cognitive, communicative and social benefits.

1.3.1. Linguistic Benefit

Reading linguistic gains are related to increasing EFL learners' linguistic competence. This linguistic competence is the key to reach a successful language pedagogy; this latter has as a core extensive and intensive use of reading in the foreign language classroom (Williams, 2006: 361). Similarly, Nuttal, (1996:128) agrees that the best way to acquire a foreign language is through living in that country and the second way is to read extensively using that language. However, acquiring a linguistic competence in EFL is not one undivided step but rather the procedure of bettering the student's self in a number of limitless linguistic features.

Firstly, reading and a high level of vocabulary acquisition is not definitely a denied fact. On this regard, Nation (2009: 54) claims: "One way an extensive reading program can contribute to proficiency development is through vocabulary growth. This can be encouraged in extensive reading by making the vocabulary learning more deliberate and less incidental". That is to say, reading offers a natural and authentic way to learn vocabulary. A word that is acquired in context is likely to be better understood, better retained, and more likely better used in future language learning situations. Consequently, reading provides the best environment to enlarge readers' knowledge about word meanings and a boosted practice is likely to turn the learner's mind into a walking natural dictionary.

As much as the reader is exposed to texts as much as vocabulary repertoire will be

broadened.

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Secondly, a number of linguistic sub-competences which can also be enhanced through reading is the acquisition of the phonological, morphological, grammatical and syntactic knowledge of the language. For example, the EFL reader and through reading will receive in an unconscious and accurate way the difficult grammatical constituents of English (Eskey, 2005: 563). In other words, reading will aid to equip the EFL learner with knowledge about sound/letter and morpheme combinations, word classes, tenses , sentence order and patterns, and punctuation rules,…etc. The linguistic input is not the only advantage the EFL learner can get from reading but there are much more other benefits.

1.3.2. Communicative Benefit

In fact, it makes sense to think that the linguistic competence prepares the EFL learner to work his communicative competence which is empowered through reading. On this idea, Williams (2006: 267) maintains: "the reading skill plays an essential role in facilitating the acquisition of communicative competence". That is to say, reading equips the EFL learner with automatic phonetic and phonological capacity, and rich linguistic and grammatical background that paves the way to speech fluency, accuracy and spontaneity.

In addition, reading promotes learners' discourse competence which fosters

communicative abilities. Hedge (2003) states that an EFL classroom needs to work to raise

learners' consciousness about the various patterns the English text may take (as cited in

Alyousef, 2005: 147). In other words, the reader's continuous involvement with texts helps

to mature his awareness about the different forms of English compositions; mainly

expository texts varying between the particular rhetorical arrangements namely

comparison/contrast, cause/effect, argumentative, classification, definition,

exemplification, description, and the narrative writings, novels, short stories with different

genres, as well as poetry and drama. This awareness is then released in a more appropriate

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and coherent communicative writing and speech. Moreover, reading vehicles the EFL culture as it is argued: "Reading is very necessary to widen the mind and gain an understanding of the foreign culture" (Barras, 2005: 14). Such valuable gain of the target culture, in fact, leads the path to know about the pragmatics of English and thus help learners match perfectly their language use with the social and cultural appropriate styles.

1.3.3. Cognitive and Psychological Benefits

Reading helps to develop the faculty of the human mind and human psyche meaning that cognitive abilities and the psychological sane shaping are boosted thanks to the transaction between the reader and the text. Harrison (2004: 3) sums up some of these cognitive and psychological capacities in the following quote:

 I want us to remind ourselves that reading not only increases our life skills and extends our knowledge, it goes much deeper – I want to argue that in many respects reading determines how we are able to think, that it has a fundamental effect on the development of the imagination, and thus exerts a powerful influence on the development of emotional and moral as well as verbal intelligence and therefore on the kind of person we are capable of becoming.



In other words, reading aids greatly in improving our thinking and psychological

capacities. The reader moves from basic and simple ways of ideas analysis, to higher

degrees of concepts' negotiation. That is to say, he starts to think in a reflective and critical

way. Consequently, the growing intellectual potential empowers the reader's imagination

and pushes forwards his emotional and spiritual growth. Moreover Davison & Dowson

(2002: 53) write: "students actively construct and revise their schemas as they read and

learn". This is likely to foster memory and repair existing inaccuracies. All these factors

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are of crucial significance in advancing the individual's mental capabilities mainly the person's intelligence. Davison & Dowson (2002: 98) explain precisely that immersing in author's texts will help readers to build responsive and critical attitudes as well it aids in reflecting one's experiences on others. All in all, reading empowers anyone's intellectuality and spirituality.

In addition, reading does not only nourish our linguistic competence but supports the understanding of ourselves as human beings. It is maintained that through reading, one is able to understand himself. He will know about his deep buried dreams, hopes and great expectations, his principles and conceptions in life, despair and deceptions, and move on certain abilities of projection, construction, criticism, gossip, hatred, love and appreciation.

The individual will be able to locate himself among the others, and between the past, the present, and the future (Hardy, 1977; as cited in Harrison, 2004: 4). Similarly, Proust expresses his feelings in his essay Sur la Lecture (1906: 28) that reading is a training for real life situations via characters whom we loved and valued while reading to influence, direct and inspire our actions and reactions urging the reader to profit the maximum before the reading of the book is over saying:

 On aurait tant voulu que le livre continuât, et si c'était

impossible, avoir d'autre renseignements sur tous ces

personnages, apprendre maintenant quelque chose de leur vie,

employer la nôtre à des choses qui ne fussent pas tout à fait

étrangères à l'amour qui 'il nous avait inspiré et dont l'objet

nous faisait tout à coup défaut, ne pas avoir aimé en vain,

pour une heure, des êtres qui demain ne seraient plus qu'un

nom sur une page oubliée, dans un livre sans rapport avec la

vie et sur la valeur duquel nous nous étions bien mépris

puisque son lot ici-bas, nous le comprenions maintenant et

nos parents nous l'apprenaient au besoin d'une phrase

dédaigneuse, n'était nullement, comme nous l'avions cru, de

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contenir l'univers et la destinée, mais d'occuper une place fort étroite dans la bibliothèque du notaire, entre les fastes sans prestige du Journal de Modes Illustré et de la Géographie d'Eure-et-Loir……



1.3.4. Social Benefits

Reading builds a social life for individuals and prepares them to act as efficient citizens. Provided that reading is one component of literacy, it is at the heart of ensuring a successful life. Harrison (2004:22) shows to what extent governments should stress improvement of literacy stating: "greater literacy will lead to higher employment, high economic and industrial output and wealth creation". This means, and logically speaking, that people with low literacy tend to face the destiny of unemployment, and turn to crimes and thus constitute a social, economic as well as a political handicap for the government.

On the same view McShane (2005: 7) states:

 Reading opens many doors—to employment, training, higher education, and lifelong learning. Adults who don’t read well face serious barriers as they attempt to earn a living wage, to support their children’s learning, and to fully participate in civic and community life.



A simplification of this quote goes simply with what Davison & Dowson state: "Reading in the social and cultural context is closely bound up with concepts of citizenship, civilization and national identity". (2002: 98)

In a nutshell, reading; the transactional event between the reader and the text,

serves as a helping hand for the EFL learner in the classroom context as well as in rather

more broad frames of personal and social progress.

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1.4. Reading Comprehension

1.4.1. Definition of Reading Comprehension

We cannot get a full understanding of reading without inspecting about the essence of this process which is comprehension. In fact, it is a laborious task to make the concept of comprehension perfectly clear, for the simple reason that it takes place within the abstract scope of the brain. The absence of a real measured data and a concrete observing witness engenders difficulty in explaining what reading comprehension is. Although reading theorists attempted to elucidate the word "comprehend or understand", they never agreed upon one identical definition. Yet, almost all of them approved one basic idea:

"reading fundamentally involves comprehending what we read" (Williams, 2006: 304).

Therefore, no reference to reading is made without shedding light on reading comprehension.

Reading comprehension is mainly synonymous to "meaning-making". King (2007)

points out that reading comprehension entails: "The construction of a mental representation

of the information in the text, and this representation can in turn be accessed later, when

memory for the material is called for"(267). That is to say, the ability to comprehend is

related to the reader's capability of creating a mental map that guides and directs the reader

while reading. This mental portrayed design is enlarged each time the reader comprehends

more input to be stored in his memory. Later on, the stocked information will be recalled

for use with new comprehension attempts. More precisely, the reader gets in the text and

starts building the meaning the author meant, and possessing a mental representation of

what is termed reading comprehension. Pang & al. (2003: 6) add that reading

comprehension is meaning making guided by the readers' background knowledge,

vocabulary and grammatical knowledge, text knowledge and strategic knowledge. In other

words, the term comprehension is bound to other competences.