~: ~~~eeUU\l{.ti$t: \a~~:~~~e dF?~':

\

A REPORTONTHE DEVELOPMENTOFA HULT I'MEDI A INS..TRUCTI ONAl,UNIl

ErhIl LEDM"rCROCOMPUTERS::'^<, HOWTHEYWORK

_Col 1n Gerard Simms.B.Sc.• B.Ed:

/ /

Arhe sts submitted in partial fulf:!.l lment

~f^-t he r equjrenents for th-~""-de_Stree of:Maste rof Education ~

'Divisionof Le a rntnq Resou"rces Facu l ty of'Edu c ~ t 1 on Memor ial Univ e r sit y of Newfoundland.

May 198 6

sr.

John' s

\

Newfound lend

.Permiss ion has'been gran ted to the Nationa l Li br ar y of Cana da to microf11m' this .the s is and to len d or se.ll

coptea ~f the;'film•. '

-~-

.r:

Tl'ie autho r (copyright owne r )

~:bsl ic~ :\i~oenevr~g'nt.so..t-h~~~..;

ne Lt h er 't h e .e ne s Le not extensive e~t racts from it' ma y'I;le printedor other....tee re prod u c e d .witho u t h.is /he r wr i t t e n pe r m i s si ~ n .

",i

.L'au torisatio~a~t~accordh A 1a Bibliothl!ql..le·nationale du Canada de microfi lmer 'c e tte thbe et'de p'r0ter ou deiven cre des exemp1aires du

film. ' . '

~: ~~~eeUU\l{.ti$t: \a~~:~~~e dF?~':

aut res droits de.publi c a ti'o n l n1 ta.tbes e ni,' de longs ex t r a it s de cet t

e-cc

I ne doivent .@t relm prim ~s"""ou autre men t rep zod ufts sans son autorisation~crite.

. .

ISBN 9-31S-311J~ 9_6_

.."0'.

I·

I : Abst r act'

Whil ethe- use of-mic rocompu ters ccnttnuesttl escalate

'1 ~

^{a1'1sectors ofSOc.iety:the,irepp ltcattcn}

f tf' ~ea~hi ng

^.enc-

,. lear n ing purp os es 1n pr cv tncte l and na t 1o nal s c hool s.r-ee etn s witht~ e-c omm1:t,edfew. Prese nt a,nd'-Pds-t:1tt~rature ,.ugg e~ts educeto r unfa mil ia r it y'with microcomputer techn'ology fs'sti l l 1ar.ge1yre sponsib1e'for"this'

~ond

^{i t}

1~n. "~ hOU9h ·.ot~er

^{fae tor s,}

suchas"poo r,course i,iar:-e,,few aut horing la nguages,'and cos h .

Toas ststwit'h- the' ta's k of fami,iiarldng'a'l~rge~_l .~.cal'..' pcpul attcn-~ f equ~a to rs ,~1th' the'microcomlfu ter;,a n'dits

~t capabi lit ies , a mUI~t1m~dla-1nstru·ctfona.~ package ,ent,1tled,:"

...1 Microcomputers: Ho.;i They~ork.-wa sde stqnedanddeve loped by the'writer,

" '

. . ' .

Ouri ng thecourseof.?ev,e lopme n t the,lea r ~ in g'inateria1:_ _ ..wereiedf-t~;d-:-~~~i ~ed .anti examlrred iTipreparatio nfCi ~'afo r ma l .

thoro u ~h'ev;l u a t 1 ~n ~f the 1r'·effec tive nes.s,' A stat 1s't1ca'l

·ana l YS i~ SUg'ges t s,.

^the'pa Cka g e was

r~sportsfbi.e

^for

'3~ .e l em~ n,ta ry

~Ch 00 1·· te aC.hers 'd em~nstrati ng l~arnfng

^{'o f'fl.o.t:h}

'co'nce p~:s , ari~

ski

11s a'S well'asaffectiv.~ jmprove~'ents ^{"":1th respe'<t 't o}

ml c :.oc o m p ~ t ers" ~ ,

Microc ompute r s : How The yWor k.,h ,now·a'va11a b.l efor use by governme·n.t; sc hoo lbo ards', end- other-ag enc i e S respon sl- 1ble for.'te~chere.du c at 1on,andprof~ss1o~al· :~.e.ve1op,mentwho,.' w1's h..to 1.n,st ~u c t l0Fal educ ator s"in the br oad.a re'a s of, mt crc co epu t e r fo r m.functi on .

a' nd

tnstructtcna l'l,It 11 i ty,

"

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o --/ '

..Acknowled g e llij!n t~

. :;

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/.

:

.;

"

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;"

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.

..!he deS.f g,,·ani:!'p rOd uct ~ on"offns t~uctto na l.ma t.e r.fal s :15frequently II.timeconsuDl f :9.andard~O~S tas~reql,l1ri ng ; 'amo ng othe'rs. lSs1sta nce'f r olD peoplewitha varu tyof '

...

"

blckgro~ndS.

C.owle.dge •.

a nd s iff. tls~

Th e re f or e,tn t his

.',i ,:'

~~~-~e :. "th'~\ ~ut~il1 d

"l"He· t o·i:hank',

~'he fO l 10w.1n~ pers ~~s

' I " ' "

" f ' . . - . .. ., ... _ . .

for thei rsup p o'r~throughou t the.l ite of thh project.

~ir.s t(Y . d;ep) thln·k S:'~ci : O ; . ~ . T.

^{Braffet ,}

'm : y ~uperV1s0·r .

~~.ho provide d eterna l'assis ta nceandalways an open door.

TO:Wall.ace

·Bo'~ ne.' PhOt~~g"-a~her : a~d fri-e ~d.

^whose"favors .

.;,... were

t'oo _ n~merou'S f~r ~'~n~10n ': ' F ,tna llY'.>o

my..wife Susan:

Your en~ou ~ a g e me n t. unde rstaii'di ng . all( techn ica lassistance~ .

~ere essellt1al forr co.IIlPletionofth i s pac·kage . · ..

. · ·. ··L .. . ~

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.

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.:

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Page

1

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'40 40 40 43 43 44 4.

58 -sa'.

- 61 ,'6 1

.2

Intreductlonvr-..

grced Goal

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

AH1StCl-ry of

t~e c ~mputer

^-.-;

Pr esent Comput e rAppl,ica t 1o ns'in Educa ttcn- • ; • • • • • •' • •

.' ' . -, \

AnHjstor1 cal Ove r v i ewof Compute.r

~ased

·Educa t i on ....•...\ .. 'NEEDS ASSESSM'ENT',

•.1

I'll0 IN~TRUtTlONAlDES IGN le arne r'Analysi s".

Con t e nfAna"ys i s'v.

tns tructtonel Go~l. .~ 67

. I '. ' -

.Rettenele.for Ch0:1 ceo~Media. t'• •~\ 67- Resea r ch Co ns f d e r a t.1cins _'. '67

.' ~t"

.11

I" ' ' .

St a t us.que (Ex ;-s t i ng.Co nd :lt1o n').•

.TheNeed : • • . '.' • • • • • •'

Al te r a a t iveSol uti ons"t o nee ethe Ne ed .,---~-~--:----:---"s u-rv l!Y"lJ-r--Affndb l e Ma t e r i a l s- :

Ration ale for Developmentof"t h.e : Matedals . • • • ~ ••." ; Dutltneof the Developmental'Proce ss·~.

tv

VI CONCltl SI.ONS . RECO~'ME ND ATI O N S.

IMPlEMENTA 1;,I ON.•

IV . DEVE LOPMENTALPROCEDu.aE. S ••

, J De;~9n.a~dPrOduitlon~ .

, EV,A<.UAH ON•• • • •• • ••

I'"

[. Bac kground.'.

-:

Page

6S, 7'0 71

73 73

.79

79 SO 81 'S2 92

92

9S

':

lao

10 2

10 6 10'6

106 107 ',

I.nsj:ructiona.Jand Tec hni cal- "<,"

Cons f d~rJl.\f O nS . . Ot he rcc nst eer e etcne

Dec is''!on .

",.,

tveluettcnDesi gn Evalu at io nProcedure s Results and Analy s es . . 'c' Teache rEvalu at i o nandFeedb ac k [val uati on,byCo n"te nt and Teac ll. i ng

Spec ia lfsts .

.s umma-ri o t Target Audi e nce's Revf e w Summary'otcr"!t ics "Rev i ew. ~^-0"

co~ ~ll.is i o'ns' ^{. . . . .'.',' . .}

"conctus tcns . ;

,R\ecommenda tiO.llS ,'JmpIement etton

,( co nV d)III

., i'

'~.I~

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^Page

BIBLIOGRAPHY 109

US 140 149 151. APPENDIX"C-:-

APPENDIX D

, . . ' 1 -

AP-PENDIX~ ,.Te s t Instruments ard Answer Ke"y APPENDIX'le

~.crl Pt

^{.• • .•. .}

i: ~ ... .. .

.T.e.~ hn i.C'oa ' Inf Or maro n . ..' :". MI,l1t1media Instructional Package: .\Mi:c roi:·~mpu t e rs:.lH~WThey Work'

\ Under separatt Cover

\. -. I

\ I

I I I

I

I _..

I

^.;...--~

I

vi

\

^.:~

"

t:

Ftgure1

; .- " -- figure

Z

, 1

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\

n- LIST OFFIGURES'

Ins rructteqel'DesignProc ed u re~

. ' .

~aS k!C~nc e p.t~~ a-rc~y

S r·

•

vll

Pa g e.

60 66

.J

^{" " .}

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Table 1

.·Ta ble·2

.Tilb l e 3

LISTOFTABLES

Resultsof PretestandPostte s t Ana lysis Us in gthe Tsta tis tic Su'mmary ~f'Oiffe r ences Between

Pretes t a1ldPcst test Items ", . summary'of ~Cha ll e ngeS't at 1s t i"cs

fO,r:~tu de nt 12•• • • • •. .'','

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viif.

Pag e

8J

as

91

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•CijAPTER I

•INTRODUCTION

In a short,time period of perhaps.f or ty ye a r s. the fO,rw.a.c.rL.marchof.computers ctence, mt cr-cel ect.rcn fcs,and related technologies 'ha s deeplypene tratedmo s t areas of

.

"

.",

' .'

.;.., ·'.:.lIo

,, "

tc the publfcat lar ge .. A recent predic tion by Pr-es s aan and Rosenbloom'( 98 4 ),suggests evendeepe,:pej-meeeton of".

.

telf.hJ'l~'J ogy

^••

' 60 ' m1 1 1 1 ~·~. 'NO~.th

^{A'll1er1c,a'ns}

'a'~~ ~xp.;~cted ,

mtcr oc ompu te r-s.by the'endof'the'decade.

-;.;"

. '

,

pres entpu;cha s1ng tr~nds.cont tnue.CCl,~PleJ:l.with ./

Qf

,mic r oco mpu t e r ha'r dwa r e ,so'~t~are.•'!o u r5 ewa ~'e .··',

f . : t~a nS1t1ori l

moving from

t~e , cl u tche,~

^{oJ the .industrial}

~~ V01·ut ion.

^{t; the}

~rms

^of

.t;h0'!,;~r!'1~ t~on a ·g~ .

^{. ,}

,I . , MOre precisely, i.t15 tile 'pre s ent daystate- of.- the'-•

I: ' . , . .. .

ar:-t micr.ocompute rwith its miniscule.s tHconchip whichha·s·'

~ade l jiJf~ost,

^{power.(ul ,}

-.a~d"re1ia;le compu·tiri9 ,.~v·aiJ ~ble

^.',

. At thecentre of.t1;js- metagenesis is-t~ecomput e r,_

;

an

1~'s-trument

'w.ti"fCnunlike any'other

de ve'~opment:

^{such'-j-s-:..,.'}

"h e printingpress

or

the assembly line.has extended ne nvs.

I' " ,_ .

gr ea t estasset - hi s mind. As a result .societyis ina

.

^{. . .' .}

.hu~anendeevcr cr,eatingwidespread scetet ;economic. and

'intell e c t ua l' change..':F'ew

~reas/

^of

~O~ 1e t~

^{now remain}

]un t ouc hed as

'th~se'

^{ach1eyemen ts hav e}

i'~vaded bu s 1nes s.~

!,'. ve" me, ', s ctence, educettcn; andmorere"" n'l Y; 'he

i' '.

!home.

\ ..

ceuj-s e oUerings, demonstrati.bn.fa1T'S, publica t i ons , .computer cl ubs . and interestgroups avetl able thrl)UghD~t' .

~ 6na~ a , '

^the

Unite~

^{-State's: Ja.p.an:,} end-Europeen

·l1iH1 ,o~ .

this pre.d!cti ~n ShO ~'l.d.ma te ria.li .i: e. , . . "Just as ..themicrocomput er is cr eatin.aupheaveItn.

,s~oc.1e t~^...tll.e~.1 ~.d u st ~~^{,i t'}re.~l'e se~ts .is u'ryde;g~1ng^{SWff t"}

c'ha nge,as.we l l . S-~!l c_e,1975.when.th e f.1r"St.·m~~r o cpmpu,te.r."

· the

Al ~ai re ·.88 00 .

'was tn trcduced,these eachtnes hav'e ··_ , '

·

' C~O~'t1 ~u'all Y d'e~rea se/lrI

^{costa'ridstz'e,}

;et· " s 1~nar(y.

^{a;e ' .}

·

' ~o,re ~-o'w.~rful·,~nd por'tab:l~ .

'one "of'the',

few f~~i~·~~~:

^.

.'t~at :·~

^"

".'

~~'~

^..r-ena

1' n~d: io,~ton't

^{'1s ,}

.1le rtla~s. , ~, h- pu;~p ~se ;

^'.

;h~at ~.~.

·t·o rece ive ,'sto're. mani·puhte.'and ...efmmun1clt e

inf'oI;~at1on

.

.

.' ., ..

^{' ~}

"(T~o:ng &""G~ P.ta .

1982-)"

. .

~ ^.

..

^.)

Pre se nt

~ay,-, comp u~er.,

tec;n olOgy

~ .s ~.e 're;~ ~ t

^{'of. a}

1en9fhY'evo'lut'1on excee dt ng'300~.iears" The'fi rst''wides'p~ead' "

co'mpu ta t i on~'fdevlce , the·abad s."was used·t o perform5imp'1~'":'>'

~alcul a.tions SU~h'

^{as addition and}

'subtra-~ t1: ~

^{and With' . ,. '.}

.

^{' " ' .}

greate rdffficultY.ml(lt1pl1catio'nand division. Today.

. / .

this process. of cou,nting via s:Sririg and beads is st il l Wi'~ ~spr~ad'^{";t he Orient: '

.'.Ted'1o~s ^{tasks such..as census.}tabulatfon and ::ax.a'tfo,n_,;' 'w~re^d8tal_{• "}^{yst s} f;r development_" .of,'t he~ar'lfest_{'. '} mech~n1c.al_{.• . J}

ca l c;u'la t·or s . Beginning with ,Pas cal and,his"ra tchet gear.",

c'~lcul~tor .

in. 1642. the proc

.

ess of

·C~.l,CU 1a t1 0'l

^{anc'"t he .}

- _',' 'Il:!:. •.••

'

..

science of mathematics was significantly advanced by Leibniz and the leibniz wheel (1694) , Jacquard's weaving 100m punch cards (1804),and Babbage's difference machine and analytical engine (Baker. 1975). But it was Hollerith in 1879 who developed the first truly successful computation device.

With the use of punch cards and several Hollerith calculators.

the United States census of 1890 was completed within three years - a task which previous ly took many times longer.

Though Hollerith's calculator was eventually replaced by a more complex system, the digital punch card (a thin paper card containing information in the form of punch holes) continued to be used as a standard data source. With the advances of technology in the 19 20's and 1930's and the demand created by an oncoming war, International Business Machines (IBM) and Harvard University engineers collaborated to produce a swifter, more capable unit. the Mark I. A huge apparatus (51 feet long , 8 feet high, 5 tons). this electromechanical mechanism could perform all four mathematical functions within seconds and store data in memory banks - something its predecessors were unable to do.

In 19 46 , there emerged a calculating machine which revolutionized computation technology. Termed ENIAC (Electrical Numerical Integrator and Calculator), this the first automatic electronic digital computer. Housed in

a framework 30 by 50 feet were 18,000vacuum tubeswhich could computein mip isecon,ds andperform func ti on.sno't found in ear liercompute rs'. Howe ve r,ENIAC', (OVAC (Electr on ic'

nt

s cr-ee tYertabl e Aut,oma tic Computer) and :o~h e r "ff-r-st qene r e't ton" ma1nframes were large , unr el,ia bl e,

(with 1 ts vacuum'tubes ha vin g to be ree-tece deve r y 7or B

. "

mi nutes), costly to .oroduce, operate,a,nddiff ic 'ult to pr ogr a m. AS'w;ll, 'data were processed in avbatc h"fa,s hi Oll i th,at;'s,users were not "online " (directlycommunicat ing)

. I

with the.hos t comp'~~er.•,but,were,required ;0 havetheir progr a ms or,data del ivered to th~.computer~ns-ta11a ti 011 for pr oce"s s 1ng . much'as one deliv e r s photograp h ic filin to a

( , ' , '

deveJopin g tectlfty. Sucha mode had partic u la r disadvantages as Sledge (1979) point's out:'

?r,ograms could bi'sent by post,by courier,

ordelivered per sonall ybytea c he r s or fr1endsbut the essentia l fe at ur e of-slJch aner-r-ence nent wa susu a ll y thati t was s'8lf-defe a,~ing bec auseofthe delays, invo lve d. Afte.ral l . thespeedof.t he computer canhar dly be demonstra te dby an, a'r.rangel1) e nt tha t takes day s, i f not week s, to· produce the re su lt s....I p•6)

jbe eppee r ance'o f,t he trans isto r tn 1,947' was a sfgn1f.icantdep ar t ur e friom vacuumtubes. This tiny amplificatio ndevic e (no largerthan adime ) was smalle~ , more

r~l fable .

and hi 9h t'y

e fficf~nt c,ompa.re~

^{with fts .}

predecessorand soonwas usedby'industry for pr-cduct ton of the "se cond computer generati on". Thesemai n frame compii t e r s, theywer e terme d, fea t ur'e da,r-edu ctfcnin

cos t andsize

ove~ .

^{andwere i}nher e n t lymor-e powerf ul - reflectingthe advantage s ofmicroe lec t ron ics .

Paralle l in g thes ehard ware devel opnentswere improvemen t sin comput er utiliza tio n.partic u la rl y the ad ve nt of "t ime -s haring"..In the ti me share,dmode , mul t'l cle us er 's ps eudo- e tmulreneousty access ace ntr-al c.omput e r facil ity thro u gh onli nec.cnau ntcettons. Ea ch .(' user appear-s tobe ser v i ced tmnedtetefy, tho ughin fac t,the

compu t e rsha re sservice timewith all cli e nts in a rot a tin g fash}on.

re cbnol oqt cel progr essin theearly 1960"s was re spo nsi ble for theadve ~tof t.he·inte gratedctrcu it -'an electric al pat hway,co nsi.sti ngofma ny interrelat ed I

tr a nsis t o r eleme n t setche d on a sma ll piec ecrtstltccn.

Thes e "c h i ps ". as they ere-cetIed', were a.s i gn ific ant .deve lcpment,e lfntnet fnq-t.he nee d for .individu al

.

' .... .

transistors wi t h i nelec t r on,ic' componen t s. As a re sult.

the "mini co mputer" c r the"third ge nera tio n"of computers aros e.. _Mi nieomp"' et swer e rob", ' . desk si ze unt ts

--I'

cbe..acter ~ zed byrapid programexec utionan~'alargememor y c epect ty,storing'anywher efro m 32 • 128 K·(th ou san d ) words.

. .

It s,cos t was s.ubs t ant 1allyfe s s than earlierncdel s as

ex~e ns heas s embl y pre ct tces (s uch as hand wir.1ng) were

. .

eli minated. Further more , th is new hardware pro vi de d ,I ncr e a sed t'ime-s hari:ngfacili tie S (upwards of 100 or more .Gli e nt,s) re s ulti ng in lowe r userpe r termt ne l expen se s.

Throughout the foll o wing de cad e, micro e lec t r o nic ) improvementseont1nue d...to reduce compute r :0 5t Sand tnereaje effi cie ncy'and processing capabtJities. Small sca le int e g r ate d.c i r c u it r y of the ea rl y 1960.~$ "( a c c o mmodat ing abou t ten tr~ns1s tor e teeentsrper- chip) was. by

1970 .

upg rade dto-Iu! dfulIlseab c1rc uit"1ntegr att.onand soon -f ol lowed'byll:r ge.:,.s cale circuit in t egr ati on(thousa nds.o·,. .trenststc r el ements per-c hip) 1nt~em1d-1970 s.•.W.fththe se

dev e lo pmen t s. ~h~.~le ~tro.·n ~~mea..~s'w~snow ava i 1abl\ fOr de v~ l o p ~ n g a4t h genel"at ion of computers. )

In,1975, the'fi r.stmicroco~pu t~rappeer-e do.n the

"." " ,... , n, " " ,. " '' ' ror ... . ." " . . ... .,,,,. •'\. . •

~800coul dbep~rcha s ed'in'kit ^forlllfor a costo,tS339.00 . ItIo(a~the first lowco s t, des k top. standalon ecomputi ng

iaci~ fty

^{availableto the-pu bltc at.large."The"ne wcOlllpu ter}

era".as Ba r ne s(197-9 ) la be ls it, hadarr~ved.

The cur.rentmicrocomputer ts the focus of a

·f l o u r ts liinglu r ke t and'reflectsthe swHtness with whi ch

the

te~ hn o l ogy

changes.:Fou r.:eight,

~xtee n

:a nd

thi ~ty-two '

kilo byt e ra ndolll accessmemorywit h1I0noch rome dts pla yun~~s andmagne tic ta pe cassett es were 1."vogu e five yea r s.e ae."

Sta ~e

^{of th}

_.

^{e ar t "nt cr-cs"marke}

_.

^{te dforbuslne ss.educat io na l,}

government,an'dleisure use.p·r es ent lyboa s t.64OK'or 128K randomacce s smemory via ve r y la'rg e sca l e int e g r a t e d cfrcuttry , compact keyboa r d s . high re s o l utionmo?ochrolleand colo rdisplay' unit swithtou c h se nsit iv escre e ns.highsp e ed prin ters . dlsk~drive'units. ve tee andmusic sy n th es is.ind

mult imed ia ho o k-~pc·apability. Compare dto ENI"AC and its 1 Krandomecc e s s memory', a several hundreddollar 'state-of -the-a r t mtqrocc mpuree.Ynu its stttcor;sq'uare is:

1/30.000 theco s t, 1/ 3 0,0 00the size,cepabte of executing prog rams200 times faster, ex t re me l y energyefficien t ,and inhe rent lymor e r-e'ltah'l e -an impressive cos t/effe c t i venes s rati o(ucr-etec, 1982').

Futu r e"de ve l opments in mic roc irc uitry aridtnro rnetfon- stora ge augur well for fu'rt he rco st andsize'

~educdo~s~

^{as 'II}

we~l

^{as i}ncrea ses in

c a pab1~\ty, 'a pPlicai~ons: ~nd ." user

rr-tendftne's s". For example, Hewl ett - Pa' c ka r d bas-now_produced

~ch ipaccommodating450,000 ti-ilnsi~toreleme nts {ar-e hen ,

,

.

1983) end.r ese ar Che r s at 'Nort hCarolinaStateuntve r stty expectto utilize.nctecut ermemory.fordata 'Storage')"")the nea; tut u r-e '(Sha ne,

~983 ): '

^This.Tatter dev,elo pme"nt

\u~y ma~~ _

the chip obso l etepefore,'its full potentia l is real i zed,

~\

. " " : ":

technol~~

^{progress inthe}

"?" ~

electro nic sandconput er ttndustrtes wil l further encou ra ge '.

, \

'

the per me a t i on of computingintQ mos t_s e c t ors of soci e t y.

!" '"

Such a develo pmen t wil l.;e qUi..~.~,'a mo~gotherthings ,p re sent ,,~? and future w

.

or ker s to^' be^{. '}kncwledqeabl^'e with^{. ,} respect....to

computers and theira ppltcettons (Boz~ma'n, '19 S4 ), Lndeed.

~rese.nt^day p.repar a tory training fo r engi neers"bus in e s s per s o nne l. sec re taries, and.tea ch er s"openly refl ec t tbts trend.

Educa tors. tn particul ar ,.ar e bei nghanl;led the r~$ p o ns ib l11t,Y ioeducat e the lea rn in gpubli c incomput er'

I I

!

liter acyanduttltae the'llicrocolDPuter for l'!struct10na l purposes (Gr e e n, 1984 ). Amid cries of acc ountabilityand -p rog r e s siveeduca tion , such ta s ks,must be accepte'dwillingl y

and withund~rstanding_

PresentCORl pu t erApplications 10'Educ a tl on

, . As~~ate dpreViOUSly: comp~teris andpa rti c.~.~ ~_rlY m.i c~o co mput ersand e s sccteteu pa raph ern al iaar ebe.ing. ne r-kete d and purchasedon .j! scale unhea rd O.f (n'his.t o r y. The

fi e·ld.of.~edu~ati on ·

^is no.'exce,pUon

i~

^this

~nd

^as

"l!licrOs "are pe,rmeat1ngschoo ls •-ce ntr el offi ces.'and colleg es.to .~s ~1s t·with tnstr-vc ttc n,',1 ~ s t ru.cti onal.management,.• andadm1nistrativ~ tasks (Pressman &Rosenbloolll, 1984).

"

' .

'" The ter DlI·nologyto d_escribe thesl!.a p·p l i c a t i o;Uis wf d e s pr e a d, but varted,'a nd,ap pe a r s to have evoh'edas the ' indus'tryfound grea ter.ipplicabn i~yfor the technology. Presently, the l1te~i fure is flooded etth terminolog yand

. ' . ' . . . . . I -

acr'on yms.todescr tbe si Milar,computerapplications(Hoore .&

'COll 1n S ,J979,). SORle1nclud~COlllputer,aide d tn tru cti on (C A ~ ) ,'c omput e r admin,s.tered,i n s tr~ c tio n'(CAI) compute r assis t ed ins tructi on (CAl,), c~mpu.ter",tded t'eahl ng(CAT),

.c ompu ter managed.le a rnl ng (CMLl,compute r bas d learn,1ng.

.(CBL) , compute rba s edlns truct~ on'(CB1),'and omputer mana ge d in stru c tio n (CMI).' In his 1971 p,ape " Sali s b ury ide nt 1f ied 21te rmsdea ling withcomput e rs neducati on.

Today,ther-e areperh,aps'man ymor e .

./

^".~...;

\ , .

~,,,e nt1 y.

^cdmputer-s (ml"ocompo,e".

m l~icom,"'e".

an d

ma'1n~ame

'co mput e r s ) are us e d for instructio nal and

\a~m1n1strat1vepurposes (Htrs chbubl , 1981). Ins truc t i o nall Y\.

't he y assume.impgrta nt roles 1n dril.lland / prac t i ce..': ut o !"fal , si mulation ,dialogue, pro blem solving, testfn.9purposes, teach in g computer

.

science and lit^.' €ra cy,^;

,

and forins t r uc ti o na l mene pe men t• AdministratiVe us e s inclu derecord and'd,ata kee pi ng,andacccuntt nq.

Furth lil r d1vision of the comp ut~r's'i ns t r u c t i onal utility fnt odirectins't~uctlona l ^act1v1t{es"an'd-instructional

_~an~gem~'nt ha ~ beco~e CO~ni~-np l ace .< Th~se

^have'been

~fdelY

^:_-.

t~rme d CAL·andCAl,for the instructional roles" while CML.

and CMI are acronyms (or instructio na lmanagement. As Hunka('1977 )

st-;t~;-t~Ull.I

e r-e es senttell y synonymous,

'~s

^{ar.e..CHl andCHI. ,.eyond.t.hse}

b.r.oad .~it l .es , . parti.C Ular.1Y·

w.ha t constit utesCAl (CAL)an CHI (CHL),disagreement an~

,va r h t f o npr e va il. Zinn (l 8), for example. follows the

(1977)· AmericanNatfon,a l Associatio nofUsers ofComputer Aids to Lea r ni ng (NAUCAL) classify ingscheme and includes 'le a q l i ng about . with, and thr~:Ug h't h~'c ompu te r ^underthe"

CAi. hea d i ng ,wht-le comput'er manage d'le ar nin g.ts viewed as

.

. .

"lear ni ngsuppor~,systems"e~t~n1passing'comput er mana ge d tn'str-ucttcn•.guid a nce,and materials gene r a t i on. Rushby (1979.) defines CALas'"teach i.ngwiththe aid of a'computer- but~'d~e s^notcons1 d.~r'lea rn i,~ g ^{"abou t "}comp'~ters ^(e.g:. compu-ter.s.c1,ence stud ie s) an el ement of thls ar e a...

..~

.

.10

" Smyth e a'ridLova tt(1979) useHoope r' s (1978) terlll1nOl?9Y and deft neCALIS'us1ng the-com pu t~ ras a -learning resou ,:ce- 'andCMLas the -Illanagement!Jf[eer ntnq'",ye t fail to'exp lat"

cl ea rl y just~hat ~h es ete rmsgleAn. Rus hby'(1979) further suggest sthat over la pbetween CALand,CHLsyst emsoccurs

•since,bot h'conta in instr ucti o nal andtnstructtcnet ma nageme"nt functi ons.

le'a~ttwo'a uthors vteve duc etto neI comput ing as bejngd tv tded jnto'le ar ni ng wjth -,ci~bo.u t, a n d through-the- compu't et (Zi ,",1978;Braun.I·1984l'',' For't h,epurpOSE!~:of this'paper it1s',',con ven1e nt to ca"t e go-r'ize the broad ter;';: ' comp ut e r ese d

~·duca~ion ·_(tBE) .

^or

educ~'t 1ona! ~ompu~1 ng~

^.~

. i

. i

. . .

'int o.thedht fnctare as of.inst ruction·andadmi nis.tra t ion .· ba sed on'ho~~h e"conpu te ris appl1edin educa ti.onal settin gs. The tnstruc ti oria l's t rate gy (_CAlor CAL) may be

furthe~

^{dfvt eedtntc '''rn' ng through;}he computer, wh'ch-.- ' - -- ' -

. .

^.

1"includ e dril l and pr a c tice. tut odal .,d lalogue..-simul ft i on.

and teSttng~··wtth ^{c6mpu·ters . or'learne r}contr~1l ed'computtng' whe r eby the stud ent solve s log i cpro blems via"coegu ter

pr~g .rammi rrg L an d·

^about

cOIiPute r s. ' Wh iC~· ~ nc1U de

computer"

li.t~ ra cy'cour -ses ,"c~mputer scie~ceanddat ap·roc~ s~ i.n9 cou r s e s. Th i s ~iera rch Yis sfmilar to.~h atsugge s t ed by Br a un(1984) and theNAUCAL, as r-epcr ted byZinn (19'78).

. ', 1 :'"

.-~~-.':

/

(

'""An Historical Overvie wof Computer Based Ed uc a ti o n' 11

'0'"

Thecurr e nt-wa veof errt hu stasmincomputer"ba s ed educati onmay

y

t~a~ed ^{tothetl ate} 195 ~' 5 ^{(Suppes &Nac ken,} 1978). oev!!) l 'pment s 1n tran s i s t o rs cou pled with researc h in pr ogra mmed

f

earn ing andteachi ng- m-ach 1 nes1nsp1r~d.educeco rs to sitek ne'wmet'h ods wl t hre s pe et tode l ive r i n ginst~-lJ ct 1 on.

~~ \"957.. _:·c;mp'ut ~·rs, we.re

^{tiei ngusedon.}

a :~ uc~ g;'~ater·.

scale'for,gove rnmen'tandbusin es spurpo se s'andsoon'colle ge s.

began ~tl '1'1 'Z i n9 , the~

^{\t o ai d in}

~es;a rCh.l'and· a dmi ni~ tN'~ive dutl ~SI ·as _~el1 ·a s ;-;tbje c·ts ~f

^{st udy .}

Th e'c o~pute'r

i"ndust ry', us e d them t'o}raf'nehetr own'per s on ne l (Suppe s &Ma··c~e ~.·

~978 ). Edu c a'torsliterat'ein.thi .snew"te chnology"s ~w comru te rs as amea~s:of·ach'i'~vin g.o~e ofed u c ati~n l~' .fundament al 'go a ls.- tndtvtdueltzed iV.:t~ ~cti on,{Scen Lon&

-~.~--^e- --'ton'n o lly'~1974'); Resear ch.in the in'struc t 1ofi"ala~p l ic a t i o ns of co mputer s had begun at the unive rs,ity of

,p

linois andby 1959 a ccmpute rtaed ins tr uc t io nsystem tobeus ed for w1~e~p~ea d.inst·ruction alpur-pcs es wa s install ed. I't was calle d PL.ATO..a.n.ec rc ny n for Pr-cqr-e mme dLog fc and.re ec htnc 'h'rJe r a t i ons'(Bake r ,1975)•.

At' this ti me one of the ma j or'efnsof tndustr ywe s toimpr ove har dware froman ec onomi csta ndpo in t and de ve l op '1a n g:ua ges whi ch.c ou l d be use d ~y.t eaCh"er s,an.dothe.r 'educ a tors (W~'tson, 1972 ) . R.~sea rch by IBM 1n.th.e:~ate

1950's "led to the devel opmento.f.en authorin g'la nguag e ,. Cours eware 1: howeve r. its l.owlevel (ma c hine orient e d )

\

_I

\ ¹²

•

naturemadeit far remov ed fromthe programming skills of the ave rage teacher . It~wasneve~ theless

. ,

an important step towa rd p.hepr o d u~t-~o fan effec tive time sharingsyst em (Bla is d e l l . 1976 ). Oth e r workin euthcr languageswasdone by the Spe r ry - Univa c Company. _The~r goal was"t odes i gn.a CAl system,inc·orpora ti ng/Ihigh le~'el languagewhichcould be-us e d.by

educat~rs ,

^to

dev~el op c.~~ rs_~ware .

^{In M "an d}

. . 1 . .... '

rese ar cher s fr omSt a nt o r d~flivers1.ty were also,exploring the pote nt ial of the

sy st~m

^{1500 . II}

neW\d~ Yelopment

whi.ch wou ld co nt ai n innovative har dwaresuch as11ght pens. advanced c e thodet re y tubes (essen t1a~2LT.V.monitors ) and anaucU.o.

fee tur-e . ~ ."

Consi deringhowever,the empha si s pla ced on comput e r ize d

ins t~t~n--;-..its 'wi des~read

^{usebyeducator s}

was'b-e1ni( h'h fd,er ehby

~ever:'j

^factor's'(Br'aun", 1977 ;

sc~~ lon ^i.' cori~911Y, 1 9i4')~/

L

/~o st .

Few edu)atio'n,al tn stt tut tcns coul d afford

. . " I. .

~~q~c e).Yacompute r ~lusperipheral he rdwere: , Su,ch,.at,iel~type ma c h1ne~. Furthermore, ...

'\ stat'rr,rfgwasexpens

tve

due to s car cewell-. ,'trainedperso~nel'(Hir s c hb uhl , 19~~O ). 2."111 it e r a c y ~ Thevas t majorityof educa torSwere

C?,~puterttfttere re and,i<'new,lt ttle , i fanyth'ing ,

"a bout ..the'p~tent1al

'of

^{'t he}c~mJ u ter-for

1nstr u c t ~o n a1 purpo ses.

"

,i

13

3. Pr oce s s i ng.re chn ol og y. "Batch ti me " was the common for m of'comp ut er proc essing andits

.

,

inhe ren t disadv~ ntageof de la y e d feedbafk made it ineffici en t (Braun, 1977).

4. Cou~seware D~velopment. For,the educator:

pr od uc i ng cour sewa re-

.

(CAl'less ons

,

'i nthefo rm of a compute r prog r a m) wa.sn'~tqn ly'time co ns umin g bu t.'difficu lt aswell.'since high level (Eng'l 1sh'or1 erit ed) au t,tior lilngua ge s.we r e none xi,stent. 'Theref or e , mcst compute r'based.

le s s ons were'of tnrertcr-Qllal,i'ty since they were"de s i gne'd. by. c cmput e' , r programmers'

.

Wh.oofte~

la ck e deduc~tiona.1 bac kgr.ounds (Blaisde ll, 1~7'6) ".

Despit e growi ngc rtttcf sm.tha.t the computerwoul d.

dehumanizesoci ety , re s eerch'i ncompu't e r-ba.sededucation'(CBE) continued ~o expand in the 1960's,with,the hel p of the , .

Ame r,1ca nNationa l'Sc'fenc e Founda tio n (NSF).and educa tiona l tnst ttu ti on s suc h as Dartmouth College ;Massachusetts' Ins t i tu t e.

o f

Te c hn ol ogy (,MIT), PennsylvanfaState univer,sity, TheUniver s ity of,Te xas , andthe Net'tone I jech nt cel Instit ut e

(VonFe'ldt . ·~9 79 }.

In the mid - 1960'~. a numbe r of devel c pn e nt svcccur-red whi ch pr ofoundl ytntluence dthe sut ur-e of CBE. The e ppee r-e nceof cheaper , more efficient mfnt cpnpure r-s , capa ble

o'f

" t t',~e, Sh~ri ng" i

^{reduce dcos t s}

sUb~s tant i'a~ lY'

by permitting'.

a'number of use r -sto acce ss the.ccmpute r s'1mult a neou s ly, No

""".

14

longer was itnecessaryto wait extended periods of tJme,for re qui r ed feedba c k(ba tc h time processing) as persons~.e.re_ : / now"on'11 ne", - that is they had direet cominu nlca.tion

w1thtlle-~centra~r,ocessor(computer)via tete trbe or

typewriter.

'~,

Pu bli ca ti on o fithe Pierce;e po r t fn19 65 we s- the nec e ssar y 1mpe t u sneeded to'fnc r-e ase CBEresearch.

,,'

Th·is pi!.perrecom~nted.great~.remp~a.siS'by t,lleU.nited St~t'e~

gover nmentf.ntheJns tructtcnal uses of computers fo r education.

In

"r e spons e,th'euntre d-ste ue sNattona l Sc'feMe

- . , ,

Foundationsupported thefundi ngo(a number of CA'I prode c es •

fnc'1udi ng: .-.:..,

1. PLATO. •(p'rogrammed logic aridTea~h1ng 'Ope r ati o ns ).

Today, PLATO1s.per.ha.ps the

l a rge ~ t

^{C,AI networ k}

f~(

operatio..

1A

t't.s ,ext

7

^{nsive courseware}(instJ'uctional software"-1s marketedby the ControlData Corporation for Ca na d'1a n an d Amer ican,educationa l' 1ns t.1tutions. Furthermore . much courseware has beenadaptedfor~se'wi t h App le andotbernt cr-o- computersystems(Crone.1982). rhls step shou ld further encourage'its prolfferat"{'onthro ug'hout educattona lenv ironments.

2. TICerT. .Lrt ne Share'dInteractiveComputer Contr~lled Informat ion

tetev

tstcn ) , Thissystem was developed as a joiiitO'pe rat lonbet ween the Mitre

c~rporat 1on

^{,andthe Amerfca n}

N~tfona l

15

ScienceFoundationand presentlycombines compute r andtel evis i o n tech nologie s'fo r

~l !, struc tional'dl!lt~ e r y (Barke r,.!!:9). . 3. Pro 1e c t lOGO. Und~r ^the cti rectio n01-?eymour'

Pap er t and the lOGOgr o up at Massachusetts ."

Inst itu te of Tec hnolo gy (.MIT) .iI family"

o f..

.language s' hCas -bee,"develcped.f o r us e:D.y'young, 'ch ildr e n ._. Proj

.

^.ectlOGD'.has.^{\ ..} ~ :r.ece1ved:

. .

'conS 1

. .

^, de ~-

abl e·~,t ~ en tl 0n.-~ec e n.tlY . par:ti.t.ll l.a r ly.w ~ th .'.

res pect~o,~ dv~nced^{.the of i es,ofcc cnttt ve} develo pmen t (~c Nef ll..1984)..

,\. ,' ,

. , '

. . ,

4. The..H u n tf ngto n~·Compu t·e.r:flro j eci. ·Inth~late 196 0' sandea'rlYI9,VO'S,

~,"aun a ~d ~i S i Ch

^-;in

associ a tionwfththeNationa l~~lence Founda ti on, expjcreduhe compute r'suse'asa teaching resource-for the pure:scten cesi soc'ial"s c tence e , and lan"gUage s:art s. Braun (l9} 9) claim s the Huntingto nComput e r ·Projec"t·w,ls us ef ul [n de s 1.gn1ngamod elfor cours ewar~ deV~lopme~t

"and ident H y il)g the~a l u~'of si muht1or,s in'

r- eeuc at tcn.

>.,

""\. Edu ca t i on al 'c omputinginBr it ain ~a salso be en cha racte-r ized by lar'ge sc et ere seer-chand'devel opme nt

proj~cts i-:-

These 1ncl tlde: ,-, • , '.

L TheChel"s ea Scie n ceSimu l~t1 o n ^{Pr oject}

rcssn.: . \

I t"s .pur pc s e wastodesign"a nd

p'rOdu~e

^{discove ry'bas ed}

\ '

.

^- -', '

"

'sci e nc e,expe rimen tel S1mu 1a~1o"n,ll) ate r 1a l s.,.'p ro ~e~ t

;'

16·

. ...

"d e velcpe e n t began in 197 1--a ndce as e d in 1976; however. mater1al s ere still.ma"rke t e d bythe Edward Ar nold Cor por at i o n.

2. •The Nat1'onal Developme nt Programme 1ftComput er

JAs'Sls t ed,Lear n i nq (NDPCAL).'

Per ha ps.the:m:ost fnfl ue ntta l o(8ri tlsh coapu ter e sststed

1'~arn1ng"-~rOj~cts.

^';h'e"

~O PCAL

^{deve1 op'edwell'_:}

conce i ved'l~arningmat er"{al s.t n .most sub ject er ea's

. "

. '

,",

,

^{" '}

. ...

(Smytheand tov.a.t t.1979). H,avi ng.eommence d In1973.

th 'e NOPC~('

^was'

terl\l i n~ted _ 1" i9Si . .' .

3. co~pllte rs"in"the' Curriculum Project (CCP).

' .,Under the direct i onof"R.'l ewis't he

·Cc P:. i.nve s t1 ga~·ed..

. . . . . .

stend etene,·rel a t 1v el y_1 n.e~p e n s1ve·ar~Cp'ortable~l c r Q.~ , comp u t el'S Wh1'Ch are'now mark;ted byvenders' :,:suchas

!'nter.natlonal

Busines~

^{MaChi'tles,Tandy:}

Elect'ron-1~ .

^{' (Radio}

.. ..

17

Sb ac k ), the Commodore Company, and Apple Li mi t e d . Supporting the avai lable hardwa re is also a large supply of ins tructiona l, ad min i s t r a ti v e. an d leisu r e software from commerci a l sources, though authorities are le s s than favorable about its quality and ins t r uc t i o na l appropriateness. Some recent literature by Dean (1982) and Bark (1983) clear ly reflect this belief.

Inst r uctio nal Usag e

I. Computer Assisted Instruction

Lnstr uctto ne l l y , the microcompu termay be used to 1ear n abo ut. withoand throug h computers. Thes e th ree br o a d applic at ions subd ivi de into specific areas of study as outlined by Zinn (1978).

1. Learning about the computer

(i) Compute r lit e r a c y. In North America. compu ter li te rac y is th e fastes t gr owing area of compu t e r lear ning (Johnston , 1985). It is the study of computers, their functio n , and effects on society.

(ii) Data processing. The computer is used to perform operations on data and achieve a desire d out p ut.

(iii) Computer science. The st udy of comput e r system mainte na nce operation and technology, as well as computer literacy, awareness, and programming.

(iv) Personal computing. The family use of micro- computer tech nology for purposes rang;ng from electronic games to tax preparat ion.

18

(v ) Inservice training/Professional development. In this role. the microcomputer ts a vehicle for skill development and training. Recently, computer t n s e r vtce and extra service programs for teachers and administrators have gained popularity to keep educators abreast of technological and instructional changes.

2. Learning through the computer

Historically, the main thrust of research and development;n CBE has been;n this area (Braun, 1984; Zinno 1978). In its traditional role, the computer is a vehicle for instruction in several ways.

(i) Drill and practice. In this mode. the computer assists the learner acquire mastery of previously learned material ;however, no new stimuli or lessons are presented. Hunka (1977) has described three drill and practice models or sub-strategies . These inc l ud e a random model whereby exercises are presented in a fortuitous manner; a fixed model which presents the learner with a limited set of problems; and a mixed strategy which incorporates characteristics of the others. Whatever format is used. the computer assists the teacher by drilling the learner in previously instructed material.

Many drill and practice programs are available particularly in the areas of language arts and

19

ne themet.tc s . Notable vendors inclu de the Control

I

Data Corporationw~iCh-markets PLATOeducat fonar materials for lar ge ne t wo r ks,as wel l as the Bell andHo welltompany.

(ii). rutcrtel. This strategy is tns tructtcnel lybroa'der thandr ill and practice as tut c rtels provide ins tru cti o n in newmateria l , test compre hension throug hquestions,for mu l,ate feedback , and,r e commend supp leme nt a ry exercises; if nee ded• L'lke dr i"l1and pra c t i c e , the computer controls-the activity whil e thet~ac herserves asan;xternal'so urc e shou'ld system or comprehe nsion

p~o'biemS'

^{eas ue. Many}

eue crtet programs are besed'o n an option or,

"branching" strategywhereby material forpr e s e n t a- tton de pen ds onle a rner char-ecee rtsrfc s end behavior: As'Wq t s o n (1972) suggests" suchamethod has gre a t potentia l to fllrly-itldividual iz e ins t ru c ti o n .

Tutor,1a\~rogramsexist.~ n a large sca le throl.lg hout Nort h Americaand,'theUnite dKi ngdom in etost ~ubject.ar e a s. .Hunke (1977) lis t s several whi ch ha ve been-developedinthe field of medici ne

; at theUn i ve r s ity of A'lberta. The s e

mc

tude

~~wh ichintrod uce; the lea rne r to heart' murmurs, Fr e nch , de s t'qned for the beginn i ng Fre nch student

a~gr~de

^{','t en'l'e vel ,and}CAl pr og r a mm ing,

- - .-

• (" 1)

20

whichtutors in the IBM CDURS EWR IHR aut horing languag e. InBri tain, theMOPCAlprogralllhas 'pr oduce dcel ebr ated tutorials in lDathematlcs, wh1le.the Comput e r s in"t he l/I1dergraduate Science .Cur rt c u lullPr~ject (CUSU). under t,he~lrectton

of

J. McKenzieat the UniversityCollege lond o n, ha s

"made availablemateri als in'l\ostscience cu r r ic ula.

PLATOan.d TlCCIT. Amer ican.CALsys t e ms ,have also

"

. '

ge ne r a t e dtuto r fal progra ms,some of whic hare now mark e te d_.b; 'microc omput er sof twar e'houSe

.

s. For, exeeple,AltosC,:,mput er Systems,andJntell1gen t Sy stems·.Corp ora t ion retail accounting and word pr-o- cessfngandcomput er tra ini ngprograms respec'ttvely.

Dial o gue. Throughdfa-log ue,'thestudentand microcomputercceeunfce te tn an uns t ruct ured,

~ophtstfcated~a nner'through theuse.~fnatur aI.

lang uage. Ins t r uct i on, testing,and feed~ackare ,111 e l eeents of CAL d1a'lo gue, but. unllke tutor ial and

drill"and practice programs,the computeris

programllledto accommoda te ,1-broad rangeof stu.den t respons e s suchas"extra neous use~flanguage, enswers1n a varIet y of order s, and incorr ect -"spel ling and synt.aJ:t. Amajor ,dr~wba ck ' ofdial ogue

!S

theone r~,us progr.amm1,.~,9 req~ i.re dto.•produc e an effect iv eunH. One,l~rg e andtomple xdI al ogue

"pr ogra m1$SOPH1Ede velop edbyBr own, Burt o nand,

21 r:

aetl. 1Qf.!!.!.I attempts to teach-st ude nt s how to

"tro~blesh o o t " fa~I.tyel e c t r 1ca l equipment by .answ.erfn gquestions. supplyin gne ce s sarydata,and

ccs munt cettnc 1{lformath el ywith the learner.

Pr essma nand Ro s e nbl oom (19 8 4) st a te relativelyfew microcompute r.besed dialogue pro gra ms exist • .likel

,

ydue

.

't o prog r a mmingcompl e x iti e s. 'A more,'r ece nt innova t io n isoral dialogue between learner and cc mput.er-vbut costs st 111 remain prohibit i vel yhi-gh'farse rtcus tnstr-ucttcnal .applications.; •

.'

Test1n!i. M1crocomput~rs ^{may also"a ssis t}

wh-h_

(h)

testing:"andevaluation . For-instance •.diagno s tf c tes.t\ng ishelpful to

id~ntifY stu~ent

^{knowled g e} .

a nd skills pr id' r to tns tructtcnv he nce,assisting the tnstruc ter in goalfo r mat iona~d les son.preparation. Formati vetestingis useful dur i ng drill and practi\ce. tutorial.or dialogue mc des"to as se ~ compr e he ns tcn and under-at e nd tnc. A·mi c ro c omp'u t er 1~embank'cente tnste pr e- del e rmi ne.d number of questionswhich may be displayed pri or to . dur !ng . or after tnstructto n. A mores opntsttcete dme ehcd invo-lvesthe 'comput e r generatin g

.

itemsrandom

.,,-

ly.

. thus avoiding repetition. Computerbase dtesthg hi!., pe rtf

cu

l er advantages overtra~ition .il. pen and peperme·th~ds. For exa mple . test items .andthei r

i ~

-,

22 or de r of presentat ionare hidde

J

nand evaluationand feedback are immediate. A major disadvantllge

is

thedi~f fcultyin accommoda t ing"free" (or open) response items - illword sentence . forexa mple, sinc e the authormustanticipate pctentte l answers. Hence, for microcomputers multiplechoice, matc hing. and true/falseitem.saresug g est ed.

3. le a rn i ng with thecomput er

Int~fsmode. theccaputer ormicrocomputer isused for educationalga~1ng.•-vor-dpr~cessln9'~problemsolving. as' a s teutetcr;a data base, and,anai d to assist t nbeu rts etc s {or

d f.sc-~v~rY

^{lear ni ng?:}

sever~ l

^{autho.rs.CJ.a.im}

^{the g,{.a ,teSft,}

reward fromcomputers, cognitive de vel o pme nt , lies inth is ' application as the computer fs'p:ontrol l'~'dby thelearner .:

and not thelearner control led by the compute r (Pep e rt, 1980):

(i) Educational gam'ing. Educa tional gaming is a re cen t application of thecompu t e r. The computer and the learne r en,gage"fn·a compettttcnwithlearni ngand/or sk11l de vel cp a entva sutttmate goals. Brau n,- (I 984 )"

cfefns the l.e-a r ni ng potentia.] t'hrO ~ g h "garnin.g"' s largel y untappe dand "onc ethei r potential is . realized, they Will,providerich.Ie a rntnq-expe rtence s

,

fo r st ude nts"{p.,11 3). A typica lapplicationof gami ngmaybe found at

,

'the untve rstty of Pft tsbur-q, Engaged,In a's te r-wers typecon flict. le a rn er s must apply laws of trig o nometryon'pr oje ctile fligh t and angl e settingtodestroy'theenemy.

"

•

'I

(i1) Sfhru l ettcns. SimU,"a t to n S/mOde l re al.WO ~l·d events . Taws.or other phenomenawhich wo uldotherwise be

1

1mpract,ical toen:ount.er.1nre a l ity. They mayexis t as "s t a n.dal one" project sor be.inco rporat ed tn oth e rCAl stra t eg i e s su c h as tut orh lsor dial ogue. Si mula t io ns (or elect'roni c mode ls) ar e attr ac ti v e to educ a t or s for several reasons . Firstly, as- mo ~ e1-1lng agent s'.theylili~ 1 c wo'rld eve nts which may be too dangerousI co stly, o:rdHf itu lttoencount~r.

Typ ical ,exampl e siticlud e operat i r'rg a nucle a r po wer

. .

plant or'p11ot!n g.an.aircraft . Sec on d ly, as a dyna mJc.(active )system•.th.elear~er must"i nt er ac t with'the'pr ogr am- an a"ctivitywhtch enccur-ases"the develop ment:~fhigherorder"fntellect ual skil ls (Wa l ke r, 198 3) .

(L1Pson e ndLtcs cn(1980 )'s ta te tha t s1mulll.t·ion s maY/becreated for most, i f notall. real wor ld phe cnena andcit e popula t ion gr owt h, political ne!lfti ~tion,^{and chemical reactions}as exampl e s.IIn

~ .

the pa.st.' wj:!ll rece ived simulations hevebeen developed bymember s of the.la r ger educational computerprojects .. Some

e x~mPles

ⁱnc l ude...

,I nhe r it ance bythe British Computer s fnthe

curr~cuiump.rojec'tand R.!i'by 'membe r-s of th e U.S . based 'Hunt i ngt o n Computer Pr cdect . Acommercial cur'rentsimulation.for micro computers 15

24

.p r O j e c t i~eMotion WorkShop by Hi,ghTech no logy

Software Products Inc . The programillustrates projectile motion unde r the influence of gravity with theprovision fo'r le a r ne r interactio n'throug h mani'pulatfoOof vario u s par aaete rs•

(iii) Problemsolving/Data storage/Calculato r. Inth is mode. -theccnput er^ts compL1tat:i on,and'st or age capabf1f,t1es are 'ut il izedto ~equce ^{t1me and} effort on"o the r wlse onerous tt's ks..used"a sa cetcutet c.r,vast amountsof ,da t amay be manfp.ula ted .t n

m~cro~ econdS' _~s i n g

^:co,mple?<-

fo·~mul a s ._

^Inthe

prob-ten solvingmode, the us e r devel ops programs:

for thecomputer Of' uses tho s e marketed commercially. (1v) Creative ac ti viti e s . The computerisnow II medium

fo r cree t-tve expres s tonthro ughar t, music. de stqn, poetry ,and progr~mming . Infact, ttvmay be.the creatiye'·aspects of mt c r-occmputtnq that addict.lon!) term u~~rsca11ed ~'hrackers", Suct!-e s e r-s.~pen1.

endless da¥s and'nights.e x pl orfns the computer's

I' ,

ce pebtfttfe s and potential app lic atio ns. The lOGO lan gu a ge s provide chil drenwith the pro9ramming means to explore..the.c on puterts potentia l and actively crea te as.they wi s h.

Of c our s'e-,while"the us e s of the microcompute r for teac~,ingpujt'Jlos.es are ma nyendzverted, rel'es ar enot neces s erttyindep en dent. That 15 .t~-tor1al

prograJl.lsmaytncl ude somedialogue and simulat io n.

Simil ar ly, elect ronic modelsmay exist alone for exampJe-l-"simulatl ng pcpu'le t tcn changes over'tim e.

___ ':--A s'tec hnolo gyadvances . particular ly with respect toauth or i ngla ngua ges. mostsoft,:.~remay~~ a

"soup".of ins tr uc tion al strateg ies .

I I. Computer Manage dInstru c t io n(cMIl Thec'cmputer may al so be us e dtoas s,i s t wit h instr uc t ion a l'manageme nt; Adisti nc't'~o nbetween this

~t~ategy ^{and'ICAIis thatcompute r m1anageci}i.n s'tr~ct f on'^(.CHI)

··i s.

~ed ~j) co,6r'~i .nafe l ea. ," i ".9 0pport.~n iti es-.

^{while"tn·,CAI.,}

th cQ..meu te ris direct ly.involve d in the teac h ing process.

,

.

' '.

. SpecifiCally, CHImay serve the tea ch er byaddr e s si ng the fOllOWi ng,ta,s ks: .Re cor d andst udentdata ke epin g. ,.I ns t r uc t fo na l goal formatio n. Guid a nceands e l ect tenof

lea rning events andma teria ls ;Assessing and evaluat i ng lear ne r pe r f o r manc e ; lnstr-ument constr uc tion - te s t s / a'ttitude s

z

surveys.

A simp

..

lified^. CMIprogrammay proceed in the (oll owin gman ne r. Students are assignedlearni ngactivit ies wh i ch refle ct ins t ruc t i ona l goals. Iheycpt-cq re s s thro ugh the recommendedactivities" and,dependtnqupon,their pe r for aance('!hicf has been evaluate dbythe compute r), .be pro mote d to the ne xt le s so n oraSrgnedremedial wor k. In th is way.-the comput e r has teste d , cor rected.andassig ned activ it ies fo r the lea rn er, thus es sfsetncthete a che ~with

26

ti meconsu ming admi n ist r a tiv e tasks.

Tra diti onally, instr uctional managementappea r s to have lag ged behindCAl,but as Al l e n (1980 ) notes,CHIis expanding gradu a lly witha signifi cant percenta geof sc.hoo ls using co mputersfor this purpose . In.the pas t ,sever al successful CMI large~ca l e sys t e ms~eme rge d ^tnthe United s te tes.andBritain fo r use in pu blic sc h o~ls. Some of these iri ~ l u d e the:Automated In structfone l Management Sys t em {AI MS); Proqr-em for:le a r n i n g fn Accordance withNeeds (PUt!l;__

. Wisco n s i n Sy ste mof Instructional Management(WIS- S I M) ; Individua)1 YPrescribedInstruct1on/Man~gementSystem (JPI/MIS; ) and

Instr~c tf onal Mana gem~nt

^{System(1M'S)';}

compUrr i Z~ d.Inst r u c tio n a l SupportSyst e m (CISS) i Pl.Ar.O com: j e rMana ge mentandInstruct ion (PCMI)i A1r Forces ---.Jol..ttNan Researchla bora t o ry.( AFHRl) ;"He r tf~ r ds hi re.compu t e r

,Ma nage d Proje ctand Comp ute r

.

As s i st ed Manag e ment^, of Le a rntnq

(CAMOl) (Splittge rber :-1979 ;jm~ t he &Lovett, 197 9 ). CHI

"I 1" ,Progra ms are commerciall yava ilablefor microc omputers. , ThlfGrade Storage Dis ke tt e.for instance. is marketed by

.,Co~o n e t Instruct ional ~e d i afor use 'wit h mostmicr oc oinp u t e r s.

Non-Instruc ti onal Usaqe

.l. AdmlnistraUve Applt ca t i o n s

Computer s,aQd pe rttcute rtyroi(;rocom~uters.are betnq .applied o'na"greater scete toassist with school adm1ni s-

trettve tasks (J ohnston. 1985) . The technolo9Y,ts be1ng

27

appl iedto as s i st In the s chedultnq of courses, recording of stud en t data and.r e c or-ds , material-s Inventory ,accounting. and bud geti ng. With the vast amountsoftnrc rmetton contained ondata sheets inany school office , the

utilization of a powerful microcomp ute'r for information, -...v

,

. .

storage and hand.11ng1s'time saving. convenient.an;d

efffc~ent.'.Mar Shal.l (1982) ~_la1msthat over 80 pe rce.nt of ".

s chool ma nagemehtfunctions..can now be hand led'by micro- compu t ers.

Pr~gram5fo r.these.pur po s e s may,~ ow·.b epurche'sed from software.ho.us es foruse-on mos t.common nt croccmpuee r systems. For:example.

J B~ ' S

^$ocra'tes

prog~am

^{'perfor ms}

dQmin1stra tive routi nes byp'r~per lYarra ng1,~g^and

schedu ling students ' courses ,classrooms, puptts, andteachers. Barone (19B5) states thata successfu l applicatio n of alar ge scale ccmputertzedadministrativesystem has occurredin theMetropolitanToronto Separate School system.

Since its edepttcn; the computedzed information'da t a base hasp.rovtded fmprn ved studen t placemen t , decision makting,.

and planni ngservices with increased relianceandcost

"savings.

Pa standPre s ent Canad ian Trends in Compute r"BasedEducatio n

Tradit i onall y, computinginCanadi ancol leges and

,

schools was a subject of study ra t her than'a veh1c le for

)

28

thedelivery or man~gementof tnstructton (Kna'ppe r &Wills , 1984). Meeting t_~ene e d.for more research tn j'ts instructio nal'potential became the responsibility of research organizationsan dinstitutfons of higher education such as the National Research ccunct 1 (NRC) and the On tar io Institu tefor studies in Education(OISE):

In 19 69, the NRCand,the,OISE1n,a'SSOFiation with Canadianeducatio na l tnstttutt cns andbus,1ness ..f1rms embarked on are s ~ ar c h-e nd developmentproject.in CAl (CAL), Its aim was.to "ensure the aveilabt tit y by 19aO'ofe-vteble and cos.t eff,ectivecomputeraided lear nin g syst.em'for

ce

nedfen us er s ': CSrahan.,19?6, p. 1). Thr o.ugh .'1life of twelve year-s, the pr oj e c t involvedon - li neconnectio nto ~host of collegesan-d-un iv e r s iti e s including the OISE,McMaster University, tne-untver-st ty of New Brunswick, the,Univ e r s it y of Calgary, Algon quin College,andCarlton University, Its purposewas to improve CAl techno logyin ne t wo r k communications,' ha r dwa r e andsott we r-e, authoring la ng.ua ge s'.

and le a r ning mate rtatsipr-oducctonte ch ni q ue s". Branan(1976) 'notes ~be'proje c t was 'successful,par t i c ula r l,Y with'r espe c t

to the development_. of the Nationa'l, 'Aut hori ng la ngu a ge . acrcnymcusiy k.nownes NATAl. NATALis anadv~G-e-ChT9h, level prog"r amming lang uag efo r educ;t~rs ~h.owi s h to de;lgn arid produce lea r.n1n g

ma ter1al~',

^The'

co u~(; H~nagement ,

^and

Pr e pa r a t i o n System (COMPS) is a.no t he r N~Cbase de cttv.tty . Itis a~o~his tica tedcoursewarepreparatio nsystem •

... . ,

29

prograpl'med in NATAL and requtr tnq no specializedskillsOn

the,part o~the tn sr r ue t tcne l developer (W1H, 1983 ).

Th roughout·the co u n t ry,.addttionpl research tnCAl has occurred at the UniversityofWate rl oo with the

,

develo pmentor-amulti-mediain s t r uc t i o nal-systemtermed COMIT (Computer ilf!i:!Multi -Media Ins t r uc ti o na l r el evtstcn).

. .

Knapper {I9BOl states that duri ngthe pro;e~t' s life. a range of learning,mete r tels ~erep'roduc ed'including 51mul~ t 1 on and drill arid"p'ra~ t1ce pr.og.ra~s . ,In ManitobTl•..

SandalS."-McMl11an and Wor k~anha ve initiated a·p roje~t".'to de vel op CAl

ina t~r1 al s

ⁱⁿ mathematics_\.

l angUage~ . ,

.^a.nc(

l i.!.~ ·

skills for urban and rural SCho91 s in Manitoba"(Sa ~ da'1s.

McM11la n&Wor kman. 1980). At the Universityof Al ber t a , Bent (1980) notes that the ~ivislon ^ofEducatio;~al^{Re seer}

cf

Servtce s, under the dire ct i on of Steve Hunka,has, since

. .

: : ::; ::::e:::::o:: ::::':::":,::~"::t;::;:~ t::',e, ;?e_te,

1nstallmerftof PLATOha r dwar e and'coursew",re at the untverstty of·Que be.c(Bl a nc het , 1980);··test!ngand',the.

teach1 11~

^of

statfst~ cal ·da.ta 1l.~<i.1 ys1s ~1 ai~uter a~. ·the ·

... . ..U."....

I' ..e .' . . .

^{' f ty}

of Geelp' (He

^{l leEt ,}

·l~.W.'

^&

Holt. .

^{1983)' ;.andCA)}

. .'". . e a t l ons for the'hand i c a ppedat the Univ e r s 1fy of

,~a lga<ry'

^{(Brebner, Chrke,&}

J Oh~$On ,

^{1983).' llndoubtedly,}

other.researchha soccurr-ed-els evhe re.

'30

A large"sc a l e Canadian telecommu nications net.... o rk

",!ith gr ea t teach ingand

le~r·n .lng

^potent.hl

. 1 s". ti>e- T.~} l DO,"

"s ys

'

tem. TEUOON

.

,isa t"'wo'way fnteractfv~

,

"televJsiOn sys t e m under the.e uspt c e s of the'Ca nad;h n uepar ment of Communicationsand incorporates tejevts tonmon1-10"5,

'~omPlJ te r te~,!lna lS . otel ec ommu n1 i:~t1 0nS

^{li n k s:}

a~d

^{.. . '}

~A;

int elli gen t courseware. Muter, r r-eurn tet, and I\h1J lips (1980 )

cl~~i

^{t'ilit,TE[ IOON.w11}

T)~~com'e

^'1nc"r.eas

1n~l Y

^-

s uphi5tica ie'd'an<l-may~~en.tua~^-,;.perln_i' Ca n a da.Wll~e^,"

teleconferenci ngwith computingfaci1'it.1'e"s-f o r educ e'to rs' .', usingNATAl' :and"'a ·na t 1o n"a 1

1nforma~'1 on 'net\ork~':

^{" ' "}

...

I-n~eed . -

^CAl

1t'~.en dS

^in.

tan~'da'

^{have 'C1oSe 1Ymtrro re l:J}

those of the United-Statesand,elsewhere. ,·E·ssential1Y .·~

.

'

.

"ts hort 11 d computer based educatio nproject sconfined ;

" ' ,', $o ' . ' ~

ma i nl y·to ins t it u t i onsOf~h ighe r.educat!O n and' 90Ver'lme n.t·

d~partmE!'n t s wer~.created to ex·pl'ore.aTld·ha r ne s s.the

"pc tentfe l,of ~h e compute r as e nceducettonel aid . .The NRC"

of Ca nada. a major.

th~US~

^{'o { CAl}

rese~rch', '

has·',.been credite'd_(NA,TA:l,a.for_nd'

.

_{pro duc}'pi one er^-_t.ti ng expl or e_on,^,_~e.c~

,

_{n 1,q UeS}

.

tton_in't_'~Inauth~ma t er ial s 'rln~;^{, lan-}ljJ.L.a ge s

^.

de vel opme rrt.

, . ' ,

De s pft e .."'hoW'e'ler , some tnrens tve though s pc r edt c research'fn

t~1S

^{fi e'ld, CSE.}

pa rtic_ula~l ~

^tfle

compu~r 's '

. use a'sa tool for-tnstructtcn, isno t-bef ng a pp""fed,.to .,.

.,

.'

:-"

·'·t.

"

.

'.~ 31

' . ,

micros.ar~ bein g.pur c ha s e dby these tnstttuttonsat a.rapid"

. '

" ~

ra,te('Rich ,-198.3). Acloserexe ef netton, ho we ve r , reveets gro wing"app licationas'a"'subjectof learning ~nd admi.nis~·

)t.ra ~ 1v e t~ol re1ati~eto.its instructional utility- which appe a r s.con f i ne d.to the."c·ommlttedfew" (R(Ch: . 198 3).

Computer lit e r ac y. inparticular,has gafned .cons i der abl e·popula·rit y-·inrecentyears

a~tl'n g

^pubttc'and

edu'c"atton'd~c1^S1on meker-s ".:Th.1s•trend, wh,iJehera"lded'by.

• ' . • " " -"'.", " 'J:.! ," '.,'

many,to'be the."t h era py.f or,an"unhe~ l t q y educettcn syst_elJl ~ is-no!,wit hout

tts~rl't

^f'.c,$.·

~ 'oip~e~\s ~la1

^m

'~ompu

^ter";

l'Uer a cyajone 1s

poo~:·u tflizatf6-n

^__

Of 'a .po'ten,ti~1 ~y fr~i:tf'u l

r-esour-cer

tb~t ' pred i ~~fori's

^for

:f'utur~ wid~sprei!l 'd"prOgri!lmm1'~g :

,

Skl 11~

^by

y ~u"g pe~ p;e ~"overstated ;

^and

com~uter l itera~y'

f.sme..-elyeduc'ato'rs^t re s pcn se.tQ'.t he'publfcts clamor for'a mor-e prog ress ive , p r.acttca1educ ettontMenoskY.1984:;

B~rns ,te1n'11983)', ' - Re'~so ns

^{"aside \'much}

~nf t1'atfye'

^is.

f~.cus edon computer awa r en e s s; ma.'king i t the'fastest growing arJ aof CAl in

C~na da (~iC h. 19~3),

^'

'A review-of l1tera-~urepe r t ai ni n g'; othe C'anadfara' stetus (IUO'o f~lcrocomputer ^use-shcws ciearlY·,that-tanedte n

"

. .

^{, '}

provi n:f al dep artme ntsof educati?n.!'l,rlj!~akin9efforts..to ens ur ethat computi ng is ne s t ed in the c.yrric u ! um.'albe.it t-he;

tn ten~1~~f 1'mp l~m'e!1 tat1on

^'alJd

prc:i.~ams o'ffe'~:"d

^varies',

prov 1nc iil:.l1yand eve n loc all y', Recen t effor tsin"s u ppor t' ccmpurer bas e d educat·to\ maybe 'found

t~r'ou9hout't ~~

^country.

Brf ti s hColu m ~i a. forex a m p l e .~as.fUT:c hased ten,th ousa n~

." ,

/,

., ,,,,,.: