St.John's
AN EVALUATIVE STUDYOF THE EDUCATIONAL THERAPY SERVICES PROVIDED BY THE
ROMANCA
moue
ANDIN'fEGRATED SCHOOL BOARDS OF THEBURINPENINSULA
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CJamesKing, B.P.E.,B.Ed.
Adwissubmirudto 1MSdJoolofGr:tJdUfJlt StudiesinpartialfuIfillmtnJofthenquinmtnss
lOTthe tkgnt01 Master of Education
Facultyof Education MemorialUniversil} ~Newfoundland
1991
Newfoundland
11+1
NaliooalLibraryctcaoeoa BilJliolheqoo oalicna lC dlJCanada
CanadianThesesScrviec 8el'liccdcs t!lCSl1SCatladienncs
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L'aut eur conservetaoroor tetedudroilc'autecr quiprotege sa these.NiIamesenides extrelts suostanueiede ceae-ct nodoivcnt Olro imprimes auaulrement rcpro duil s sansson en odsetcn.
ISBN 0-:315 -61;)2-1.3-4
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The presentstudywas designedto evaluatethe educational therapy services providedby the RomanCatholicand Integrated SChool Boardsof the Burin Peninsula, Newfoundland.
Educational therapy is a relativelynew programin the Newfoundland educationalsystemthat has expandedprovincewide sinceits introduction in 1979.
Since its inceptiontherehasbeen some controversy surroundingissuessuch as therapists'role and programsuccess.
The aim of the study was to evaluate the design and deliveryof educational therapy services. Inaddition,opinions were solicitedfromthe various stakeholdersregardingthe importanceofsuch servicesand ratings were obtained of theirsatisfactionwith these services.
The sampleconsistedof all educationaltherapistsand principalsof schools with educationaltherapy services, all parentsof core therapystudentsand six teachers from eachof the 10 schools involved. Each individualin the sample receiveda questionnaire designedespeciallyfor that particulargroup.
The key findingsof this study are as follows:
1. There is a highlevel of satisfaction with educational therapy servicesand strong advocacyfrom all groups inthe study that educational therapy servicesberetainedand enhanced.
2. There are anumberofinconsistencies withthe procedures used among variousschoolsin the deliveryof educationaltherapy services.
3. There arcgood communications reported amongeducational rbereapisrs. principals,parents,and mostteachersinvolvedwith core therapy students.However,25%of teachersexpressed dissatisfactionwith currentcommunications,
4, Mosleducationaltherapists (66%), which representssix out ofnine counscnor/rneraptsts aresatisfied withthe variousaspectsoftheir currentposition.
S. Parentsareusually consulted andinvolved incase conferences concerningtheirchildren'sproblems.However,lessthan50%of parents who responded have been involvedin the development of IPP'sfor theirchildren.
6, Allfourgroups are satisfied withthe outcomes achievedfrom the educationaltherapyprogram.Even though all four groups rated the outcomes positively, teachers' ratingsare consistentlylower thanthe otherthree groups011alleightcategoriesusedtomeasure outcome.
7, Amajorityofeducationaltherapists feci that the dualrole assignmentofcounsellor/therapisthas an adverse effectonthe deliveryof~educationaltherapy services,
8. Principalsandeducationaltherapistsgenerallyagreethat procedures currently used bythe NewfoundlandGovernment for allocating
iii
educational therapyunitsto schoolboards willhaveanegative effecton the deliveryofeducationaltherapy services.
9. Teachersand principalsindicate aillredformorestaffluscrvicc to createa betterawareness oftherolesandresponsibilitiesuf educationaltherapists.
10. Allofthe educational therapists involved in thisstudy arcqualifird forsuch a positionandmeet the requirementsoutlined bythe Newfoundland Department of Education initspolicy manual (1911(,).
I\. Thereisnogeneralconsensusof agreementregardingdisciplinary procedures foreducationaltherapy students.
12. There is a highdegreeofconsistency among educationalthcmpisrs relatedtoprocedur esused and informationgatheredfor identification purposes andexitprocedures.
13. Thereis generalagreementthat studentsshouldhave inputinto entranceandexit proceduresforeducationaltherapyservices.
However, input shoulddependonthe age andmaturityofthe child, as well as the reasonforreferral.
14. Principals and teachers aregenerallyaware of theroleof educational therapists. However, a signilicantnumber of teac hers (31%)areunsure oftheroleofthis professional.
15. Thereis nosignificantrelationshipbetween parents'ratings ofthe personalcharacteristicsofeducationaltherapists andsatisfaction witheducational therapy servicesprovided.
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16. All foursurveyed groups considereducational therapy servicesvery important servicesfor schools 10 provide.
In general.theeducational therapy program was foundtobewellorganized ini.sdeliveryof therapy services.The programreceived highoverall ratings despite some disagreements on individual issues. In the finalchapter. several recommendationshavebeendevelopedtohelp improve existing services.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENfS
I wish to express mysincere thanks to Dr. Glenn Sheppard,supervisor of this thesis, for his support and encouragement throughoutall phases of this study.
I would like to acknowledgesuperintendents.special service co-ordinators and educational psychologists employed with the Roman Catholic and Integrated School Boards of the Burin Peninsula for their co-operation and advice during the initial stages of the study,I would also like to thank all counsellors/therapists frombothschool boards for their assistance in gathering the necessarydata for this study.
Finally,thanks are extended to family and fellow graduate students for providingencouragement and guidance along the way.
vi
TABLEOF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS LIST OFTABLES •. •••• LISTOF FIGURES
CHAPTER
INTRODUC'10NTO THESTUDY Purpose .... . ..•. , Rationale ... . •..
Research Questions ••.. •.. • . •. . . . .... ..•• •. .. ••.
Definition of Terms....•. . . . ... ...•. ..•••..
Limitations .. . •. • . . . •.•... ... ..••....•.. . Organizationof this Report .... ... . ...•.
II. REVIEWOF THE LITERATURE ...•. ... .... .. vi
xii
1 2 II 13 16 11 18 HistoricalBackground •• ••• •••••.•.•• •• ••••••••••• 18 Aims/Goalsof EducationalTherapy •.. ••• ••,•• " ." ••, 24 Definitional Issues••.. ..•..• .•. . ••.• ".. .... .... 26 NewfoundlandDefinition .,.•.• . •• .•... .•....,... 3I Who ProvidesServicesfor Behaviorally DisorderedChildren 34 NewfoundlandServicesforBehaviorDisorderedYouth 38 fdentificationof BehaviorDisorderedStudents 40 ldentificationProcessin NewfoundlandSchoolSystem ..•,. . 44 Exit Procedures...•. .. .... . . .•....••, •,, .•. 44 NewfoundlandExit Procedures .,. " .. ...•,. ... . 4S Disciplinary Proceduresfor BehaviorallyDisorderedStudents.••. 46 Perceptionsof PsychologicalServices .,.. . . ... .. ... SO Need for Evaluationof PsychologicalServices•. .,... 58 MethodsofEvaluation ...••. .. .. .. 62 Designof this Study.•..• ••..•...• • • •.•..,.. ... 64
vii
III. METHODOLOGy . Sampling Procedure .. . . .. • . . . •• . Method or DataCollection Descriptionof theQuestionnaire
65 65 66 69
IV. ANALYSISOFTHEDATA .. 72
Demographic Characteristics ... 73
Analysis ofResearchQuestions . . .•.. . . 76
Research Question I ... .. .. . ... ... 76 Research Question1:Teachers .. .• •.•• . ... 93 ResearchQuestion 1: Parents .. ... ..•.. 95 ResearchQuestion 2 . ... . . .... 100 Research Question3 .. . . .. . •. . ... ... . . .. 106
Research Question4 108
ResearchQuestion5 109
Research Question6 111
ResearchQuestion 7 118
Research Question8 ',26
Resear chQuestion9 .• . ..•.. .. ... . . • 1'28
Research Question10 132
Research QuestionII .... ... .• ..•. .. . . ... ...• 133
Summary .. •.. . 136
v,
SUMMARYIDISCUSSIONAND RECOMMENOATlONS 137Introduction •.... . ... .. .... . • • . . .• .•• 137 SUlTl mary and Discussion ... . ...•. ....• ... 138
SectionI. (Research QuestionsI and3) 138
Section 2.(Research Questions 2and 8) ... .•.... . . 147
Section 3.(Research Question4) 150
Section 4.(Research Question6) .. . . •• •. . • . .. 151
Section5.(Research Question 7) 153
Section6.(Research Question9) ..•...•... .. . . . 155 Section 7.(Research Question11) .. . • . ... ..•... 156 Section 8.(ResearchQuestion10) .. .• . ..•... 157 Section 9.(Research Question 5) ••. . ..•. . . . .•. ... 157 Recommendations •.•..•• ....••.••..•.•.... .. .. . 158 REFERENCES
viii
160
APPENDICES . \70 A. CCROOEFINInON OF EMOTlONAL OR BEHAVIORAL
DISORDERS ... . .•.•... ... . .... . I7t B. NEWFOUNDLAND DEFINITIONOF~EHAVIOR
DISORDERS •.... ., . . .... . .. ... . . . . ... . 173
C. LETTERS OF REQUESTTOSUPERINTENDENTS 175
D. MEMOTO EDUCATIONALTHERAPISTS/COUNSELLORS.. 180 E. COVER LEITERS TO RESPONDENTS ...•...•.. 184 F. FOLLOW·UP LETTER TOEDUCATIONAL THERAPISTS... 192 G. QUESTIONNAIRES ... .. ...•.•.•...•... 194
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Table
SamplePopulation and ReturnRates 73
DemographicCharacteristicsofthe three Professional
SampleGroups ... .. . • . . . . .... 74
3 Comparison of Responses Concerning Current Educational Therapy ServicesProgramDesignand Operation 79 Program Designand Operation-Therapists'Views .. . 80
Team MembersInvolvedin StudentPlacement re:EducationalTherapy... ...•.... .. 83
6Type of Consultationby TherapistsConcerningCore Therapy Students.... . .. . . .. ... . . ...•... .••. ... 83
7 Personnel Involved in DesigningIPP'sfor Core Therapy Students ••... . . .. . .•.. . .••.• .. .. .... . 84
8 ProceduresUsed10Assess IPP'sand EvaluateStudentProgress .. f,6 9 Presentand PreferredCounsellorfTherapist SupervisionPractices.. U7 10 Aims/Philosophyof Educational Therapy Services.•• • . .. . .•. 88
11Effect ofExtra Dutieson Qualityof Educational Therapy Services •....•. .. ...•.... . .•.•... . .. .. 89
12 Type of Inservice Providedto Teachersby Educational Therapists... ... . .. . . .... . . .•... .•. . . 90
13 Teacher Awarenessof Therapist-Led Inservice .. ... . •.... . . 90
14 ReferralSourcesfor EducationalTherapy .•.. ... . .... 91
ISPersonnelwhoImplementTherapists'Recommendations ... 92
16 Flexibilityof StudentTimetablesfor EducationalTherapy
n
17Educational Therapists'Job Satisfaction ••. •..•. . . . .. .. 9418TeacherViews~Program Designand Delivery .• .. •. . . .. .. 96
19Parent Views-Program Designand Delivery .•...•.•...•. 97
20Parent Involvementin EducationalTherapy Programming 97 21 CommunicationsBetweenParent"and Educational Therapists asReportedbyParents ...•.•... . .... . . .. 99
22 Educational Therapists' Effecton Teachers'Copingwith DOStudents ...•. . . ... . . .• •. .•... ....• .• .... . tOO 23Parent Satisfactionwith ProgramOutcomes•. . ••• ... ••. 102
24Parent Satisfactionwith Case Conferences... • •.•• . ... 103 2SMeans andStandardDeviationsof Ratingsof Educational
TherapyServicesbyeach Group .... .•••.•. . ...• . . . • lOS 26 Effect of Dual RolesonEducationalTherapyServices 107
27 Awareness of Current Allocation Procedures IorEducational
Therapy Units 108
28Effect of New AllocationProcedures on Educational
Therapy Services •.... .... .... •.•. . . . •.. ..• .... 109 29Recommendations for Improvement ofBducaticnalTherapy
Services . . ...• ••... . . ... 110 30Discipline of Core Educational Therapy Students 112 31Multi-disciplinaryTeamApproach:Therapists'andPrincipals'
Views •... ••.... .. ...•. ..•.•...•. . .... . . .. ItS 32Personnel InvolvedwithDiscipline for B.D .Students ....•••.. 116 33Prevalence of AlternativeDiscipline MeasuresUsedWith B.D.
Students ..• . . . . .. .•.. .. . • . •. . . . .•. •. .. •.... 117 34 Typesof Alternative DisciplineMeasUICSUsed WithB.D.
Students ... ...•,. . . ... . ... . . .... It7 35ldentilication Issues ,.. ... . . . ... . .. . . . .... 119 36IdentificationProcess:Sources ofJ-formanon .•.•. • . .•.... 121 37Exit Procedures:SchoolBoardPolicy ,. ..•. ... ...•. 122 38Tennination of Educational Therapy Services:Personnel
Involved ...••. ...•• ..•..•.•...•. t23 39Factors Consideredin Termination of Educational Therapy
Services .. .•.. .••.... •..• .. •... • ... . .... 124 40Srudent Involvement in Exit Procedures:TeacherViews 125 41 Awareness of Educational Therapists'Rolevs.Counsellors'
Role by PrincipalsandTeachers .•.. •... ...•. ..•.. . . 127 42 Role Definition of Educational Therapist: Principals' Views 128 43Parents'Ratings of Counsellor Characteristics •..• . .. .•. . .• 130 44Parent Ratings ,Effectiveness of Educational Therapy Services •. • 131 45 Necessity and ImportanceofEducational TherapyServices • . . .. 132 46 Qualifications and Teaching Experience of Educational
Therapists ••• • . . .. . • ,... . .. . •.•.••.. .. . • 134 47 Desirable Qualificationsfor Educational Therapists:Views of
Educational Therapists,Principals and Teachers ..•.•• •...• 135
xi
LIST OFnGUIlFS
Figure
I Ratingof EducationalTherapyServicesinTerms of Student Improvement .•. . ... ... .. ... ..,. .. ... 106
xii
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTIONOF TIlES11JDY
The purpose ofthisstudy was to evaluate the Educational TherapyServices providedbytheRoman CatholicandIntegratedSchool Boards ofthe Burin Peninsula,Newfoundland.The studywasdesignedtoevaluate, inparticular,the followingcomponentsof thoseservices:
Aims/Goals ofthe Educational Therapy Program 2. Identifica tionProcedur es
3. Involvement of OutsideAgencies
4. Disciplin eManage mentforBehaviorDisorde red Studen ts 5. Effects ofDualRoles {Counsellorrfherapist) 6. Exit Procedures
7. Outcome
8. Evaluation Procedures
In ordertogatherthenecess arydata forthis study questionnaireswere designedand administeredto all principals andeducational therapists, allparents of current~therapy students,and to asample of teachers from each schoolin theregion underthe jurisdictionof thetwoschool boards.
Historically, public schoolsystemshavenotbeenparticularlywdlequiwed or competentto meetthespeci:l1needsofthose:studentswho(..;.viatesignificanl.1 y from the nonn ineither theircognitive or behavioralabilities.Itwasnotuntilthe early1900' sthat theproblem ofmentalrewda tion andconcernforchildrenwith specialneedsbecameafocusof research(Slainback&:Stainback.1980).The developmentof instrumentstomeasure intellectual functioningandmethods of teachingintellectuallyhandicappedchildrenbegan withBinetandSimon inlOOt Binet,early inthe20thcentury.wascommissioned bythe Frenchgovernmentto study mentaldeficiency intheParis schoolsyste m.Hisintelligencetestswere usedtodiscriminalCthosechildrenwhocouldbenefitfromnormal school experiencesfromthose wholacked the capacitytoadvance.Thefirstprograms andservicesset up for severelydisturbedchildren were mostlyresidential in nature(Schwartz&:Johnson, 1985; Anderson-I...ane, 1990;andwoltensberger, 1m).However, withtheadvent of PublicLaw94-142,theEducation forAU Handicapped ChildrenActintheUnitedSlates (1917),theWunockReportin Britain(1918)and the Cel.:lcReportinCanada(1910),thereIw beena strong movementtoprovide anappropriate educationforall handicappedstudentsinthe regularschoolsystem.The firstspecial program and servicesprovided to mentallyhandicappedchildrenbythe schoolsystemwere generallybyway of specialschoolsor segregtted classes.However,todaytherehasbeenawidely acceptedmovementtoshif\ from segregatedsettingstomainstreaminghandicapped
st udents in theregularclassroom,whileatthesametime providin gthem with additiona lsupport services.
TlIroughout Canada manyprofessionally trainedteachers .school co unsello rs.educationalpsyc hologis ts andeducational therapistshavebeenhired to pro videservicesforspecialneedsstudents (Grosenick , 1981 ;Grosenlck , George , Geo rge&lewis,1:>91;Dworet&Rathgeber, 1990).Csapo(1981)andDwore t
&Rathgebe r (1990) bolhreport thatlocal schooldistr ictshavetheprimarylocu s ofresponsibil ity for theorganizationand delive ryofservicesto behavio rally disorderedstudents across Canada.
One ofthemostchallenging groups of childrento prov ideschoolbased serv ices10arclhosechild ren wilhsevereconductdisordersor otherbehavioral disab ilities.Thesechildren havebeenvariouslylabelled asemo tiooallydisturbed , behaviorallydisturbed,behaviordisorderedandsofort h.Asaresult,theissueof definingabehaviQrdjw rderesfstude nthasreceivedconsiderableattentio n (Cullinan. Epstein&:Kaufman,1984;Garbe r ,1984:Epstein,Cullinan&
Sabatino.19TI;Cullinan,Epstcin& Mclinden.1986:Bower.1982;Gresha m.
19 85; Csapo,1981;Dworet&Rathg e ber.198 8).
Atthepresen t limethereisno univer sallyaccepteddefinitionof a behav ior disorderedstudent in the UnitedSlatesorCanada.Thereare definitionscurrently used whichcauseproblemsinareas such as: funding,prevalenceestim a tes, scree ning, identificationand research. However,therei~still progress beingmad e to wards find ingauniversally acceptable definition.Asof DecemberI,1990,the
Councilfor Children with Behavio r Disorders (CCllD)announcedthe iraCCCpl11I1Ce ofanew definitionof emotionalorbehavioraldisorders(EBD)(sec AppendixA).
111emainthrustbehindtheacceptanceof this new definition wastheproblemof under-identificati onof childrenusingtheCUrTCntdefinitions. Dworctlind Rathgebe r(1988)in a Canadianstudyfound thatonly ten of the twelv e provincial orterritorialjurisdictions had anofficialdefinitionandorthese tellonlytwowen.' thesam e.
TheGovernmentofNewfoundland,inresponsetotheneedsofbehavio r disorderedstudents,createda relatively unique servicein Canada called educationaltherapy services (Departmentof Education,1986).This serviceledtil the initiationof a newprofessional on theeducatio nalscene in Newfoundland called,educationaltherapist.Itistherole of educa tionaltherapistsinthisprogram to help meet thepsychologicalandemotionalneedsof thesestudents identifie d as having significantbehavio raldisabilitiesandreferredto withinthis serviceasrun;
~.Thetherapists haveresponsibilityforpromotingbehavioralchangetha is moresocially acceptable.inorderto permitthe student toreceivean appropriate educatio nintheregularclassroom selling. ThedefinitionUSL'dby theDepartment of EducationinNewfoundlandto identify behavio rdisordered studen tsis essentiallythe sameas the federalU.S.definitionas statedinPublicLaw,94-142 (Bower,1982)(see AppendixB).
The firsteducatlonaljhera pist inNewfoundland wasemployed in1979 when theTerraNova IntegratedSchool Boardpiloted the first educationaltherapy
unit in theProvince(Smerdon&Butt.1985).Theconcept was lookedatbyother school districtswithinterest and perhapsscepticismas well. According to Butt (1987),it took some time beforetheservicebecame knownand seenas avalid student supportservicein theschools.Initially ,therewas evidencethat many teachersrejected the concept.At the time educational therapy wasintrod uced teacherswere faced withlay-offs,cut-backs,decliningenrolments,and increased workloads. Manyteachersresented the fact thatpersonnel wereappointed towork withsucha lowstude ntratio.Others felt that thetrea tment of emotionall y maladjusted children was the workof medicalauthorities,not educators.
However.through theefforts of theTerra Nova Integrated School Boardand the rapists who persisted in their effortstoeducateprofessionalsand parents...'xtut the irrole.thisattitude has greatly changed (Smerdon&Butt,1985).
Since1979 there hasbeenalarge increaseinthenumbe r of educational therapistsandtheservicehas extendedto allschoolboardsthroughout Newfoundland.The most recent figures availablefrom theDepartmentof Education show that therewere93 educational therapistsemployedprovince wide for the schoolyear 1989·90. Currentfiguresforthe1990-91 school year are una vailable from the Department of Education. Inevitab ly,thegrowthofthis servicehas notbeen withoutproblems. There havebeen many concerns,sllth as, esta blishing a shared view of therole ofeducationaltherapists, the strivingto establish standards of professional training and program delive ry,andquestions about the efficacyof educational therapy services (Sheppard,t989).
Originally,educational therapistswe re hired to work withasmallnumber ofstudents with seve rebehav ior disorders.Thissmall groupoffoorstu d l'f\ISWI:f\:
refe rred10 ascore students. Howcve r, curren tlythroughoutNewfoundland there isa pervasivemove awayfromexclusiveuse of1!IetitleofEduC3tioo., 1 'Therapist, 10thetitle of Counsellorrlherapist.Thismea ns thaIpersonswiththedual rule of counsellor/therapistarenowresponsibleforthe dutiesofbothaschool counsellor andan educationaltherapist. Thepercentage of limespent ineachcapaci ty varies fro moneschoolto another.
Ano therconcern isthechangeinallocationofeducationaltherapyunits10 schools.Originally, if thepropcrdocumentationwasadequate,thcPro vi ncial Governmentwouldallocateaneducationaltherapyunittoa school basedon demonstratedneed. Since19 87,however,special needssalary unas arc prwidcd 10 schoolbeardsbasedontotal schoolpopulationonly,E.1Ch schoolboardmust thendetermine how itis10utilizethesesalaryunitstoaddressthe need s ofall childrenwithspecialreeds. Withdecliningenrolments it isquileconcei vablethat many schoo ls may find themselvesunable to offereducationalthcrepy services10 studentswho obviouslyneed them. Buu (19 87 )expressesconcernthaimany people seethis move as regressiveand alesseningofthe much ncededservicesfor behaviordisordered studentsinthe schoolsystem.These majorconcernsaswell as manyotherissuespoint outtheneedforfurtherresearchconcerningthecurre nt statusand adequacy ofeducationaltherapyse rvicesin theNewfoundlandschool system.
This studyfocused011the schoolsof the BurinPeninsula,in Newfoundland,that offereducational therapyservicesunderthe RomanCatholic and Integratedschoolsystems. A brief review of educational therapyserviceson the BurinPeninsulareveals that the firsteducational therapistwashired by the Roman CatholicSchoolBoardin 1984.This schoolboardcurrentlyemploysten counsellor/therapists.They have two additionalcounsellor/Uterapyunits allocated whichare not currentiyfilledby qualifiedprofessionalsand thereforetheyare not providingfull therapyservices.As of September,1990, the RomanCatholic SchoolBoard had an enrolment of 3927studentsdistributed throughoutfourteen schools.
The firsteducationaJ therapisthired by the BurinPeninsula Integrated SchoolBoard wasin1985. This schoolboard currentlyemploystwo counsellor/therapists.and two schoolcounsellors. They also haveallocatedone full time educationaltherapypositiontoserve two schools,whichis not filled at the present time.In additiontothese counsellor/therapists,three full time educational psychologists are sharedbetweenthe two schoolboards.Itis thejob of theseprofessionals to provide psychological servicesto 3116 studentsdistributed throughoutatotalof thirteenschools.
In order for any new programsuchas educational therapyto surviveit mustbewillingtodemonstrate accountability (Lewis. 1983).In order to demonstrateaccountability, programsmustundergoevaluation. Aubrey (citedin Hiebert, 1984), states that "lack of systematicevaluationin timesof increased
demands for accountability,means that manycounsellingservices are in danger of serious eroston'' (p. 597). Lewis (1983)feels that evaluationis necessary forboth thesurvivalandimprovement of counselling programs.Theseviews areve ry well SUPIX>rtedin the literature on evaluationofhuman serviceprograms (Breakwell, 1987;Posavac&Corey,1985;Barsch, 1986; Grosenick,George&George, 1990 ) .
Thedifficultyof evaluatingprogramssuch as educational therapyispointed outbyMiller (citedin Breakwell, 1987),who states thai ·counselling does not work interm s of illness or cure,so it ishard10 assessilseffectiveness.There are no absolute criteria of success,Itrather dependsupon ones perspective" (p. 135).
Furthermore,the research literature showsthere is much conflicting evide nce abouttheeffectiveness of psychotherapeuticinterventions.Studiesby LewisandSysenck(citedin Schwartz&Johnson,1988), and Sheppard, Oppenheim and Mitchell (1966&197 1),concluded thatonthe average psychotherapeutictreatmenthadlittleeffect. Otherstudies byCaseyand Berman (1985)and Kolvin etaI.(1981)concluded that psychotherapyiseffective.
Confli cting results have been found between~~outcomesofeffectiveness.
Parentsand therapists reportedstrong positiveoutcomes, as didobservers involved in the research projects. Yet ,teachers and peers,also presumablyin close interactions withthe children,didnot report much improvement(Casey&.
Bennan,1985).
A recentstudy conducted byTaylor(1989)designedtoassessthemental healthneeds on the Burin Peninsula foundthaitherewerethreemajorareasof concern: (I)a high incidenceofchildsexualabuse,(2)family violence,and(3 ) drugandalcoholabuse.AllprofessionalsInterviewed aspartofthisstudystressed theimportance of theroteof theeducationsystemin promoting goodmental health.
Insummary.thefollowing concernsrelatedtotheeducationaltherapy services havebeen highlighted:(1)the need todemonsuateaccountability,(2) the recognized needforincreased mentalhealth services onthe BurinPeninsula,(3) theconflictingliteratureregarding theeffectiveness ofpsychotherapy,(4)the effectofnew allocationproceduresfor educa tional therapyunits.and(5) fear that theprovinc ialtrend ofcombining therotesoftherapists and counsellorsmaybe leadingtoan erosion intheprovisionof educational therapyservicestobehavio r disordered students.
Theabove concernsdemonstratethe need forevaluationof theservices that presentlyexist for behavior disordered students in Newfoundland.Today' ssociety posesincreaseddemands foraccountability. Currentlyir.Newfoundlandthere are extreme fiscal restraintsin the Departmentof Education,and school services such as counsellingand educationaltherapy arein danger of seriouserosion.
Breakwell(1981), conducteda literaturereviewof evaluationof student counsellingfortheperiod 1962-86.He found that evaluationofcounselling servicesis largely conducted by practisingcounsellors upontheirown services.
10 Obviously there are problemswithevaluating one'sownsuccessor failure in counselling.The problem of objectivity as well asthe anticipation of being evaluatedmay well affect outcomesby causingthe counsellor to perform slightly different than normal.InNewfoundland.according totheDepartmentof Education,Policy Manua!' Servjcrs for BehayjorallyPiWlrbe4Children(1986), the direct observation andevaluationof educational therapistsisnot possiblefor ethical reasons concerning confidentiality.
Bugenul (1988)states that programssuch as educationallherapyarc difficultto evaluatereliablydepending on the time framewithin whichthe judg ment is made andthe evaluationresults canbeheavilyinfluencedby the perspectiveof the person making theevaluation .Thereare twoequallyvalid
types<Ifproceduresuseful forevaluating counselling programs,accordingto Lombana (1985): empirical measures ascertain whether ornot a given objective was accomplishedwhereas perceptua lmeasuresdeterminehow the counsellor's efforts were viewed by others. Breakwell(1987) supportsthe perceptualmeasure of evaluationby slatingthat the most importantviews to considerin the evaluation of a counselling program are those of the people directly involved wit!". the program.
The design of this studyisperceptualinnature as it allowsfor the inputof opinions fromthe four main groups involvedin thedelivery and use of educational therapy services. Basedon the views of these four groups the results ofthis study provides a good indicationof the strengths andweaknessesofthecurrent service,
II aswell as of its overalleffectiveness.This valuableinformationcan beused to help guidethe two schoolboardsinvolved10improveexistingservicesaswell as providesupport{orpositive aspects of servicesthat currentlyexist.
~I<'!.m
Basedonthepurposeandrationale forthis studythe follow ing research questionswere addressed:
What arethecharacteristicsof thecurrent educatio nal therapy programdesignas providedbythe RomanCatholic andIntegrated SchoolBoards ofthe BurinPeninsu la, Newfoun dland,and how are the variouscomponentsofthis designopcrationalized?
2. To whatdegreearethepeople directlyinvolvedwith the educational therapy services(parents,education alther apists, principalsand teachers) satisfied with theoverallsuccess of theprogramin meeting ilsobjectives?
J. What are theperceivedeffcct(s)of the assignmentof dualroles under thetitlecounre!lQr/the!"jmjslonthe delivery of servicesto behavio rdisorderedstudents?
4, Whataretheperceivedeffcct(s)of the newallocationproceduresfor educationaltherapy unitson thede livery of educationaltherapy service sto behavior disorderedstudents?
12 5. Whatareasof servicepresently provided wouldthe surveyedgroups liketo see improved andwhatpriorities, if any,canbeascertained fromthe surveyresults?
6. How is discipline for educational therapyservicescurrently managed andacethese methods satisfactory inthe view of the identified surveygroups?
7. Whatfactorsare considered in theidentification of studentsfor educational therapy services and termination from these services? 8. To whatdegree are teachersand principals aware of therole of the
educationaltherapistand how this rolediffers fromtherole of the schoolcounsellor?
9. Whatis the relationshipbetween counsellor/therapistcharacteristics:
attractiveness.expertnessand trustworthiness(CRF-S:Corrigan&
Schmidt, 1983) and satisfaction with educationaltherapy services.as ratedbyparentsofcore therapystudents'?
10. To what degreedo the people whoare involvedwitheducational therapyservices (parentsof coretherapy students,teachers.
educationaltherapistsand principals) feelthatthese servicesare necessary andimportant?
11. Whatare the qualificationsof educationaltherapistsinthe target groupandwhatqualifications aredeemeddesirable forthis position in theopinionof educationaltherapists,principalsand teachen?
13 DcfinitlogorTenm
The followingare definitionsof particularterms used inthisstudy.Terms one andtwo are as definedbythe DepartmentofEducation.PoHcyManua!' SeO'jccs for BehayjorallyDisturbedCtilldwJ (1986)and are usedbytheRoman Catholic andIntegrated School Boards of the BurinPeninsula.
Edugtlona l lbera pkt:
Aqualifiededucational therapistis onewho hasamasters degree forcounsellors and psychologistswhichemphasizesthe competencies listed below:
1. Assessment anddiagnostic skillsin cognitive and personalityareas of behavior.
2. A highlevel of counselling/behaviorchange skillpreferably encompassinga varietyof counselling techniques ratherthan adherencetooneparttcularschoolormethod.
3. Goodconsultingskills withparentsandcolIeaguesin schoolsas well as fromother professions.
4. The ability 10 write clear andrelevantreportsandmaintainrecords ofAllinterventionswithstudents whichcanbepassed,without additionalinformation, to othersimilarly qualifiedpersonnel.
Sc:boolCounse llor:
The schoolcounsellor isdefinedbythe Departmentof Education (1986)in termsof six majorroles that are required tobeperformed:
1. Counselling> (individual or group).
Thismay involvecareerplanning,valuesor personalproblems whichmay bediscussedinanon-threatening situation. 2. Fducational and behavioralscreening andassessment 3. The maintenance ofinfonn ation services inthefollowing areas:
educational, vocational, personal/socialdevelopment,school info rmation.
4. Consulting/liaising-the counsellormay needtoconsult with teachers,parents. administratorsand other outside agencies.
5. Administration- such as:report writing,and confidentialrecord keeping,monitoringstudenttransfersandschool leavingforms.
6. Membership of a DistrictCounsellor'sCouncil for continuing counsellor education.
Counsellor/Therapist:
Onewho has a master'sdegreein educationalpsychologyor counsellingall~1is responsible(or boththe roleofthe school counsellor and educationaltherapist.Thepercentage of time allocated(or each rolemay vary fromschooltoschool.
14
l:m..S1wl<nl:
Acorestudent is one whoisformallyassessedtobeseverely behaviordisorderedand deemed (0bein need of educational therapyservices.
Behavio rDlsordeRd Student:
A studentis deemed behaviordisorderedifhe/shedemonstratesone ormore of thefollowingcharacteristics over alongperiodoftime andtoamarkeddegree whichadverselyaffectseducational performance (DepartmentofEducation,1986):
A markedinabilitytolearn whichcannotbe adequately explainedbyintellectual,sensory,neurophysiologicalor generalhealthfactors.
2. Aconsistentinabilityto build and maintainsatisfactory interpersonalrelationshipswith peersand teachers.
3. Highly age andlorgenderinappropriatebehaviors or feelings withinnonnal situations.
4. A generalpervasivemoodof acuteunhappinessor depression.
S. A tendencytodevelopsymptoms such as speech problems, painorfears,associatedwithpersonal or schoolproblems.
15
For thepurposeof this study,a behaviordisorderedstudentis a student whotits the above descriptionand any other student whois currentlyon the educationaltherapist'slist orcore students.
Rderr rd Students
Astudentreferredto an educationaltherapistby self,teache r, parent,orotheragencies for assessment,behavioralprogram planningor crisesintervention, but whose behavioris not judged severe enoughto warrant being assignedas a core studentfor educationaltherapyservices.
LimitatioDS
The followinglimitationsare acknowledgedas being inherentwithinthe present study:
1. The fonnat andfindingsof the studymayhavetransferabilityto other schoolboards in the Province; however,the resultswill be mostmeaningfulanduseful tothe RomanCatholicand Integrated SchoolBoards on theBurin Peninsula.The smallnumberof participants,inparticular, the lowreturn ratefromparents,set limits as wellon generalizability.Also,the low return rate of parentquestionnaires maymean only highly motivatedparentson
17 thosehaving a positiveexperiencewith the programreturned their questionnaires.
2. Educationaltherapistswereinvolvedin the distributionand collection of questionnairestothe varioussurvey groups.Although stepswere takentoinsurerespondents that theresearcher alone wouldsee the results,somerespondents may have been reluctant to report theirhonest opinionson certainissues.
3. Educationaltherapis tswere giventhe task ofdistributing questionnairesto anysix teachersin their school. Thus ,teachers were not randomlyselected,whichintroducesthe possibilityof biasedselection.
Organi zationor IhL'jReport
Chapter I has statedthe purpose and rationale,posedseveralresearch questions,provideddefinition(Ifterms, and recognizedthelimitations inherent in the study.
Chapter II reviews anddiscusses relevantlitera ture.Chapter III describes theresearchdesignof the studyandmore specifically,the samplingplan ,the instrume ntation, the adminis trationof the instrumen tandthetec hniques of analysis. CbapierIV presentsan analysisandinterpreta tionof thefindings.
ChapterV provides asumma ry to thestudy, and includesa discussionof implicationsand alist of recommendations .
UDtorir;a1 Rec;klDWld
A reviewof literaturepertainingto educational therapy leads one to research psychological services in general since theterms educational therapy or educational therapist are not common in the literature.For example. the most prevalent terms used which are closely associatedwiththe professionalrole of educational therapist are school psychologist and school counsellor.The term educational therapistisa local term used by the Government of Newfoundland, and which appears in its policy statement regarding the provision of educational therapyservices (Department of Education, 1986).The term educational therapist was intended as the titlefor those professionals hired specificallyto provide a range of schoolbased services to students within the public schoolsystem identified as having significant behavioraldisabilities. A brief overview of the history and development of psychological services for persons exhibiting some form of behavioral or conduct disorder will help provide a context for understandingservices as they exist today.
Priorto the 18th century no distinction wasmade between physical disease and psychologicaldisease.According to Schwartz andJohnson (1985), all diseases were thoughtto becaused by spirits and mental disease was thought tobe caused byspirits inhabiting the brain. Among early accepted treatments for brain
18
19 disease was "trephining,"inwhich a circle of bone was chipped fromthe skull to allow the demons inside to escape. As early as 400B.C.,Hippocrates suggested thatmentalillness (in its broadest sense) was causedbydiseases of the brainand shouldbetreated no differentlyfrom otherdiseases. Inthemiddle ages,the
"deranged"were turned over to the clergyand the feudal secularpowers ,who combinedto punish the"agents of the devil"byburning them at the slakeor otherwisedisposingofthem. According toTalbott (1978),"chain beating, extremesof temperatureandinhumanliving conditionswereemployedboth in effortstorestrain patientsorto shockthemback 10sanity"(p.15). These treatments werenot considered inhumane but potentiallyhelpful. Inthe late 17oo's\0early1800'spractices such as the beating and terrorizing ofindividuals into submission were consideredgood therapypractices sincephysicians assumed thata calm. subdued patientwas sanerthan a violentone(Bell. 1980).Other techniques used in this eratotreat mental/emo tionaldisorders were cold or hot watertreatment,bloodletting.blistering,andthe use of emetics.cathartics,and sedatives(Bell.1980; Deutsch.1949 ; andJones,1983). Practicessuch as these continueduntilthe18th century.
Itwas notuntil late inthe 18th century that the studyofproblems of childhoodbegan.Patients werestillabused,lockedin cellars,kept inchainsand whipped. Howevermore humanetreatmentbegan to develop slowlyasthe culture changed withthe United StatesandFrancetakingtheleading role inthe developmentofpsychiatricknowledge (Schwartz&Johnson,1985).Itwas
20 aroundthis timethatstale institutionsandmentalhospitalswere establishedforthe
"insane"(Bell,1980jOain,1975)."Placement injails and almshouses was rejected because of changingattitudes. Orner motives were the desire to protect societyfrom possiblehannfrom so-called "maniacs"andto relieve families ofthe burdenof care" (Oain,1975, p. 16).According to Bell (1980)."the effort 10 betterthe conditionsof the insane fonned part ofa widespread refonn movement thatpenneated American life in the1830' s and1840's·(p.IS).There was a movementtowards recogni2:ing the need for a systematic humane way of dealing withpersons who werementallyl emotionally disordered.Even though there was an organizedattempttodealwithmentalillnessthroughinstitutions, therewere stillmany problemscausedbyovercrowdingand untrained staff.There aremany horror ucdesofphysical abuseandneglect reponed in the literature relatingto the problems of institutionallife formentallyillpatientsaroundthis era.The controversy overthevalueofinstitutionalizationformentallyhandicapped people began and remains somewhatunresolved to this day (Ackerknecht,1968;
Alexander&Selesnick,1966;Grob,1983; Talbott,1978).
Itwasintheearly 1900'sthaithe problemofmental retardationand concernfor child:.:enwithdisordered behavior increased tremendously. AFrench psychologist JeanItardandapupil of his named Sequintriedtoapply new educationalideastohelp -idiots,·as the mentallyretarded were calledatthat time (Hard,1932).Sequinbeganteachingthe mentally retarded (in institutions)in the hopethat theywould,after training,beableto returntotheir homes (Sequin,
21 1886,and Kirk.1958). As a result of attempts\0educatethe mentally handicapped,the developmentof instrumentsto measureintellectualfunctioning began. Binetand Simon developed an individualintelligencetestin1904 10 help decide whichchildren shouldbeeducated (Bennett ,1970).
AfterWorld War II,psychologistsinthe schools becameincreasingly involved in attempting to offerassistanceto pupilsjudgedemotionallymaladjusted or"disturbed.~An emphasiswas placed on theinfluenceof personalityfactors on the abilityto behaveappropriately,as well as onthe capacityto learn academic skills. IntheUnited Stateslegislation waspassed making money availableto schooldistrictsforspecial education.Manystates in the U.S.passed special serviceslegislation; atfirst forthe physicallyhandicappedandmentally retarded, and more recently,for emotionallyand socially maladjustedpupils (Balow,cited in Bennett,1970).
Specialprogramsandservicesthat were first set up for the severely disturbedwere mostlyresidential in nature.Thesegregation ofhandicapped childrenintospecial schoolsor classes beganto changedramaticallyin the 60's and 70' s,Wolfensberger(1972) maintainedthatplacementin environments segregatedfromJJ.QI!1l3.\individualsdid not fosterpositivegains in the behaviorof those people placedin such environments,Thisphilosophyhas been a powerful force in shaping the services we providefor emotionally/behaviorally disordered children today.
22 Inthe early 1970's a move toWards mainstrtamingandnormalization began in the area of specialservicesfor children in publicschools.Normalization was first stated in theliteraturebyNirje(cited in Kugel&wolfensberger,1969),who phrasedtheprincipleas follows:"makingavailableto the mentally retarded patterns and conditions of everydaylife which are as closeaspossible to thenorms and patterns (or the mainstream of society" (p. 181), Wolfensberger (1972) further refined thedefinitionof normalization as follows: "Utilizationof means which are as culturallynormativeas possible, in ordertoestablish and/or maintain personalbehaviorsand characteristicswhich are asculturallynormativeas possible-(p.28).
A Canadian studyentitled One MimoDChildren-most commonly referredtoas The Celdk Report.(Roberts&Lazure, 1970) recommended sweeping changesin policy,planning,practiceand attitudesregardingthe behaviorallydisorderedchildrenin ourschools. Oneof its mainthemeswas that both the federaland provincialgovernments inCanadaassume responsibili-ayfor ensuring that a child with emotional/behavioralorlearning disorders receivehelp intheir homecommunitieswitha minimum of disruptiontothe child'snormal family and community life (Csapo,1981).Italso recommendedthat the provision ofsuch servicesby localauthoritiesbemandatory for childrenwith emotionaland learningproblemsup to 21years ofage.
SeveralotherCanadianstudiesfollowed theCeldic Reportand re- emphasized the need to trainpersonnel for work withchildrenwho are
2J clIperiencing emotionalandlearningproblems.TIleSEECC Report,(Standards forEducation ofExceptionaJ Childrenincanada),(Hardy,McLeod,Minto, Perkins&.Ovance,1911),ChildreninCanadaResidentialCare(Rae-Grant&;
Moffat,1911),theOrBmizationfor Economic: Co-operationand Development (OECD)(1978),andtheProposedNewLegi.slation forYoungOffenders(1977). allrecommendedorimpliedthat schoolswillhavetooffer effective educational intt:rvenli.)l1tochildren who mightfit intothecategory of emotionally, behaviorally orsociallydisturbed or maladjusted (Csapo,1981).
One of themajor problems emphasizedbyThe CeldicReport was the lack ofco-ordinationofservices providedfor childrenwithemotional and learning problems. Thisreportfoundthattnildrenwere often beingtreatedindependently bythe education.medical. correctional andsocialservicessystems. As a result the Celdic ReportrecommendedlIIatthe school shouldbethebasefororganizing andcoordinatingallthe necessarycommunityservicesfor children.
Since theearly1970'sschools acrossCanada.includingNewfound land, havecome a longwayinprovidingpsychologicalservicestospecialneeds children. Manyspcc:ia1education teachers. guidance counsellors and co-ordinators havebeenhiredintheWIISyearstoworkwithspecial needssbJdents. Recently mostschoolboardsacrosstheProvincehavehired school psychologistsand educationallherapists to provideadditional psychological intervention servicesto studentswithsevereemotionalorbehavioralproblems.
24 Ai_CoM01F4gqtkmaI]bmPJ
Astudyof school programsin the United StaleS(orbehaviorallydisordered students was conductedbyGrosenick,GeorgeandGeorge (1987)in1986.
Information was coJlectedfrom192 school districts serving behaviorallydisordered students from 27 statesacross the nine geographic areas oftheUnitedStates.
Themost frequentlycitedaimsand goals of programs for thebehaviorally
disordered found in this study were:
1. Return students10the mainstreamandlor xrveIntheleast restrictiveenvironment.
2. Studentshave arighttoanappropriate publiceducation.
3. Focus upon and change behaviorsthatinterferewithsuccess in school.
4. Providecomprehensiveeducationprograms for students.
S. Provideapositivelearning environmentandappropriateeducation for behaviorallydisorderedstudents.
The Department of Education in Newfoundlandhas outlinedits aims/goals for the educational therapy program based on the definition givenin the provincial document tilled PoUcy Manual"Service'(or BehayjorallyDjsturbedCbjldrsn (1986). The goalsoutlinedin thismanual are:
1. To retain thebehaviorallydisturbedstudent in the mainstream of the regular program.
2S 2. To promote behavioral change (more socially and personally
acceptablebehavior).
3. To provide educationin theleast restrictive (or most enhancing) environment.
4. To match the child'sstrengths and needs in his/herpreparation for the world beyond school.
S. To provide consultationand support servicestoteachers and parents of core therapyservices.
Theterm educational therapist is used to distinguish the role from tkl of (a) teachers.who are responsiblefor curriculumand instructionand(b)guidance counsellors.whose role, though overlapping in terms of counsellinglbehavior change interventions.is much more broadly based in terms of the range of services providedandthe student populationserved.
Since the introductionof thefirsteducationaltherapistinNewfoundlandin 1979, by the Terra Nova IntegratedSchool Board, educationaltherapy units have expanded 10all school boards in Newfoundland(Butt,1987).The most recent developmentintheseservices is thecurrentpracticeof combining the roleof school counsellorand educationaltherapistinto one position referredtoby the title of counsellor/therapist.
26 Dcfmitiggllhcga
Who gets referred totiieeducational therapists? Who are the behavior disorderedstudents? Whatcriteria are used to identifythem?In order to detennine which students need the servicesof the educational therapist there has to bean accepted definition of behavioraldisorders. At the present time there is no universally accepted definition. Accordingto Cullinan.Epstein and Mclinden (1986),thereexist manyvarieddefinitionsof behavior and emotional disorders of children. Cullinan, Epstein and Floyd (citedinCullinan, Epstein&Mclinden.
1986), discriminate between three general typesof definitions: (1) a research definition which functionstodefine subjectsfor the purpose of conductingresearch and reporting results,(2)an authoritative definition, which is definedas one providedbysome individualor group whichsets forth the philosophical orientation ofitsframer - (usuallyfoundin a text or reference work), (3)an administrative definition which functionsin part to guide the deliveryof services.
The authors found in their studyofdefinitions used. in the UnitedStates that there wasvery little agreement among thestates on a definition. TIley also found that if the definition tends tobevague it can causeproblems which afffJ:t funding, prevalence estimates,screening and identificationand so forth.
The importance of attending 10a definition of behaviordisordersis expressed by Epstein, Cullinan and Sabatino(1977) as follows:(a)"The definition used.may frequently reflectparticularmodels and theories which may indicate which interventionswillbe implemented,(b) Definitions are a besisfor
27 prevalenceestimates andlargelydetenninewhowill receivecertain services,(c) Definitionsarevital in urecontinuingresearchefforttounderstandbehavior disorders"(I"418). Several investigatorshave studieddefinitionsinstatesin the U.S. (Gillespie.Miller&Fielder.1975;Mercer.Forgnooe&Wolking,1976; Schultz,Hirshoren,Manion&Henderson, 1971). A majorfindingof their reportsis thaIthereexist great variationsincontent among these definitions.
Many systemsof classifyingstudentsas behaviorallydisorderedhavebeen developed including suchclinically derived systems asthe Diagnosticand Statistical Manuals,theWorldHealthOrganizationMulti-AxialClassification Systemandthe systemdevelopedbytheGroupforthe Advancement of Psychiatry.Manyother empiricallyderivedsystems havebeen developedas weU. Garber(1984)feels thai theprocess of classificationis "a meaningfuland essential enterprise in thestudyofpsychopathology" (p.31).Garber alsostressesthe importanceofclassifyingchildhood psyChOpathl1logy fromadevelopmental perspective.Therearetwo main issuestobeconcernedwith,accordingtothis author: (a)"thecontinuity betweenchildhood andadultpsychopathology,and (b) definitionsofnonnality and deviancewithrespect toage, context,developmental tasks,and theprogression of developmentovertime"(p.31). Classificationof childhood psychopathologymust consider not onlywhatisage-appropriateand age-specificat a particularpointindevelopmentbut also thenormalprogressionof developmentfromone phasetothenext. Asystem for classifying children' s
28 disorders should notsimplybebased on the classificationofadultpsychopatllology withOl"first evaluating theirval idity (Garber,1984).
Gresham (1985) foundthatschool psychologistsappeartohaveproblems assessing behavior disorders in school-agechildren because of the ambiguities in moststate definitions.He concludesthat mOSI definitionsareoftenvague, confusing and sometimes contradictory.Bower (1982) explains that definitionsare usuallyclearandconci se at the extremeendsof a condition. ftAs one movesfrom theextremesof a handicapped conditiontowardsthe mean,onereachesa point where the waters are sufficiently muddiedtocause serious definitional problems"
(p.55).Definitionsbecome veryimportantwhen they are usedtolimitor prescribewhomayor may not receiveservices.
Bower' sdefinition of serioyslyemQtionallydisturbed isbasically the one acceptedand used bytheUnitedSlates Federal GovemmentunderPublic law,94·
142. Asstated inBower(1982);
"seriouslyemotionallydisturbedis defined as a conditionexhibitingone or moreof the following characteristicsoveralong period of timeand to a markeddegree, whichadverselyaffects educational performance:
Section
m :
(a) an inabilitytolearn whichcannotbeexplained byintellectual,sensory or health factors:
(1)) aninabilityto buildormaintainsatisfactory interpersonalrelationshipswithpeers and teachers;
29 (e) inappropriatetypesof behavior or feelings
under normalcircumstances;
Cd) a general pervasivemoodofunhappiness or depression;
(e) a tendencytodevelop physicalsymptoms or fearsassociatedwithpersonal or school problems;
SectIOl1(D):
The term includeschildren who are schizophrenicor autistic.The term does not include children who are sociallymaladjusted.unlessit is determinedthat they are seriouslyemotionallydisturbed."(p.55)
Section(I)is an exact restatement of Bower'sdefinitionexcept for the word"seriously." Section(IO was addedbythe U.S. FederalGovernment (Educationof Handicapped Children,Federal Register,Section 12Ia.S.1917).
The mostrecentdefinitionof EmotionaJor BehayiQr DjSOl'rlers as adopted bytheCounciltorChildren with Behavior Disorders (CCBD)inDecember,1990 is outlined below:
"Emotional or Behavioral Disorder refersto a condition in whichbehavioral or emotional responses of an individual in schoolare so different from hislhergenerally accepted.age-appropriate,ethnicor culturalnoms as to resultin significant impainnent in selfcare,social relationships.educationalprogress, classroombehavior,or workadjustment.
The category may includechildrenor youth with schizophrenia,depression. anxiety disorders. attentiondeficitdisorders.or with other sustaineddisturbances ofconductof adjustment.
EmotionalOfBehav ioral Disorders canco- existwithother handicappingconditions,as defined elsewhereintilela w.
EmotionalOfBehaviorDisorderismoreihana transient,expectedresponseto sressors inthe individual'senvironmentand persistsdespite individual ized inte rventions, such asfeedback to theind ividual,consultati on with parentsor families, and/or modificati ons of the educationa lenvironment.
The eligib ility decisionmust be basedem multiple sources ofdataabout the individual 's behavioraloremotionalfunctioning.
Emotiona lor Behavioral Disordermust be exhibitedin at leasttwo differentsettings,at lea st one ofwhichiseducational.~ (CCllD Newsletter,1991)
Cullinan,Epstei nand Kaufman(1984)foundthat"injhcabsenceof any litmustestsfor either mentalheal th ordisorder s inchildrenit appearsthatactual referralisprobably as good acriterion as anyothercurrentlyavailable in determiningwho behavior disordered children are"(p.10 ).Theauthors fee l mat thevalue ofactualreferralistha i ittypi callyreflectspersistingpro blemsonthe partofthe childin one or moreimporta ntlife areas.
In asiudy of tea chers'ratings of studentbehaviors,the authorsfoundUtat problemsnotedforbeh aviorally disorde red studentsappeared tobecompatible withthePL·94· 142 definitionofseriou sly emotionallydistu rbed. Onesuggested methodof uscfor estimating false negativesandfalseposit ivesin referrals,isto establishcutoffpoints forbehav iorrating s,notingtheextent to whichthe distributionof scoresfor referredandnon-referredchildrenarc overlapping.
31 Csapo (1981)ina studyofservices for beha.vion.llydisorden:dstudents in Canadafound that only6 of12 jurisdictionshadanofficial definition. None of thesejurisdictionsusedthesame defillition. ArepeatoftheCsapo(1981)study by Dworet andRathgeber(1988)fou ndthat 10 ofthe12 jurisdictionshadofficial.
definitions.NovaScotiaandtheNonhWest Territorieswere the only ju risdictionswithoutan official definition atthetime of theirstudy.
Newfound landand Ontariohavedefinitions vuy similarto theUnited Stales federal definition.The majordiffer ence between the Newfoundland/On tario definition andtheUnitedStatesdefinitionis me inclusion ofsocicllymaladjusted students inthe Canadiandefinition.
A factormakingitdifficulttocompareprogramsacross Canada orwithin certainprovinces or territoriesisthat8of the12jurisdictionsallow localschool systemsto modifytheProvincial or Territorialdefinitions.
Nf'1!Coundland DcOnltloQ
The Depanmenl ofEducation, in theirpolicymanualSenkesfor BebaviorallyDisturbed CbUdreo(1986) defines behaviorally disturbed children basicallyusing Bowers' (1969) definition:
•A studentis deemedbehaviorally disturbedifthe child frequently demonstratesoneormoreof the followingcharacteristicsoveralongperiodof time andtoamarkeddegree,which adversely affect educational perfonnance:
32 I. Amarkedinabilitylolearn which cannotbe
adequatelyexplainedbyintellectual,sensory.
neurophysiologicalor general healthfactors.
2. A consistentinabilitytobuild and maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationshipswith peersand teachers.
3. Highlyageandlorsex inappropriatebehavior orfeelings withinnormalsituations.
4. Ageneral pervasivemoodofacute unhappinessor depression.
5. A tendencyto develop symptoms,such as speech problems,pains or fears,associated with personalorschool problems." (p.2) Newfoundland is oneofonly fourprovinces inCanadawhich insiststhat thelocal school boards adhereto the provin cialdefinition.In Newfoundland.the Departmentof Education outlinedspecific procedureswhichschoolboardswere requited10followinorder to receivepermissiontoestablishwhatisreferred toin itspolicymanual as an educationaltherapyup;t.
Theoriginal procedures forestablishing a specialunit for working with behaviorallydisordered children consistedof identifying a minimum of four core studentsbased on thecurrent definition used bythe Depanment of Education.
Schoolshadtoapply individually10 the Departmentof Education forapprovalfor such a unit. Extensivedocumentationfrom avariety of sourceshadtobe included. Toreduce the chances of subjective identification there hastobe consistencyin pointingou: a student'sinappropriatebehaviorfrom at least 3
33 differentsources. Personnel includedin theseproceduresare the parents,students. teachersand others such as social workers,clinical pSJlchologistsand psychiatrists.
In 1987this processchanged. Schoolscan no longerapplytothe Departmentof Educationfor an educationaltherapy unit basedon these original procedures.Now,educational therapy unitscome out of the general special educationteacherallocationtoschooldistricts.This meansthat, rather than needs basedservices. the Departmentof Educationis assigningunits based on school districtstudent population.
This allocation of specialeducationsalaryunits is calculatedon the basis of totalschoolenrolmentin each schooldistrict. Schoolboards are then left to decide how thesesalaryunits are allocated within their jurisdiction. Under this new allocation procedure,school districts are underno specificprovincial policy obligation to assign any of these fundstotile hiring of educational therapists.For schoolboardsthat do assign educationaltherapists theremaybewidelydiffering criteriafor suchdecisions,which may vary from theoriginalproceduresoutlined in the Department of Education (1986)policystatement regarding allocationof educational therapists.
Two concerns regardingtheseallocation changes are expressedby Butt (1987). His tint concernwasrna!certain schoolboardswith specialeducation units nowin placewouldlose someof theseunitsover the next few years, and these could include educational therapyunits. Because of this, schoolsmay find themselves withno services to offerto studentswhoobviously need them.
34 Secondly, where school boards are in complete control of allspecial units,there is alwaysthe potential for abuse.In otherwords.educationaltherapists -may possiblj"beused(or assessmentand leachingpurposesin theregularclass.
Manyschool boardsare nowemployingcounsellor/therapist units.Initially thesetwopositionshadvery distinct,separaterotesinthe schoolas outlinedby the Departmentof EducationPolicyManual (1986).Manypeople see lhis move as regressiveand a lessening of the muchneededservicesfor behaviorallyand emotionally disturbedstudentsinour publicschools(BuU, 1987).
Itremains tobeseen if this systemisanimprovement over the original procedures for obtainingeducational therapy units.Due10these changesin allocationof educational therapists.individualschoolsnow havetoapplyandshow demonstratedneedtotheirschoolboardsratherthan to the Departmentof Education.
WhoProyide;;Senim(orJlehaDonQ!DkonlemlCbildmlt Since the publishingof the CeldicReportin 1970 much has ben doneto meet the needsof emotionallyand behaviorallydisturbedchildren(Csapo,1981).
However, ithasbeena slow process and not an entirely painlessone. One ofthe majorrecommendationsoftheCeldicReport(Roberts&Lasure, 1970)wasthat the Federal and ProvincialGovernmentsin Canadaassumeresponsibilityforall children includingthose with emotional or learningdisorders. Itrecommended thatlocal educational authoritiesprovidesuch services10children with emotional
33 and1eamincdisordersup1021 years ofage.The SEECC Report(StandardJ for EducationofExecpliOf\8.lChildrenin Canada)reemplwizt.dtheCddic RepoIu' recommendations.Thisreportfurtherrecommendedthatreachersofexcepcional childrenbeappropriatelyqualified.AnotherCanadianstudy.ChildreninCanada ResidentialCare (Rac-Grant&Mo ffat,19 71),ooncludedthat children in residentialtreatmentprograms would benefitfrom attending local schools but are prevented fromdoingsobecauseof the highcostof providing the special remedial programstheyrequire.Theimplicationof theRevised New Legislation for Young Offenders (1977),isthatschoolswill have to bepartnersin theprocess of offering an effectiveeducational intervention to learnerswho Ir':ghtfit intothe categoryof emotionally.behaviorally,or socially disturbedor maladjusted.
Inaneffort 10determinethe extentofpublic schoolservicesfor emotionally disturbedchildrenin Canada,Csapo(l981)conductedanational survey. A19itemquestionnairewassent10thedirectOrof spr.cialeducationor itsequivalent inthedepartmentorministriesofeducadceofthetenprovincesand twoterritorialgO\'emmentsinJune, 1980.Alota1of 12differenttypes ofservices werereportedtobeavailableforemotionallydisturbedchildrenacrossthe country.These:include thefollowing;specialclass,resourceroom, crisis intervention, itinerant teacher.academictutoring,homeboundinstruction, guidance counsellor,schoolsocialworker,schoolpsychologist,psychiatricconsultation, uamportadcn to non-schoolagency andpaymentfor privateschoolprograms.
Nine of the twelvejurisdictionsin Canadareportedthatthe predominantmode of
J6 organizationand deliveryofspecialeducationservicestomostemotionally disturbeddtildm.wasthroughtheIoca1scf1e.,ldisaict.Theopportunities(Of treatmentinfacilitiesoutsideoftheschool weretqlOFUldly~rylimited.OnlyJ ofthe12jurisdictionsreportprograms availablethroughtheDepartmentofSocia!
Servicesa.'\d Health.Thefindingsofthis report.(198 1)$Ulcthatonly3 ofthe jurisd icti oos (Ontario.ManitobaandNew foundland)hadspecial education qualificationrequirementsfor speciallytrainedteachers beforethe fundingfo rmula canbeapplied.Manyprovinces(7/12)havefinancialfundingformulas forspecial educationprogramming(Csapo,1981).A more recent studybyDworet and Rathgeber(1990)foundin 1988,that 8jurisdictions,includingNewfoundland, fund onthebasis ofablock.grant for all specialeducauonsalaryallocations.
Currently,aU12jurisdictionsin Canada nowprovide some fonn offundingfor special educationprograms.Dworerand Rathgeber (1990)adoptedthesame researchdesignandquestionnaireused byCsapo(1981),inresearching the responsesoftheCanadianprovincesand territories totheneedsof behavior disorderedstudenlS.Thepurposeofthis studywas10comparemore current informationwith!heresultsfound inCsapo's(1981)study.
DWClrtl and Rathgeber(1990)found uatNewfoundlandandthe Northwest Territorieswere theonlytwo jurisdictions thatprohibiltheutilizationoffull-time self-containedclassroomsforspecial needsstudents.Thelocalschooldistrict remainsthepredominantmodeoforganizationanddeliveryofspecialservicesto behaviorallydisordered students.
37 Ontario, ManitobaandNewfoundlandweretheonly jurisdictionsreported in the1981 studythatrequiredspocialeducation qualificationsbefore funding couldbeapplied.Six ofthejurisdictionsnow require coursewortinspecial educationwhereas Newfoundlandistheonlyprovincerequiring specific~ngin the area of behavioraldisorders. Newfoundland isattemptingto meet the needs of behaviorallydi~urbedslUdentsthroughthe utilizationof educationaltherapistswho must have thecompetenceofbothateacheranda counsellor.
Grosenick(1981)alsoreports that thelargestnumber of behavior disorderedstudentsare servedwithinthe publicschools.Although this was an Americanstudy,the findingsmay havereliableinfonnation andimplications for Canadian schoolsand their treatmentof behavior disordered children.Her study foundthatthemostcommon servicesavailablewere.seU-eontaincdclassrooms.
special schools,outofdistrict day schoolplacement,outofdistrict residential placement.consultant teachers and homebound ianruction.
Grosenickalsoreportsthatbeingseverelybehaviordisorderedis more likelyto resultinremoval from schoolthananyotherdisability.Shefoundthat therewasaheavyreliance upon mental healthfacilities. private schoolsand facilitiesfordelinquent youthbythepublicschoolswhohad severelybehavior disorderedstudents.The practices usedby many schoolssuch asignoredtruancy (i.e.-areluctanceonthepartof theschoolstaffto actively seck truantwarrants particularlyfor behaviordisordered students)and continuoussuspensionsrenected anattitude of frustration bytheschoolsystems. tn addition to thesefindings,this
38 studyreported thatthe severityoCthe problem exhlbhed by behavior disordered child ren often dictates intervention by a variety of agencies,but that communicationand collaboration between these groups and individuals is often lacking.In a furtherstudyconducted by Grcsenick,Georgeand George (1987) comparingschool programsfor the behaviorallydisordered now.withthat of 20 years ago,itwas found that the self contained ctassrocm remains the most prevalent option.withconsultation and resource rooms being commonly used.
The most recent study by Grcsenick,George.George, and lewis (1991) revealedthatteachers continue to playthecentral role in program implementation.
Teachers of behaviorally disordered students were rated as the~ member of the multidisciplinary team for selecting and utilizing behavior intervention strategies.
Newfoundland Senjff:5 (or Behaylor Disordered Youth
As previously mentioned, lhe Governmentof Newfoundland and Labrador established a new unit called edUcational therapyin an attempttomeet the needs of behaviordisordered students(Department of Education,1986).Althoughthere havebeensomechanges.asnotedearlier. regarding fundingallocationfor this service, school boards continueto provideeducational therapyservicesunder this governmentpolicy.
Itis not surprisingthat with theintroductionof thisnew educational service dedicatedto theneeds of behaviordisordered students. therewere manyassociated
39 challenges during theperiodof implementation.AccordingtoButt (1981), a big concernafterthe introductionof thisnew service was the problem of negative staff altitudes and misunderstanding ofthe therapists'srole.Like any new professional service there were specificconcerns regardingrole definition,relationshipof the educational therapist with other established professionals such as school counsellors, educational psychologists and special education teachers,as well as questions aboutthe desired professionalqualifications for these new personnel.
Several province wide studies(Anderson-Lane,1990;Sheppard,lY89) have addressed some of theseconcern s.
Theestablishment ofthiseducationallybasedserv ice in Newfoundland is reflected in thereportofa Can adian studyconducted in1988byDworetand Rathgeber(l990).The studyinvolved administeringa questionnaireto the 12 provincial or territorialdirectorsof special education or their designates.The resultsofthestudy showthat in Newfoundlandthefollowingservicesare available to behaviordisorderedstudents:(a) resourceroom;(b)crisesintervention;(c) guidancecounsellor/ed ucational therapy;(d) social worker; (e)school psychologist,and(f)psychiatric consultation.However, itisquite possiblethat thetypeandnumberof servicesavailable to studentswill varyfrom districtto districtthroughouttheProvince.
Inadditiontotheseservices,the DepartmentofSocialServicescurrently providesa numberof teacher aides throughits Work OpportunitiesProgramfor a periodofup tofortyweeks. The Department has establishedthreeprioritygroups
40 whichcan avail of these teacheraides.A teacher aide maybeallocatedtoa schoolthat has a child with "severe behavioralproblems\\~.ere Ihechild needs constantadult supervision soas not 10beinjurious to himself or others" (A.
Downey,personalcommunication. April 23,1987). Inorder to apply forsuch an aide the individual school hasto applyto the Department of Education,Special Services Division.The application must provide complete informationon the child including alltestresults,description of special needs. and other records Utat maybeavailable from Health,Social Services or other agencies.
Idtotil"qtfooofBehariorDisordemlStudents There are many techniques used in the assessmentandidentification of behavior disordered students.The mostcommon methods involve teacher, parent and child behavior checklistsand rating scales. Interviewingandbehavioral observations are also commonlyused methodsin the assessment of thosechildren.
Several new assessmentprocedures are being developed such as the multiple-gating approach for systematicscreening of behavior disorderedchildren whichwasdevelopedat theUniversityof Oregon andlheUniversity of Washington(Morgan&Jensen,1988).This system consists of three separate stages.Each step involves more rigorous assessment through which a student must pass.Thefirst gate involvesa teacher'ssystematic evaluation of all children in the classroom who maybeat risk for behavior problems. At the first gate studen~are rankedaccordingto a profilethatdescribes externalizingand
