s!:!t
I~.~~
~(J
..~.
~
....iJ?
?~
United Nations
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL
Economic Commission for Africa Fifth Meeting of the
Standing Committee on Harmonization and Standardization of Documentation and Information Systems
at Regional and Sub-regional Institutions in Africa Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
18-20 November 1992
Distr.: Limited ECA/PADIS/SCH/V/5 11 November 1992 Original: English
Introduction
to Standardization in
Information Handling and Exchange
Introduction
1. This paper consists of six main sections which discuss the necessity of standardization in information handling.
Aim and objectives
2. To convince participants of the necessity for standardization in information handling. The paper is designed to show:
- why international and national standards are required the status of standards
the concept of international standardization the types of regulations that already exist how standards are made
areas in information handl ing where standardization needs to be applied.
3. The aim of this paper is to show the need for standardization in the handling of information. To do this it is necessary to answer the questions shown on the first overhead transparency.
OHT 1
STANDARDIZATION IN INFORMATION HANDLING 4. Subject outline is as follows:
what are standards?
why have standards?
- why international standards?
- what regulations exist?
how are s~andards made?
which areas of information handling require standardization?
5. WHAT ARE STANDARDS
Standards are norms. A "norm" is a criterion, a model, or a measure, pattern or type.
OHT 2
6. WHY INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL STANDARDS ARE REQUIRED Why do we have standards?
7. Standards make effective human communication possible. There are many examples of human communication which create problems both of understanding and of technology. Several examples are shown on the overhead transparency.
Tra i ns - cons ider the prob lems of different ra ilway gauges, sometimes in the same country. For example until 1962, Australia had three different ra i lway gauges. Th i s made interstate trave 1 on the same train impossible. The "PARIS - MILAN TALGO" express train has to have the wheels of its carriages adjusted from French to spanish gauge and back again each time it crosses the frontier.
In different countries, cars drive either on the left or right side of the road. For example cars in Kenya drive on the left hand side of the road. Cars in Ethiopia drive on the right hand side.
Signs - there are different meanings of signs and terms, and different units of measurement. These create problems in scientific communication.
8. Most of these problems could be solved by applying 'standardization - at national or international levels. It has happened. For example, after years of driVing on opposite sides of the road, Sweden and denmark decided to drive on the same side to make travelling between their countries easier.
OHT 3
WHY HAVE STANDARDS
9. Standards enable human work to be more effective and productive.
Work is becoming more complex as people want more than just the basics of life. The people who say "I try to do everything" are less likely to succeed. Increasingly people have to specialize and learn to share the workload with each other. This we will call WORK SHARING. For example, doctors share the work load of a hospital with other specialists, such as nurses, administrators and technicians. Other examples of specialists include manufacturers, shopkeepers, agricultural workers, and information workers. Within each of these areas further specialization may be necessary. Specialization means that people concentrate on acquiring knowledge in one particular area.
This may lead to increased skills and improvements in working practices.
~:.
OHT 4
WORK SHARING can be hindered or may fail.
10. Firstly, for technical reasons, as the picture of a square peg in around hole suggests. For example, the people involved in the video industry may use different sizes of components. This means that a Betamax video cassette will not play in VHS videocassette recorder. Or there might be different methods of construction. An American VHS videocassette will not play on a French VHS videocassette recorder as the American NTSC video signal is constructed in a different way to the French SECAM signal.
II. Secondly, worksharing can fail for human reasons. The people involved may have different areas and levels of knowledge and experience and may not understand each other. For example the doctor and nurse both care for sick people. Each has their own responsibilities, but there must be an agreement of practice and language - and a level of understanding to enable them to work together effectively. They may have not time or opportunity to find the best methods of working. They may be so busy in their everyday work that there is no time for education, training and research.
O"T 5
SOLUTIONS TO WORKSHARING PROBLEMS 12. Possible solutions:
- agreeing to the STANDARDIZATION of sizes, methods and systems, and terminology.
13. This results in:
- transfer of knowledge - uniformity of practice - supp lement i n,9 experi ence
- guidelines fOr practice and training.
14. Problems of WORK SHARING can be solved by mutual agreement.
This involves individuals, companies and organizations agreeing to STANDARDIZATION. For example, standardization is needed for the sizes of components - systems of operation - methods and pract ices- and language and terminology. The application of these STANDARDS:
- permits the transfer of knowledge - ensures uniformity of practice
- supplements experience with unambiguous rules - gives guidelines for practice and training.
OHT 6
The status of standards 15. FEATURES OF STANDARDS - 1
- Standards are norms. They are normative - they create, prescribe or impose a standard or norm.
- Standards cover specific technologies, products and procedures.
16. Standards are normative. The term 'normative' can be defined as:
- relating or dealing with norms (that is, standards), - explaining, developing, establishing, discovering or setting up a norm,
- creating, prescribing or imposing a norm.
17. Standards can also be defined as:
- regulative, prescriptive.
18. Standards are normative documents because they have a binding force either by law, contract, or convention. They are rational and
3
may be used as guidelines in training. Standards cover specific technologies, products, and procedures.
19. In the area of technologies and tools they apply, for example, to packaging and containers, steel manufacture, and magnetic tapes.
OHT 7
FEATURES OF STANDARDS - 2
':,:.
20. Standards also: - cover specific geographic areas.
- are prepared by approved bodies:
- standards bodies - standardizing bodies
21. Standards cover specific geographical areas. They may cover:
- the whole world (these are world-wide international standards) - a group of countries (called regional international standards) - a single country (called national standards)
- a group of institutions within a country (called branch or regional national standards)
- a single institution (called in-house standards).
22. The preparation of standards is undertaken by various approved bodies. These include standards organizations or bodies, which are institutes, associations or other public or private bodies where the preparation of standards IS THEIR MAIN ACTIVITY. They are appointed by election, law or mutual agreement, to approve and issue standards.
National standards organizations cover one country. for example: The Ethiopian Authority for Standardization (ESA) or The British Standards Institution (BS!). National Standards Bodies are listed in the ISO Catalogue.
23. Other forms of approved bod ies are the STANDARDIZING organizations. These are research and development, training, or management organizat ions, etc. wh ich dea1 with the preparat ion of standards IN ADDITION TO THEIR MAIN ACTIVITIES. Any such organization CAN BE a standardizing Body. They may approve and issue normative documents which are called STANDARD-LIKE DOCUMENTS to distinguish them from STANDARDS issued by standards Organizations. They co-operate and co-ordinate with authorized STANDARDS BODIES.
OHT 8
FEATURES OF STANDARDS - 3
24. Standards are also based on an agreement of best practice and need regular updating. That is, standards organizations - co-operating with standardizing bodies and other organizations in that particular field - will prepare standards that represent what is considered to be the best practice at that time. Inevitably, when the geographical
---,
....,---
coverage of a standard is wide, the rules it contains are general.
This is because it is easier to achieve a consensus on special problems in a relatively limited area. Countries may adapt international standards to meet their special needs without infringing the agreement achieved at international levels.
25. Standards also need regular updating. However, because of the time it takes to approve and publish standards, they often lag behind current best pract ice. Th isis because new deve lopments have taken place in the technology since the standard was drafted. This is also a problem facing legislators. For example. when creating laws concerning copyright, you fine that developments in print, audio, video and computer technologies are taking place so qUickly that any law is obsolete before publication.
26. It is also a problem in the field of information. Standards that influence everyday practice - for example, standards for library cataloguing rules, classification systems, bibliographic records, and so on - may quickly become out of date as new technology and methods are introduced. Therefore standards have to be periodically reviewed and modified where necessary.
OHT 9
THE CONCEPT OF INTERNATIONAL STANOAROIZATION
27. Consider the increasing internationalism of industries with railways systems covering a continent, and the supply of electricity from one country to another. Both railway systems and power supply systems are NETWORKS.
28. In OHT 9, the ship is engaged in carrying goods for international EXCHANGE. The book and other forms of live and recorded information permit an EXCHANGE of ideas internationally.
29. International networking and exchange would be impossible if products, tools, technologies and procedures were based on contradictory national standards. This would also apply within a country if local standards contradicted each other. The ideal is standardization on an international scale to achieve international compatibility. Then we can ask ourselves why then are national standards still necessary?
OHT 10
WHY HAVE NATIONAL STANDARDS
- to enable international standards to be applied - to standardize language and terms
- to standardize details where international agreement is not possible or necessary
5
30. National standards enable international standards to be applied.
International standardization is achieved when the main points of NATIONAL standards are based on INTERNATIONAL standards. As a consequence, national standards deviating from existing INTERNATIONAL standards should not be prepared. Equally the preparation of international standards should always take into account existing NATIONAL standards. National standards translate terms, measurements, and so on used in internat ionaI standards into approved nat ionaI and
local usage.
31. National standards are also used where international agreement is not possible or necessary. While remaining within the spirit of the international standard, the national standard adapts and supplements it to meet local needs and practices. Such decisions may be influenced by culture, social conventions and other factors.
OHT 11
THE TYPES OF REGULATIONS THAT ALREADY EXIST STANDARDS:
- draft and approved STANDARD-lIKE DOCUMENTS
recommendations - rules
guidelines
- codes of practice - instruct ions - technical reports - handbooks, manuals
32. Standards. Approved STANDARDS, issued by Standards Bodies, are usually MANDATORY.
33. Standard-like documents. Amongst the standard-like documents are RECOMMENDATIONS, which are issued by Standards Bodies for approval and may become standards. RULES, for example. for games like football, may be nationally and internationally accepted.
34. GUIDELINES, such as those issued by UNESCO, and other standard- like documents are usually to be considered as RECOMMENDATIONS. They are normally meant for a limited group of users.
NB. - There is no clear cut distinction between the various types of Regulations. The names or designations of some normative documents are often confusing or inconsistent. Is there a further case for standardization here?
- Should not all the terminology used in information transfer be standardized?
OHT 12
HOW STANDARDS ARE MADE - 1 - planning
analysis
- defining principles - draft proposals - discussion
amended proposals
- preparing draft standard
35. Regardless of whatever type of body is creating the Standard, the developmental process shown on the overhead transparency will normally be followed. ,.
-:
- PLANNING will normally be carried out by specialists in the process or technology inquest ion. They wi 11 work with a steeri ng, co- ordination or controlling committee made up of the specialists themselves, plus representatives of both the Standardizing and the Standards Body.
- ANALYSIS will be carried out by the specialists.
- The DEFINING OF PRINCIPLES will be the responsibility of the Committee.
- DRAFT PROPOSALS will be drafted by one or several specialists.
- Discussion will be undertaken by a working group or special commission composed of experts in the subject field. This will be set up by the standards Body to examine the draft proposals. This should lead to a set of amended proposals.
- The AMENDED PROPOSALS form the basis for the Draft Standard.
A DRAFT STANDARD is then drawn up from the Amended Proposals.
OHT 13
HOW STANDARDS ARE MADE - 2 - further discussion
- inclusion of comments - approval of standard - publication
- promotion and control 36. FURTHER DISCUSSIONS the draft Standard wi 11 interested institutions.
appropriate.
will be organized by the Standards Body and perhaps be voted on by member bodies and COMMENTS will be incorporated where - The draft Standard with any amendments will be APPROVED AND PUBLISHED by the Standards Body.
7
- PROMOTION AND CONTROL will be undertaken by the Standards Body, and the committee, as well as by co-ordinating and supervising bodies in the field.
OHT 14
AREAS IN INFORMATION HANDLING WHERE STANDARDIZATION NEEDS TO BE APPLIED
Co-operation
37. Before standards began to be developed in the field of information handling, each information specialist developed their own methods and working procedures. Such co-operat ion as there was, involved lending books to each other. But from this has grown local, regional, ·national and now international co-operation in many areas.
This requires standardization to be effective. To enable information serv ices and co-operat ive systems to work together effect ive ly at local, national and international levels a high level of standardization between them is of the greatest importance.
OHT 15
AREAS IN INFORMATION HANDLING FOR STANDARDIZATION - I - Bibliographic control
- Subject analysis and retrieval
- Machine readable bibliographic information - management of document collections
38. Areas in information handling which require standardization are mainly:
Bibliographic control - to enable library catalogues, national bibliographies and other bibliographic records to be understood and used widely. Bibliographic descriptions - headings - the organization of records all need to be standardized.
- Subject analysis and retrieval. Standardization is also highly desirable in classification schemes - subject headings - thesauri-
indexing and abstracting, among others.
- Machine readable bibliographic information. Standardization is essential when publishing bibliographic information in machine readable form. This should cover the use of equipment - networking - the interconnection of systems - as well as the style of bibliographic formats used.
- Management of document collections. Standardized pract ices should also be applied to the acquisition, storage, safety and repair of documents - space requirements, bUildings and fittings - lighting, heating and ventilation - and levels of service.
----_.
OHT 16
AREAS IN INFORMATION HANDLING FOR STANDARDIZATION - 2 - preparation of information
- presentation and layout
- production / reproduction of documents
organization of information systems and services 39. Standardization is required in:
- Preparation of information Punctuation the use of abbreviations and the inclusion of references need a standardized approach when presenting or publishing information.
- Presentation and layout. Standardization is required in the way the text is organized and arranged - in the use of citations and notes in indexing and in proof reading.
- Production and reproduction of documents. Whatever format the information is to be presented in, for example in a book, a magnetic tape or a CD-ROM, a standardized approach to its production is required.
- Organization of information systems and services. The management and administration of information services are all areas which can benefit from standardized practices. These should be applied to information policies - the planning and organization of services and networks and staff education, training and performance.
Conclusion
40. Standar'ds and standardization, therefore, are critical to the effective management of information services, to co-operation with other services and to the international availability of information.
9
Bibliography
1. Dierickx, Harold & Hopkinson, Alan.- Reference Manual for machine readable descriptions.- 1986.
2. Faye Makane, documentation and subjects.- Nairobi,
Sutter Eric.- Technical information centre on ARSO, 1988.
aspects of work in a standards and related 3. Lancaster, F. W. & Smith, Linda C.- Compatibility issues affecting information systems and services.- 1983.
4. ISO.- General terms and thei!' definitions concerning standardization and certification.- Geneva: ISO, 1980.
5. ISO.- The role of ISO in the generation of and transfer of technical knowledge: In: Proceedings of the Symposium on International Information Network for Standards (ISONET1, 5-7 October, Unesco House, Paris 1977.
6. UNESCO.- Teaching package on standardization in information handling.- Paris: Unesco, 1991.
