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A Survey of Metal Windows in Greater Vancouver 1959
Ser THl N21t2 nr. L2L c . 2 BI,DG
NATIONAL RESEARGH COUNCIL CANADA
DIVISION OF BUILDING RESEARCH
A SURVEY OF METAL WINDOWS IN GREATER VANCOUVER 1 9 5 9
by
V. F. Lyrnan, Ing. Arch. , MRAIC,
Schoo1 of Architecture,
University of British Colurnbia
At\tALVU
ED
Technical Paper No. l?L of the
Division of Building Research
O T T A W A J u n e 1 9 6 1
PREFACE
This paper surnrnarizes studies of rnetal windows and
their use in the Greater Vancouver district carried out during the
arrnrner of 1959 by Professor V.F. Lyrnan of the School of
Archi-tecture of the University of British Colurnbia. It is therefore a
further contribution from the University of British Colurnbiars
School of Architecture to the general fund of inforrnation regarding
building practice on Canadars Pacific coast.
The Division of Building Research of the National
Research Council was glad to have the services of Professor Lyrnan
available to it through the co-operation of the School in the carrying out of this survey. This is a part of the continuing co-operative work between the School and the Division in the interests of better
building. The support of the late Professor Fred Lasserre in this
w o r k w a s g r e a t l y a p p r e c i a t e d .
The report naturally contains a surnrnary of Professor
Lyrnants own observations and opinions derived frorn field study.
In order that the author of the report rnight have full freedorn in
recording his observations, sorrle trade narnes have been rnentioned
in the text. This is a departure frorn the norrnal practice of the
Division but the context in which these references appear will rnake
clear their desirability. It will be appreciated that no extracts frorn
the report can be rnade except with the written perrnission of the Division. This report constitutes one part of a much rnore general study of the Division of Building Research into the whole question of
windows and window perforrrrance. In this the Division has been assisted
by knowledge of window practice in Scandinavian countries. It is
hoped to produce eventually a cofirparative study on a rnore general
scale to which this particular study of Professor Lyrnanrs will be a rnost
useful contribution. Ottawa
J u n e l 9 6 I
Robert F. Legget, D i r e c t o r .
T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S INTRODUGTION P a g e I MANUI.ACTURING STANDARDIZATION STANDARD DIMENSIONS ARCHITECTS I OPINION USERSI PREFERENCE l 1
r 9
SUMMARY TABLES I -TABLE 3 TABLES 4 -TABLE 9 T A B L E I O TABLES I 1 T A B L E S I 3 APPENDIXzo
- 1 2- z o
A Explanation of terrns C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d B a s i c ' W i n d o w S i z e sListing of Producers and their Products
Gerrnan Window Sections
Welding of 'Windows
Hardware
Sarnples of Fenestration
I N T R O D U C T I O N
In the initial planning stage of this study, a survey of all types of windows, both wood and rnetal, at present used in the Greater Vancouver
an.ea, was conternplated with an assessrnent of their perforrnance in use.
This task appeared sirnple at first and not unduly gteat for the tirne
available; however, \tith tnore precise definition of the problern, the
voh:-rne and cornplexity of the subject becarne apparent.
Even the terrn rrwindowil, which in the past had a very definite
rneaning, rnay now be less clear due to lirnitations of shape, size, and
position irnposed by structural consideration or tradition. At present'
continuous bands of horizontal or vertical windows are used and the clirnax
of rnodern fenestration is reached when the whole building is entirely
sheathed in glass. What then is the window? With the all-glass wall, the
window as an individual elernent ceases to exist. The opening sash is but
a single elernent in a cornplete systern of fenestration. The reason for an
opening sash is to provide ventilation; so it is called a ilventilatorrr, or sirnply a rrventtt. The relative advantages of one or another type of
venti-lator can be realistically evaluated only when considered in relation to the
cornplete systern of fenestration in which it serves.
Even if the opening sash alone were to be studied there are many
avenues of investigation: vision out or in; visual irritants of horizontal and
v e r t i c a l b a r s a n d t h e i r p r e f e r r e d p o s i t i o n s ; p r e f e r r e d s i z e s a n d o p e r a t i o n s ;
light transrnission; therrnal conductivity; solar gain and loss; ventilation;
air, dust, and rnoisture penetration; condensation; aesthetic proportions;
rnaterials, il.stallation and installation factorsl engineering, strength,
sirnplicity, and econornies of sections; ease of fabrication; hardware and
accessoriesi glass, glazing and glazing cornpounds; standardization,
rnodular coordination.
Obviously a thorough study of all these aspects concerning the opening sash is a rnuch greater task than one individual could undertake
in the relatively short tirne available. The following lirnitations were
therefore irnposed to narrow the study down to a rnanageable size. First,
for reasons stated later, it was lirnited to rnetal opening sash. Second,
the aspects to be considered were lirnited to: rnanufacturing, construction,
air and water tightness of the sections, ease of operation, size an.d
pro-p o r t i o n s .
This kind of survey would seern to be sirnpler in Vancouver than
in other parts of Canada because double windows are not used here, and
the use of double glazing is rare. Screens too are not generally used as
2
-Vancouver than in other regions, and therefore the variety and scope of e x i s t i n g o r p o s s i b l e l o c a l u s e o f f e n e s t r a t i o n r n a k e s i t r n o r e i n t e r e s t i n g architecturally although, at the salne tirne, rnore difficult to assess.
The use of wooden windows in Vancouver is rnostly lirnited to residential design and even there it is rnostly used only when fixed w i n d o w s a r e d e s i r e d . O n e r a r e l y s e e s a w o o d o p e n i n g s a s h i n n e w
r e s i d e n t i a l d e v e l o p m e n t s . W h e n a w o o d o p e n i n g s a s h i s u s e d , t h e s e c t i o n is fairly standard -- single rabbet in the frarne in which a sirnple sash fits. Doub1e stop is very seldorn used. The casement type of ventilator is used. The double hung window which was so popular in Vancouver in the past is nearly nonexistent in conternporary dwellings, although it appears in sorne apartrnent houses. There are many reasons for the change, the rnost irnportant one, in the authorrs opinion,is due to the fact that in the rainy season the inexpensive standard type of double hung window becornes difficult to operate because of swelling.
According to a survey rnade by the architectural division of the
Aln-rnimrrn Cornpany of Canada in Vancouver in 1955, 75per cent of Vancouverrs residential windpws are rnade of alurninurn, ? per cent of steel, and the rest of wood. After interviews with architects, builders and fabricators, the author has reason to believe that this ratio is now even rrrore in favour of alrrrninu^rn. In the over-all picture, i. e., including cornrnercial and indus-trial windows, where wood is used hardly at all, the rnetal wlndow dorninates the rnarket at present. This was the principal reason for ornitting the wood window in this study.
3
M A N U F A C T U R I N G
The rnetal window suppliers and manuJacturers operating
a t p r e s e n t i n G r e a t e r V a n c o u v e r a r e a a r e :
ALMETCO SAT,ES LTD - Annacis Industrial Estate
CLEAR-LITE - Griffiths Ave, S Burnaby
C O L U M B I A S A S H A N D D O O R L T D . - 2 6 I l 2 t h S t . , N } V .
CONTINENTAL ALUMINUM PRODUCTS - 1668 W Ist Ave
CANADIAN CRITTALL METAL WINDOW - 439 Railway
DU-WIN-ALL UNMRSAL SASHLESS WINDOW - P.O. Fox 294, llarnrnond, B. C.
E V E R - B R I T - Z 9 3 O W 4 t l , 1 ^
HALETRON - lB5 Pernberton N V
H O L L Y C R A F T B U I L D I N G P R O D U C T S - 4 1 3 E a s t C o l u r n b i a S t . , N e w W e s t m i n s t e r
KAWNEER - 736 Granville
MODERN ALUMINUM LTD - 2550 Yew
NOR'il/ESCO MANUFACTURING LTD - 833 River, Riclrrnond
QUIGK-FIT - 1069 S W Marine
R U S C O S T E E L W I N D O W - 5 7 7 6 B e r e s f o r d , B u r n a b y
THORNE METAI,S LTD - T7 60 W ZrId
W E S C R A F T - 3 8 2 4 W i l l i a m S t . , B u r n a b y
WESTEEL PRODUCTS LTD - 8449 Main
WILLIAMS AND WILLIAMS - 950 S W Marine
As far as steel windows are concerned there are only four
significant suppliers operating in Vancouver: Canadian Crittall Metal
:window Ltd., williarns and williarns Ltd., 'w-esteel Products Ltd., and F . C . R u s s e l l C o . o f G a n a d a L t d . , f a b r i c a t o r s o f t h e r r R u s c o t ' w i n d o w . The first three rnanufactu.rers use sirnple rolled steel sections for
rnanu-facturing rnostly industrial and corrrrnercial windows. There are very
few residentiar steel windows being used in Vancouver now. The F. c. Russell Co. of Canada Ltd. rnanufacture residential and light cornrnercial
sliding windows frorn Z{-gauge steel, using tubular sections. Windows
such as these are used rnostly in hospitals, apartrnent houses, and sirnilar
l a r g e i n s t a l l a t i o n s .
trCrittallt' and t''W'illiarns and Williarnsrr are British
rnanufac-turers with subsidiaries in Canada. Sorne of their windows or parts are
stiII sent frorn England, while others are rnanufactured in Canada.
trWesteeil' is prirnarily a sheet rnetal products plant which produces steel w i n d o w s a s a s i d e l i n e .
4
-The situation in alrrrninurn window rnanufacturing is much
rnore fluid than in steel window rnanufacturing where only the old established
firms exist and no new ones are being forrned. The erection of an Alcan
extrusion plant on Annacis Island gave irnpetus to local alurninurn window
rnanufacturing. The extrusion plant executes the different dies for sections
designed by the window manufacturers and supplies thern with their special
extrusion. The dies are stored by the extrusion plant and nurnbered to
sirnplify ordering. After the extrusion is cut, rnitred and welded to forrn
a window, in the rnanufacturing plant, the window rnay be shipped again to
the Alcan plant where it rnay be finished in the anodizing and. dyeing section
of the plant. The hardware is then attached. Onty one of Vancouverls
alurninurn window fabricators has its own facilities for anodizing and dyeing.
W i t h t h i s c o n v e n i e n c e e v e n q u i t e s u c c e s s f u l ( s u c c e s s b a s e d o n
the poundage of alurninurn used annually) rnanufacturerrs plants are extrernely
sirnple. They rnay have little rnore than tools for cutting and rnitering the
extrusions, welding apparatus, electric drills, riveting and the finishing
t o o l s .
Because of this sirnplicity of equiprnent and the widening
acceptance of alurninurn windows, the nurnber of srnall fabricators is
increasing and cornpetition is quite keen. There were twelve alrrrninurn
window rnanufactttrers at the tirne of the survey and the author has no
doubt that the nu-mber is higher already. Sorne large glass suppliers
were in the Process of adding alurninurn window production rtplanttr or w e r e c o n s i d e r i n g i t w h e n t h e s u r v e y was rnade. These are, of course, rnostly srnall assernbly plants whjch use only sirnple Z-bar section and
cater to what rnight be terrned a ttcottage trad.etr.
When investigating sirnple plants and sirnple sections, one
rnight think that these firrns are unirnportant and srnall, but the sal6s ars
not insignificant. One of the manufacturers who deals only with the
residen-t i a l residen-t r a d e , i . e . , s e l l i n g o n l y residen-t o c o n residen-t r a c residen-t o r s and builders direcresiden-tly {no
architect participating), uses 500, 000 pound.s of alurnimrrn annually.
Because all of the local fabricators are using alrrrninurn
hardware frorn the sarne source (Anderberg frorn California) especially the sliding hinge and sirnilar sections, the final products are very rnuch alike. It is irnpossible to base any conclusion, as to which firrn is rnanufacturing
rnore windows, on the equiprnent and layout of the plant and workrnanship
with which the windows are assernbled. Frorn the two best equipped plants
one was in the 500, 000 pounds a year bracket, the other was at the bottorn of the list. The efficiency of the sales departrnent seerns to be a better
criterion of srrccess. The best way to establish the arnorrnt of window sales
for the plant, of course, is to check Alcan sales of alurnimrrn extrusions
5
-t h r e e c a -t e g o r i e s f f r a y b e i n -t e r e s -t i n g . T h e f i r s t g r o u p c o n s u r n e s 3 0 0 ' 0 0 0 t o 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 p o u n d s o f a l u r n i n u r n a l l o y a y e a r , t h e s e c o n d 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 t o 3 0 0 ' 0 0 0 p o u n d s , a n d t h e t h i r d 7 5 , 0 0 0 t o 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 p o u n d s a n n u a l l y .
A further classification of producers can be based on the type
o f w o r k t o w h i c h t h e y c a t e r . T h o s e w h o d e a l w i t h : ( I ) r e s i d e n t i a l b u i l d i n g s ,
(2) residential and light cornrrrercial buildings, (3) residential and all
cornrnercial buildings, (4) industrial buildings only, and (5) all types"
The firrns belonging to the first group supply windows rnostly
to builders and contractors who build houses on speculation. The
cornpeti-tion between window rnanufacturers in this field is quite strong. The
sections used for these windows are vexy light and sorne firrns are experi-rnenting with even lighter sections which becorne so thin that the strength of the window is impaired and the attachrnent of hardware unsatisfactory.
For the fabricator who does not look too far ahead, the lighter section
is the easiest way to rnake the window cheaper and to rneet the cornpetition. T h e j o i n t a t c o r n e r s j . s a n o t h e r p o i n t w h e r e r t c u t t i n g cornersrris
very often obvious. Only the web of the Z-bar can be welded and the flange
rnerely butted together. The fh,r:< is often not rernoved as it should be. One
firrn in this group uses cernent cornposition (flexible epoxy sealant) instead o f w e l d i n g a n d 3 / 1 6 - U V *- by Z-inch rnetal brackets with screws. T h e s e rnethods have not been tested but it is thought that, in cornparison to welding, they are inferi.or.
The window rrranufacturers who fabricate windows for cornrnercial
1lse, e. g., banks, office brritdings, often have curtain walls to deal with. From
the fabricatorrs point of view the curtain wall is big business. In a
conven-tional wall treatrnent with openings in rnasonry walls, the window fabricator
supplies only the windows; in curtain walling, the scope of his work is rnuch
greater and the possibility of financial gain rnore prornising. All these
buildings are designed by architects or engineers and the sections, their
rnethod of construction, welding etc. , are detailed and specified. It is in
this class that the rnatter of resistance welding has been brought in and used as a selling point.
The cornparatively srnall local window rnanufacturing plants
do not rnass-produce one type of window, neither do they stock it. Their
products are strictly custorn rnade. The variety of sections, types and
cornbinations, with the absence of standardization, does not lend itself to
application of the flush-butt welding rnachine which was prirnarily designed
for rnass-production. The difficulty of using it with its dies and
die-clarnping rnechanisrns for custorn-rnade products and its high price are the
6
-On the other hand, suppliers who bring their windows frorn
plants in Eastern Canada or irnport thern frorn the United States or England, d e a l w i t h l a r g e p l a n t s w h e r e r r r a s s - p r o d u c t i o n w a r r a n t s t h e u s e o f r e s i s t a n c e
welding which joints alrrrninurn and its alloys at a fast and econornical rate.
The flush butt-welded corners rnake a neater looking job especially on the inside of the section, where absence of filler metal gives it a rnuch better finished appearance than when it is jointed by other welding rnethods.
A wide carnpaign to persuade local architects to specify
flush-butt welding for aluminurn windows was not entirely successful. This
was fortunate for the local window fabricators, because the irnported windows
are slightly higher in price, and the delivery tirne of the local products is
shorter and the proxirnity of the local plants is advantageous when revisions
and additions to the original orders are considered. Further, flush-butt
welding is superior only insofar as the strength is concerned, a factor
that rnay not necessarily be critical in windows.
The resulting controversy, however, convinced everybody in
the building industry that specifications and guidance enforced by CMHC
and by architects are needed to ensure that the standard of alurninurn
win-dows is irnproved. The current trend of cornpetition leading to the production
of thinner and thirrner sections would only result in lowering the popularity
of alurninurn windows.
There are rnany irnprovernents that could be rnade not only in
the construction of the window but in the design of the section itself.
One of the rnain drawbacks of the alurninurn window in Vancouver
is condensation on the sill rail of the ventilator. This can be quite extensive
and occrrrs rnostly in residences, especially in the roorns where the heating
elernent is not placed under the window. In sorne cases the glass itself is
cornpletely free of condensation but on the alurninurn rail heavy drops of
water collect and, if not wiped off, can darnage the stool or plaster or other finish under the window.
Two of the twelve window rnanufacturers in Vancouver have
devised a small condensation gutter in their section which is intended to
collect the rnoisture. Holes are drilled through the frarne to drain the water
to the outside.
None of the rnanrrfacturers seerned to be interested in the
prevention of the condensation by providing a therrnal break in the section. As a rnatter of fact, when questioned about condensation the fabricators
clairned (with the exception of the two fabricators whose sections contained
the condensation gutter) that they did not have any cornplaints of condensation t r o u b l e s .
7
-Even if the fabricators agree that there is a need for
develop-ing new sections in alu-rnir..-rrn extrusions which could elirninate condensation
and be stronger and tighter than those presently used, there is always the question of who should or could do the research and developrnent connected
with it. The fabriCators thernselves have no desire to do so as long as they
can sell their products and even if they were to acknowledge such a need they would probably lack the funds to design and test experirnental sections.
There is no question about the possibility of developing better
and stronger sections which would elirninate condensation and at the sarne t i r n e b e r n o r e a i r - t i g h t . S e c t i o n s s u c h a s t h e s e h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d e l s e -w h e r e , a s T a b l e 9 s h o -w s .
T h e p r e s e n t Z - b a r s e c t i o n w a s d e v e l o p e d f r o r n t h e r o l l e d
steel section. The rnanufacturing process of the steel sections and alurninurn
sections, however, are fundarnentally different. The steel section is rolled
and alu^rnimrrn extruded. The change in a steel section would cost rnany
hundreds of thousands of dollars, but the change in an alu-rninr:-rn section
would be only a srnall fraction of that arnount. The alurninrrrn section can be
very cornplicated in shape without costing rnore.
T};e Z-bar section which was developed for the steel window, with its slightly tapered legs which facilitate a tight fit when pressed together,
works very well. W'hen rnade of cornparatively soft alurninurn alloy the
hard pressing of sash and frarne together inay result in greater wear and
tear. To substitute for the tight fit of steel sections a weatherstripping rnade
of plastic strips is us,:d which fits. into grooves usually forrned in the legs
of the sash or the frarne sections. 'W-hen the weatherstripping is inserted
in only one leg of the section, the other leg without the weatherstripping is
not tight against its counterpart and the section then lacks the advantages
of a double stop. The solution of the weatherstripping problern in Table 9
(Systern t'JUCHO|') is, in the authorts opinion, better than those used in p r e s e n t l o c a l r n a n u f a c t u r e r t s s e c t i o n s .
8
-S T A N D A R D T Z A T I O N
The rnanufacturers refused any suggestion of standardization of
window sizes for comrnercial buildings where the buildings were designed
by an architect. Their rnain reason was that it is impossible to convince
architects to use standard sizes of windows due to the various dernands
of design. They agreed that there rnight be sorne hope of standardization
of windows in residential and industrial construction. To the authorrs
knowledge, however' no work has been done to date on stand.ardization in
these types of construction, in spite of the fact that a great arnount of work
had been done on specifications by the local Western't4rindow Association. There are no standard sizes of alurninurn windows in Vancouver
at present, which could be purchased for less than the rrcrrstorn-rnaderl
sizes. Although there are sorne catalogues which list trstandardn window
sizes, the companies do not stock these, and their cost is no lower than of the rrcustorn-rnadeil windows.
The situation is different, however, where steel windows are
concerned. Flere standard sizes are etocked, if not in Vancouver, in
Eastern canada or in England, and the cuetorner can expect a speedier
delivery when choosing tJrern rather than the custorn sizes. Occasionally sorne standard sizes rnay even be offered for sale at lower prices, due to
overstocking, or the rnanufacturerrs desire to clear the stock.
The desirability of standardization of window sizes, even of the
custom-rnade ones, becomes clear when comparing the different rrstand.ard sizesrr frorn various catalogues.
9
-STANDARD HEIGHTS AND WIDT}IS OF METAL WINDOWS AS RECOMMENDED BY THE ALUMINUM WINDOW MANUFACTURERS
ASSOCIATION, NEW YORK
Height width Height
widrh
Heighturidrh
For residential-type buildings, casernent-type windows :
Z t - Z t t I t - T l / B n Z t - Z t t t t - g 1 / 2 n Z t - Z t t 2 r - g 1 / 2 n
3 t - Z 3 / . B n 3 r - l n 3 t - Z 3 / g t r 3 r - 4 n 3 t - Z 3 / g n 4 r - 0 r l
4 t - 2 , 5 / 8 t , 4 t - 5 t / 8 , , A t - z S / g n 4 r - g r ' 4 t - Z i / g n 6 r - 0 , 1
5 r - 3 f r 5 r _ 9 3 / B r ' 5 r _ 3 n 6 r _ g r t 5 r _ 3 r g r - 0 r l
For cornrnercial and monurnental-type buildings, casetnent-ty1re windows :
1 t - g 7 / g r t 3 t - 4 7 / g n 4 t - g 7 / g r r 5 r - g 7 / g r r
For residential-type buildings, projected-type windows :
I r - 7 l / B t t Z t _ Z t l
3 r _ I n 3 r - 2 3 / 4 t t
4 t - 5 t / B u 4 t _ Z 5 / B n 5 t - 9 r / B , t 4 t _ Z 5 / B l
For cornrnercial and rnonurnental-type buildings, projected-type windows :
l r _ 5 i l 2 r - g 7 / g t t t t - 7 l / g n Z t - g t / t , ' z , _ 9 t l 4 t _ l t l 5 r _ 5 r l 6 t - 9 t l 2 t - 9 t l 4 l - l r l 5 r _ 5 r l 6 t - 9 t t B r _ l r l 3 t - 4 7 / g r t 4 t - g 7 / g r r 4 t - g 7 /grt 4 r - g 7 / g r r 4 r - g 7 / g r t
For residential-type buildings, awning-type winrl.ows:
standard size rnodular size
Z l _ Z t t 1 t - 7 1 / g r t l r _ 4 r l 3 t - Z 3 / g n 3 r _ l n l r _ 5 i l z t _ 9 t l 4 l - I r l 5 r _ 5 r l $ t - 9 t r B r _ l r l 4 t - z s / B t t 4 t - 5 t / a n 4 r - 0 r ' 5 r _ 3 i l 4 t - 5 l / B t t S t _ 4 t l
For cornrnercial and rnomrrnental, awning-type windows:
2 t - g 7 / g r r 2 t - g 7 / g r r 3 t - 4 7 /g r r 4 t - g 7 / g n 4 r - g 7 / g r r 4 t - g 7 / g r t z t _ 8 t l I t - 8 r l 3 r - 4 t l 4 l - 0 r I 4 r _ 0 r l
1 0
-STANDARD HEIGHTS AND WIDTHS OF METAL WINDOWS A.S
TAKEN FROM VANCOUVER SUPPLIERSI AND MANUFACTURERS' CATAI,OGUE: Height Width Z t - O 7 / B ' t Z t - 1 7 3 t _ O i l 3 t _ 0 r t 4 r _ 0 r r 4 t _ 0 i l 5 f _ O t r 4 t _ 6 t t $ r - 6 r r g r - 6 r r 6 t _ 0 i l 8 t _ 0 r l 6 r - 0 i l 9 t _ 0 r t S r _ 9 r r l 0 r _ O i l / B " Height Width Z t - t I / Z ' t Z t - l I / Z ' , 3 t - L I / 4 t 4 t - I t / Z l 4 t - O 3 / 4 n 6 r - L L / Z t r 4 t - O 3 / 4 1 , 6 r - 7 t / 4 r t 4 t - O 3 / 4 , r B r - L I / Z t t 4 t - O 3 / 4 " 8 r - 3 L / t r 4 t - O 3 / 4 t ' t 0 t - 1 1 / 2 n 4 t - O 3 / 4 , ' t O t - 1 1 / 2 r r Height Width 2 r _ O i l 3 l - 0 n z t _ 6 t t 4 t - o r t 3 r _ o i l 5 r - o r t 3 r - 5 r r $ t - g t t 3 r _ 6 r r Z r - 0 r t 3 t - 6 t t 8 r - o i l 3 r _ 6 i l 8 r - 0 i l 3 t _ 6 t t 8 r - 0 r l l f - 5 r ' 1 t - g 7 / g r r Z t - g n g t - g 1 / g t r 4 f - I f r 7 t - g 7 / g r r 5 ' - 5 f r 3 t - 4 7 / g t r $ t - 9 r t 4 r - g 7 / grt B r - l n 5 t - g 7 / g r r 9 f - 5 r r g r - g 1 / g t t c r - s f ' $ r - g 7 / g r r l r - 6 i l l r - 6 r t z t _ o t t 2 r _ 0 r l Z . - 6 t t Z t - 5 t l 3 r - 0 f r 3 r - 0 i l 3 r _ 5 i l 3 r - 6 r t 4 r _ 0 r r 4 l _ 0 n 4 t - 6 t t 4 t _ 6 t l 5 r _ 0 n 5 r _ 0 r l 2 r - 0 n z r _ o u 3 f _ o i l z t _ 8 t l 4 r _ 0 n 3 r _ 0 r l 4 r _ 0 f r 3 t _ 4 t l 4 r _ 0 i l 4 r _ 0 r r 4 r - 0 i l 4 r _ B r l 4 t - 0 i l S r - g r r 4 r _ 0 i l 8 t _ 0 r l I l t / z r , 2 r - g 3 / 4 r r Zt-O 3/4tt At-O Z/4r' 3. -O 3/ Bt. 6t -g 3/ 4tr 4 f - 0 f ' g r - 2 5 / g n 4r - 11 5/ grr gt -2 5/ grt 4 r - 1 1 5 / g n g t - 2 5/grt
L/4"
r/4r'
r/4"
r/ 4"
L/4r',r/+r'
Z t - I I / 4 r t I t - 7 3 t - l L / 4 ' r l r - I 3 t - 9 I / 4 , t Z t - 3 4 t - 5 I / 4 t . ? t - 7 5 t - L t / A t t ? t - I 5 r - I I / 4 r ' 3 r - 3 Z t - O 7 / 8 , , l . - 6 7 / g t l 3 f - 0 ' r 2 t - g 7 / g n 4 t _ 0 f i 4 r _ 0 r l 5 r - 0 r r $ : - g r r [ , r _ 6 r r B r - o i l 6 r _ 0 1 1 8 r - 0 r tz t - o
2 t - 6 3 r -0 3 t - 4 4 r - 0 6 , - 0 6 ' - 0 6 r -0 L / 4 , , t ' - l r 3 / 4 ' , I / + r , 2 t - 1 1 3 / 4 r t L / 4 r , 3 r - I t 3 / 4 r , r / 4 t , 4 t - L t 3 / 4 ' ,r / 4 , '
5 ' - r r 3 / 4 ' ,
t / 4 ' , 4 r - 4 3 / 4 t t I/4" 7 r-4 3/4rr I / 4 r , g r - 1 9 3/4rt 1 r - 5 I r - g z t - l z t - 5 z t - g ? t _ 9 z t - g z t - g I / 9 , , ? t - t o L / t 6 r , 7 / B r ' 3 t - 6 t / L 6 t ' 7 / B ' , 4 r - 2 1 / 1 5 r t7 / 8 ' ,
4 r - r o r / t 6 , ,
7 / 8 " 5 t - 6 L / I 6 t l 7 / B ' , 5 r - 5 1 / 1 5 r r 7 / 8 " S t - 6 L / I 6 t l 7 / 8 r , 5 t - 6 L / r 6 t l 7/9r', 7 /An 7 /8" 7/8r' 7 /8^ 7 /9tt ? /8" 7 /e n 2r-g 7/grr 1 l - 5 r l ? t - g t l 4 r _ 1 i l 5 l - 5 n $ t - 9 t t B r - l r l 9 t - 5 t lz t - o
2 t - B 3 t - 4 3 . - 4 3 t - 4 3 t - 4 3 t - 4 3 r - 4 4 t - B 7 / B ' t Z t - z 6 t - 3 l / 4 t t Z t - B 7 t - 9 S / 8 n 3 t - Z 9 t _ 4 t 1 4 . - 3 g t _ 4 r t 4 t _ 3 9 t _ 4 t t 4 t _ 3 g t _ 4 t t 4 t _ 3 9 t _ 4 t t 4 r - 3 L / 2 "r/2"
7 / 8 " l / 4 " L/4"r/4"
L / 4 " r/ 4r' ? r - t t I t _ B n 3 r _ 0 r 3 2 t _ 0 r l 3 r _ B f f z t _ t l 4 r - 4 t r z r _ B t l 5 t _ 5 i l 3 t - 0 i l 5 r _ 8 i l 3 t _ 4 t l 5 r _ B i l 3 t _ 4 t l 5 r - 8 r r 3 r _ 4 t l L/4t'I/4"
7 /t6,'
7 / t 6 ' '
7 / t 6 "
7 /t5t,
7 / t 5 "
7 /t6"
Z t - L I / 4 t . Z t - 7 3 t - I l / 4 r 3 ' - 3 3 r - g t / 4 n 3 r - 1 4 t - S l / 4 t t 4 t - 7 S t - I t / 4 u 5 t - 3 S t - I l / 4 t ' 5 r - l s r - L t / 4 n 6 t - T s t - L l / 4 , r ? r - lI l
-A R C H I T E C T S I O P I N I O N
Forty Vancouver architects were interviewed and asked about the
following:
t . p r e f e r r e d w i n d o w r n a t e r i a l
Z. preferred type of ventilator
3. type of construction specified
4. hardware rnaterial and type preferred 5 . n e c e s s i t y o f i n s e c t s c r e e n s i n V a n c o u v e r
6. advisability of window standardization
7. views on rnodular coordination 8 , n e c e s s i t y o f s t o o l s
1 . P r e f e r r e d W i n d o w M a t e r i a l
The architects preferred alurninurn windows for various reasons.
The rnost cornrnon reason was the lack of need for rnaintenance and the
finished appearance of alurninurn alloys. Next was the ease of shaping
different sections. Flexibility of sections was another reason which was
often stated. The possibility of dyeing alurninrrrn different colours was
yet another reason for preferring it. One of the unusual and rather
con-troversial reasons for preferring alu-rninu-rn alloys for windows was the
greater tightness of the alrrrninurn window because rralrrrnimrrn is softer and therefore the frarne and ventilator can fit tighter against each other. I'
The architects (30 per cent) who preferred steel for windows
stated the following as the rnain reasons: (1) econolny, (2) strength,
(3) possibility of thin, fine sections, (4) possibility of painting and thus
introducing colour into the fagade, (5) better contact and tightness of steel sections because they believe that the strength of steel ensures that the frarne and ventilator can fit rnore tightly against each other, (6)
hard-ware holds better on steel than on cornparatively soft alurni.rrrn alloys.
T h e a r c h i t e c t s l i s t e d a s r t o t h e r s " ( I 5 p e r c e n t ) i n T a b l e A a r e
those to whorn the choice of rnaterials for windows depended on the
reqrrire-rnents of each job. These architects stated their opinion in a logical
l n a n n e r : w h e n s t r e n g t h i s r e q u i r e d , a s i n f a c t o r i e s , s c h o o l s , p e n i t e n t i a r i e s , they use steel, where rnaintenance is a problern they use alrrrnimrrn alloys.
This group thought that, as every building has its own peculiarities and
different needs as far as the rnaterial of the window is concerned, the rnaterial for windows rnust be chosen accordingly.
L Z -T A B L E I I A I I QUESTION N O . I To OF RESPONDING
s 5
3 0 I 5 40 3 0 ?,0 5 5 l 0 80 I O 6 0 3 5 t 9 5 I 0 0 5 l 0z 5
9 0
l 0
1 0 0
z
WINDOW MATERIAL PREFERRED
Alurninurn S t e e I Others
TYPE OI. VENTILATOR PREFERRED
Top-hung-open-out Side -hung- open- out Jalous ies
Horizontally sliding
O t h e r s
TYPE OT' CONSTRUCTION SPECIFIED
Flush-butt welding
Other systern of welding U n c o n c e r n e d
IIARDWARE MATERIAL AND TYPE
PRET'ERRED Alurnimrrn
Bronze Other
NECESSITY OF INSECT SCREENS IN
VANCOUVER IJnnecess ary in re sidential
IJnnecessary in comrnercial and industrial
N e c e s s a r y i n r e s i d e n t i a l Advisable in residential
ADVISABILITY OF STANDARDIZATION OI.
WINDOW SIZES Advisable
Opposed to O t h e r s
VIEWS ON MODULAR COORDINATION
U n r e a l i s t i c R e a l i s t i c
ARE WINDOW STOOI.S NECESSARY Y e s
No 4
- 1 3 _
Z. Preferred Type of Ventilator
The largest group (40 per cent) preferred a top-hung
open-out type of vent, usually in connection with a bottorn-hung open-in venti-l a t o r . T h i r t y p e r c e n t o f t h e a r c h i t e c t s p r e f e r r e d casement, i. e., a
side-hung open-out ventilator, 20 per cent jalousies, and 5 per cent horizontally
sliding windows. Five per cent (others) of the architects were again in
the I'it dependstr category, i. e. , they did not favour any particular type of
ventilators, but clairned that every project needs different considerations
as far as the ventilator is concerned..
The reasons indicated by the 40 per cent for preferring the projected window were as follows: 1) protection frorn rain when partly open (an irnportant factor in Vancouverts rainy clirnate), Z) in conjunction with the bottorn-hung open-in ventilator it provides efficient ventilation without too rnuch draft, 3) it offers 100 per cent opening, 4) the window can be easily washed frorn inside, if it has a stiding hinge.
The architects (30 per cent) who preferred the casernent type of ventilator gave a variety of reasons for using it. Sorne of the words used by the architects to justify their choice were: trbasic design, naturalness,
sirnplicity, good proportions, fenestrates best, verticality of ventilator,
design preference, and neat appearance. rr Even the graceful and easy
rnent needed to open the casernent window, cornpared to the awkward rnove-rnents of the person opening the double-hrrng window, for instance, was rnentioned.
The architects preferring jalousies for ventilators stated the
following reasons for their choice: the amcnrnt of ventilation is very easy t o r e g u l a t e ; n o i n t e r f e r e n c e with drapes; offers protection against rain when open; ease of operation; d.oes not presentinazard, if low and. close to sidewalks; offers a feeling of security even when fulty open; deflects drafts; and can be washed frorn the inside.
The srnallest group of architects who voiced a preference for
a particular type of ventilator was the one preferring the horizontally
sliding
type' They liked the possibility of using very fine sections with the resulting
neat appearance of horizontal sliders; that the sliders do not interfere with drapes and do not present anyhazards if vent is low and close to sidewalks; and that the wind does not disturb the ventilator when opened.
The rest of the architects fothers',(5 per cent) in Tabre A) did not state any preference but clairned that they are using rnost of the venti-lator types depending on the need.s and considerations of the project at hand.
1 4
-None of the architects interviewed gave pivoted ventilators as a first choice, but rnost of thern agreed that in sorne cases it is the ideal type of ventilator. Industrial buildings were mentioned as suitable for this type of ventilator. The fact that this kind of vent proj ects into the building when opened is often not'ob)ectionable in industrial buildings and it offers the possibility of using a large I00 per cent opening. The hotizontally pivoted type further offers some protection against rain when opened. Further use of the pivoted type seelns to be in buildings where air-conditioning is used and the windows are opened only for cleaning.
The folding type of window was not rnentioned by the architects very often unless the architect had practiced in Europe where this type of window is rnore widely used. Fabricators do not like this type of window because of its cornparative cornplexity. The resulting high price is apparently the reason why this type of window is not rnore often used in Vancouver,
where its advantage of 100 per cent opening could be used.
The use of double-hung windows in Vancouver is decreasing very rapidly. The only instance where the double-hung window is still holding its own is in hospitals, where the indirect ventilation possible with double double-h*g windows is very irnportant. The preferred type of vertical slider is the one with rernovable leaves for easy cleaning (Table 20, Fig. 21. The double double-h*g window further offers an
advantage in sound-proofing hospital roorns frorn cutside noise. Double-hung windows are also often used in governrnent buildings which are designed by e a s t e r n a r c h i t e c t s . L o c a l a r c h i t e c t s s e e r n t o h a v e s t r o n g o b j e c t i o n s to
the visual irritation of the rneeting rails in vertical sliders. They clairn that they usually fall in the line of vision when looking frorn inside out and creates an objectionable obstruction to the view. The problern of handling the central horizontal division in the design of fenestration for a building was also
rnentioned fr e quently.
3. Typ. of Construction Specified
Very few architects in Vancouver have strong opinions about the construction of wind.ows. It is usually the specifications writer in the large firrn who is concerned with this question because he is r,rnder a rnuch greater pressure frorn the salesrnen than an architect in a srnall office. The cornpetition is usually quick enough to point out the disadvantages of other products, and in this way the specifications writerrs knowledge of d e t a i l s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n b e c o r n e s q u i t e wide.
The author had long interviews with specifications writers frorn the two biggest architectural offices in vancouver, Both were unanirnous in their preference {or flush-butt welding in window construc-tion, but neither of thern specified it exclusively. They were naturally
i 5
-very lnuch aware of budgetary requirernents and knew that a flush-butt
welding clause rnight exclude the local window fabricators, who can quote
Iower prices than Arnerican, English or Eastern Canadian manufacturers.
Then, of course, there is the delivery-tirne factor. In practice they
s p e c i f y f l u s h - b u t t w e l d i n g o n l y f o r h i g h - c l a s s p r o j e c t s , o r w h e r e p r i c e
and tirne of delivery is not of utrnost irnportance. 'Where early delivery
is essential, the local product is picked frorn samples and fult weld of the
section is specified without any welding systern indicated, in which case t h e s o - c a l l e d t l c l o s e d s p e c i f i c a t i o n s r r a r e u s e d .
Generally there is not rnuch concern arnong architects about
the construction of rnetal windows. Frorn this one rnight assllrne that there
are not rrrany failures as far as the windows are coRcerned. This, however,
i s n o t t h e c a s e .
4. Ilardware - Material and Type Preferred
When the author questioned the wind.ow rnanufacturers about
window hardware, they aII clairned cornplete satisfaction with it. None
of the interviewed architects, however, shared this opinion. For exarnple,
in the case of the Roto-Operator, the architects cornplained about the
rattle which eventually develops in a window when the worrn and sliding hinge becorne loose and do not hold the window tightly in position when open
in the wind. They cornplained about the trouble with the sliding hinge in
freezing ternperature; apparently the groove of the hinge becornes clogged
with ice and the window cannot be operated. Sorne of the architects did
not like the way the Roto-Operator functions, particularly the srnall, slow
circular rnovernents for perforrning a sirnple function, which with a locking
handle can be rnade rnuch sirnpler. Because the use of insect screens is
lirnited in Vancouver, the use of the Roto-Operator does not seern justified
since its rnain advantage is that it can be operated when the casernent open-out window is fully screened.
When answering questions about hardware several architects
frankly adrnitted that they did not think about the hardware as rnuch as they
should. One would expect that even if the architects did not concern
thern-selves about the functioning and technical details of hardware, they should concern thernselves with the rnaterial and the functional design of handles, h i n g e s , e t c .
5 . N e c e s s i t y o f I n s e c t S c r e e n s
The only instance when the advisability of screens was rnentioned w a s i n r e s i d e n t i a l b u i l d i n g , a n d even here there were reservations, depending
on the location of the building. Sorne locations in Vancouver are aknost
1 6
-exist. The necessity of screening bedroorn windows to prevent nocturnal
insects attracted by the bedside tight was often rnentioned. But even that
is not necessary in sorne parts of Vancouver. According to the fabricators
rnore screens are installed on the back entrance door than on windows.
6. Advisability of Window Standardization
The reaction of architects to standardization of window sizes
varies, none of the reactions being cornpletely positive. Generally they
were for standardization of window sizes in low-cost housing or in
specu-lative horrsing, where architects are not usually employed. Sorne were
frankly against it as far as their own workwas concerned, being quite hapPy
with the situation in Vancouver where the great rnajority of window sizes are rtcustorn rnaderr to their specifications.
7. Modular Coordination
I'Unfortunately, sorne architects still believe that any systern
of standardization of dirnensions of rnaterials or produce is
a direct infringernent on the ttgift of designt'which they
exer-cise in the creation of buildings and that the rnodular concept
is not actually of great value anyhow" In such an erroneous belief
they are actually rnaking two errors. First, standardization
of dirnensions of products is not a restriction on design and
second, rnodular standards are not an end in thernselves, but
rather a rrreans to an end. rt (l)
These words of Professor Lendru-rn describe very well the
opinion of Vancouver architects about standardization and rnodular
coordi-nation. Sornetirnes it seerned that the architects would eventually agree
with standardization if they thought rnore carefully about it. Very often
the architects agreed after discussion that the sizes should be related rnore to the scale of rnodern building con-rponents and that present sizes
as they appear in sorne wj:rdow rnamrfacturerst catalogues are awkward
and should be norrnalized. There was a strong irnplication that the architect
tended to be syrnpathetic to the idea of standardization but the actual word
seerned to be unpleasant, irnplying a lack of freedorn cf expression. They
definitely did not like the idea of lirniting the sizes of windows to a few standard ones because it would lirnit their choice of window proportions. In short the architect did not see rnuch advantage in having lirnited choice
in window proportions rrnless substantial financial savings would resrrlt.
(l) rrModular - a Means to an Endn by Jarnes Lendrum, Head, Departrnent
of Architecture, IJniversity of Florida. The Producersr Council
t ?
-The question of rnodular coordination in building cornponents and rnodular drafting was asked at the sarne tirne. FIere the answers were rather disheartening to sorneone who favours the rnodular rneasure. It seems that none of the interviewed architects use it nor do they contern-plate doing so. The general feeling expressed could be well srrrnrned up by quoting one of the typical answers: trln principal I agree with it but what is the use of producing modular drawings when very few building rnaterials and produce are rnodularly coordinated. When all the building rnaterials and cornponents and equiprnent are based on a 4tr rnodule then it will rnake sense and Irll rrse it. It The rnost strongly voiced negative opinion the author received carne frorn ihe specifications writer of a large firrn (engineer by training) who flatly stated that in his opinion rnodular coor:dination is cornpletely useless and a waste of tirne.
It appears that the architects consider rnodular coordination good theoretically, but irnpractical and irnpossible to realize. It could be said that Professor Lendrrrrnts staternent about student draftsrnen could be applied to sorne Vancouver architects as well:
ItStudent draftsrnen often have the strange idea that rrrnodulartl rneans t'everything is four inchesrt or that rnodular drafting r n e a n s t t y o r l u s e d o t s i n s t e a d o f a r r o w s r r . N o t h i n g , o f c o u r s e ,
could be rnore rernote frorn the truth. rt (t) B . N e c e s s i t y o f S t o o l s
The question on window stools, Division of Building Research was put to the window stools neces sary?
included at the request of the architects as follows: Are
The author received quite cornprehensive answers to this question. They can be surnrnarized as follows: Because of the thlckness of the wall and the relative thinness of the window unit, it is necessary to expose either the outside or the inside part of the wall which is not covered by the window section. If the window is moved as far back (inside) on the waII as possible, a larger part of the wall is exposed to the weather. In
this way the horizontal exposed part of the wall rnust be flashed, provided with coping, or otherwise treated to prevent the water frorn entering the building. By rnoving the window to the outside face of the wall as rnuch as possible, this horizontal surface is rninirnized and the rnain protection simplified. The resrrlt, of course, is a large stool. In other words if the stool is elirninated by rnoving the window to the inside face of the wall the designer is faced with the problern cf protecting the large exposed wall area. This is neither sirnple nor cheap.
(l) trModular - a Means to an Endtrby Jarnes Lendnrrn, Ilead, Departrnent o f A r c h i t e c t u r e , L T n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a - T h e P r o d u c e r s r
l 8
-The stool is necessary for the terrnination of
heating-elernent enclosure. 1trhen short drapes are used the stool terrninates thern.
The stool terrninates the finish of tJee wall. , For instance, if plaster is
used as inside finish it cannot be used on the horizontal surface of the
stool where a hard-wearing and easy-to-clean eurface is essential.
The stool in some cases acts as a last defence againet
conden-sation. The rnoisture collects on the stool and rnay be wiped off in tirne
without damaging the finished wall underneath.
Painted wood is not very satisfactory for window stools;
sonae kind of plastic-finished rnaterial (Formica, Arborite, etc. ) or,
1 9
-U S E R S I P R E F E R E N C E
The rnajority of housewives interviewed preferred rnetal
and especially alurninurn windows. The reasons for this preference were:
pleasing appearance, no rnaintenance, and no swelling or rotting. Nearly
all of the housewives had had experience with unopenable (because of
swelling) wooden windows. The durability and ease of operation of
alurni-nurn windows is a very attractive feature, for the housewife. They are
con-scious of the need of painting the wooden window and consider it an un-d e s i r a b l e e x p e n s e .
'When
questioned about the type of ventilator, the rnajority
preferred the side-hung open-out type with sliding hinges in cornbination
with the jalousie type of ventilator. They preferred the casernent type
because it offers 100 per cent opening., is easy to operate, and swings
out of the way. The jalousie type of vent is becorning very popular becanLse
it can be opened at the top or at the bottorn any way it is desired, it offers
a feeling of security, protects against the rain when opened and breakage
is no problern, as only individual slats are replaced. Alt the housewives
strongly objected to srnall window panes because of the cleaning difficulties, but the jalousie type is just as hard to clean becamse the slats rnrrst be
washed individually. It is possible that the rnain objection to srnall panes
is really the visual obstruction of the rnuntin bars.
It is very difficult to arrive at any precise conclusions frorn
the answers without evaluating all the circu-rnstances. The purpose and
location of the roorn, the orientation of the house, the overhang, the view,
the neighbourhood, all play a role in the opinion of the housewife. On the
other hand, answers to sorne other questions were quite conclusive. The
housewives definitely dislike interference of the opened ventilator with the
drapes, like to wash the windows frorn inside, dislike the large glass areas on the south side of the house because of solar heat gain, dislike insect screens with few exceptions, like to have windows which open 100 per cent,
and like to have stools rnade frorn lnore practical rnaterial than painted wood.
As far as the hardware is concerned the housewife does not
have any strong opinions. Her only concern is that the hardware can be
operated easily and with one hand.
Condensation troubles very often con-nected with alu-rninurn
windows are taken by the housewife as a necessary evil. rtThey all do
z o
-S U M M A R Y
In residential buildings, the rnost important factor
deter-rnining the design of window sections, is their cost. To meet the strong
cornpetition, fabricators use light and simple Z-section, sornetirnes
rnaking it too light and too narrow. The ventilator in this case is usually a
sirnple casernent-open-out type. Sliding hinges are cornrnon.
In the cornrrrercial field the sections are heavier and a greater
variety of types is produced. Hollow (tubular) sections and
weather-stripping are often used, although no radical departure frorn the conven-t i o n a l Z - b a r i s n o conven-t i c e a b l e . P e r h a p s o n l y t h e t r N o r w e s c o r r h o r i z o n t a l s a s h l e s s
s l i d e r i s r n o r e o r i g i n a l ( T a b l e 5 , T a b l e 1 9 , F i g . 3 ) . T h e g l a s s , a s i n t h e rrPierson Sashless Windowtr, slides in grooves which in the Norwesco slider
are rnade of plastic. The window is very air- and water-tight, but in surnrner
the plastic gets softer and the glass does not slide as well as it does in winter.
The industrial field is still a dornain of the steel window,
al-though recently alurnimrrn has also been used. There are no innovations in
the ways of using steel for this type of window.
To give rigidity equalling that of steel, the size of the alrrrninum
sections needs to be correspondingly greater. This often results in a
clrrrnsier appearance of the alrrrninurn window and is considered a drawback
by architects, who favour a narrow section. The growing popularity of
horizontally sliding windows rnay be attributed to the neat, narrow sections,
which are possible with this type.
The proportional qualities of different types of ventilators,
i. e., the vertical side-hungr and the horizontal top or bottorn-hrrng, are
very often the rnain reason for their use by architects. The architect
Iikes to design the proportions of a window to suit the particular faEade,
the articulation and proportions of the section, in short he prefers to design
the whole window.
The rnanufacturer on the other hand would like to sirnplify the
production i. e., trse a rninimrrrn of sections, sizes and different types of v e n t i l a t o r s .
This conflict was evident when the question of standardlzation
of dirnensions was asked. The architects did not want any part of it; the
fabricators would have welcorned it. This is the reason why the srnall
rnanufacturer prefers the speculative residential trade where tJee architect
is not involved and where a degree of dirnensional standardization and
' To produce the ttidealrrwindow which could satisfy all the
participants seems to be a hopelees taek. tsut there are avenues of search
where the solutions seem to be cornparatively easy to achieve. Better
hardware, condensation-free sections, and better construction are sorrre
o f t h e s e .
A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S
The author wishes to extend his thanks to the Division of Building Research, National Research Gouncil, whose financial assis-tance rnade this report possible.
He ie particularly indebted to Mr. Robert F. Legget, Director of the Division of Building Research, National Research Council, for his invaluable co - operation.
The user at the durable, and eaey to operate and condensation.
The author wishes to acknowledge the l a t e P r o f e s s o r F r e d e r i c Lasserre, Director of the
University of British Columbia, for his advice and
facilities of the SchooL.
The work was further assisted by AIan Veale, of the B. C. Regional Station of the National Research Council.
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TABLE 3
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