© Alexis Abodohoui, 2019
Influence of Chinese management Soft Power on
African skills Development
Thèse
Alexis Abodohoui
Doctorat en sciences de l’administration - gestion internationale
Philosophiæ doctor (Ph. D.)
Influence of Chinese management soft power on African
skills development
Thèse
Alexis ABODOHOUI
Sous la direction de :
Zhan Su, directeur de recherche
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Résumé
Cette thèse s’intéresse à l’influence du soft power managérial chinois sur les africains. La question fondamentale de recherche est : comment les africains ayant étudié en Chine ont-ils été influencés par le soft power chinois? Ont-ils développé des capacités managériales à l’instar des managers ou des entrepreneurs chinois?
Afin de répondre à la question de recherche, le premier article offre une perspective synthétique des travaux réalisés sur la Chine-Afrique entre 2014-2015. Dans cette revue de littérature, les investissements chinois en Afrique, les acteurs, les motivations, le mode d'entrée, les impacts et les défis de gestion, ont été analysés à la lumière des théories en management international. Cette revue offre de nouvelles perspectives pour explorer les investissements chinois dans les pays africains et contribue à l'ensemble des connaissances sur les relations sino-africaines.
Dans le second article, en raison de l’intégration croissante des deux régions, une comparaison des pratiques managériales entre la Chine et les pays africains a été faite. Le but de cet article est de faciliter cette compréhension par une analyse analytique de la littérature. D'après notre analyse, certaines similitudes et divergences liées principalement aux fondations de la gestion, aux styles managériaux, au réseautage et à l'entrepreneuriat ont été identifiées.
En raison de la croissance des Africains en Chine, il devient de plus en plus opportun et pertinent d’étudier comment ils sont influencés par les valeurs culturelles chinoises. Ce troisième article analyse, à travers la théorie de l'acculturation, l'influence de la culture chinoise sur les pratiques managériales des Africains formés en Chine. Divers documents suggèrent que l'adaptation peut conduire à la performance et à la créativité. Nous étendons ceci pour inclure le réseau en tant que variable modératrice. À partir d’une enquête auprès de 378 managers africains, nous avons constaté que les adaptations socioculturelles, psychologiques et académiques influençaient de manière positive les compétences entrepreneuriales des Africains. En termes d’effets modérateurs, on considère que le réseau active ou renforce l’effet direct de l’adaptation sur le développement des compétences en entrepreneuriat.
Quant au dernier article, il permet d’identifier les capacités managériales et entrepreneuriales développées par les africains lors de leur séjour en Chine. À partir d’une approche méthodologique interprétative basée sur la théorie du Soft Power, les thèmes qui émergent du répertoire cognitif des managers africains et qui reflètent les capacités développées sont entre autres le développement du réseau, la prise de risque, l'optimisme et le pragmatisme. Les résultats de cette étude fournissent de nouvelles perspectives pour l'exploration du soft power chinois en Afrique. Ils montrent que la Chine n'influence pas seulement à travers
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les aides, les investissements, le modèle économique, etc., mais qu'elle inspire aussi de nombreux pays en raison de ses idées de gestion connues sous le nom de gestion chinoise Soft Power.
Mots-clés : pratiques managériales ; soft power ; management africain ; management chinois ; transfert de connaissances ; entrepreneuriat, renforcement de capacités ; adaptation culturelle ; investissements.
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Abstract
This thesis focuses on the Influence of Chinese management soft power on African skills development. The fundamental research question is: how were Africans who studied in China influenced by Chinese soft power? Have they developed managerial skills like Chinese managers or entrepreneurs?
To answer these questions, the first article offers a synthetic perspective of the works done on China-Africa between 2014-2015. Based on this literature review, Chinese investments in Africa, the actors, and motivations, mode of entry, impacts and management challenges were analyzed in the light of theories in international management. This review offers new perspectives for exploring Chinese investments in African countries and contributes to the body of knowledge on Sino-African relations.
In the second article, due to the growing integration of the two regions, a comparison of managerial practices between China and African countries was made. The purpose of this article is to facilitate this understanding through a critical analysis of the literature. Based on our analysis, some similarities and divergences related mainly to management foundations, managerial styles, networking and entrepreneurship were identified.
The third article analyzes, through acculturation theory, the influence of Chinese culture on the managerial practices of Africans trained in China. Based on multiple linear regression, this article analyzes not only the effect of acculturation on the development of entrepreneurial capacities but also the moderating role of networking on the different on acculturation.
As for the last article, it makes it possible to identify the managerial and entrepreneurial capacities developed by Africans during their stay in China. Using an interpretive methodological approach and based on the Soft Power theory, the themes that emerge from the cognitive repertoire of African managers and that reflect the capacities developed are: network development, risk-taking, optimism and pragmatism. The results of this study provide new perspectives for the exploration of Chinese soft power in Africa. They show that China does not only influence through aids, investments, economic model, etc. but it also inspires many countries due to its management ideas known as Chinese Management Soft Power.
Keywords: managerial practices; soft power; African management; Chinese management; knowledge transfer; entrepreneurship, capacity building, cultural adaptation; investments.
vi Table of contents Résumé ... iii Abstract ... v List of tables ... ix List of figures... x List of abbreviations ... xi Remerciements ... xv Preface ... xvi
Affiliation of Co-authors ... xvii
0. Introduction ... 1
0.1 Research Context ... 1
0.2 Research Questions and Objectives ... 2
0.3 Theoretical Approaches ... 3
0.3.1 Theory of Acculturation... 3
0.3.2 The Paradigm of Soft Power ... 7
0.4 Methodology ... 10
0.4.1 Systematic Review ... 10
0.4.2 Integrative Review ... 11
0.4.3 Moderated Multiple Regression (MMR) ... 12
0.4.4 Qualitative Approach ... 13
0.4.5 Data Collection ... 13
0.4.6 Research and fieldwork challenges ... 13
0.5 Qualities of Research and Ethical Considerations ... 14
0.6 Thesis Structure ... 15
0.7 References ... 16
Chapter 1 : Chinese Investments in Africa: What Have We Learnt?... 24
Abstract ... 24
Résumé ... 25
1.1 Introduction ... 26
1.2 Research Method ... 27
1.3 Major Research Issues and Findings ... 30
1.3.1 Chinese enterprises (actors) in African countries ... 30
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1.3.3 Mode of Entry of Chinese Investments ... 33
1.3.4 Crowding-in and Crowding-out of Chinese FDI in Africa ... 34
1.3.5 Management Issues ... 39
1.4 Concluding remarks and implications ... 40
1.5 References ... 44
1.5.1 Selected Systematic References ... 44
1.5.2 General References ... 48
Chapter 2 : African and Chinese Managerial Practices: A Cross-Cultural Study ... 53
Abstract ... 53
Résumé ... 54
2.1 Introduction ... 55
2.2 African Ubuntu, Chinese Confucianism and their Implications in Managerial Practices ... 57
2.3 African and Chinese Management Styles ... 61
2.3.1 Planning in African and Chinese Enterprises ... 61
2.3.2 Organization of Activities in African and Chinese Companies ... 62
2.3.3 Managing (or Leadership) in African and Chinese Enterprises ... 63
2.3.4 The process of Control of African and Chinese Enterprises ... 65
2.4 Entrepreneurial and Networking Capacities in China and Africa ... 68
2.5 Conclusion and implications ... 71
2.6 References ... 73
Chapter 3 : Acculturation of Africans in China and Entrepreneurship Development: Moderating Role of Network ... 85
Abstract ... 85
Résumé ... 86
3.1 Introduction ... 87
3.2 Acculturation Theory and International Students ... 89
3.3 Formulation of Hypothesis ... 90
3.3.1 Acculturation and entrepreneurial skills development ... 90
3.3.2 The moderating role of network ... 92
3.4 Research Methodology ... 93
3.4.1 Sampling and Procedure ... 93
3.4.2 Measuring Instruments of the Research ... 94
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3.5.1 Profile of the Sample ... 95
3.5.2 Factor Analysis... 97
3.5.3 Hypothesis testing ... 99
3.6 Discussions and Conclusion ...102
3.7 References ...104
Chapter 4 : Influence of Chinese Management Soft Power on African Skills Development...113
Abstract ...113
Résumé ...114
4.1 Introduction ...115
4.2 Manifestations of Chinese Soft Power: from Nye to Kurlantzick ...117
4.3 Manifestations of Chinese Soft Power in Africa ...119
4.4 From Chinese political Soft Power to Chinese Management Soft Power? ...120
4.5 Methodology ...121
4.5.1 Research design ...121
4.5.2 Data sample and collection ...121
4.5.3 Data Analysis ...122
4.5.4 Research Control Measures ...123
4.6 Findings ...123
4.6.1 Network Development ...123
4.6.2 Risk-taking ...126
4.6.3 Optimism ...127
4.6.4 Pragmatism ...128
4.7 Practical Implications and Limitations of the Research ...130
4.8 Conclusion ...131
4.9 References ...132
Chapter 5: Conclusion ...139
5.1 Theoretical Implications ...139
5.2 Managerial and Policy Implications ...140
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List of tables
Table 1. Selected previous studies on cross-cultural adaption of international students and skills
development ... 4
Table 2. Comprehensive perspective on soft power ... 8
Table 3. Different stages of integrative review ... 11
Table 4. Criteria for inclusion ... 28
Table 5. Negative impacts of Chinese presence in Africa from literature ... 36
Table 6. Relationship between investment and job creation (2003-2014) ... 36
Table 7. Positive impacts of Chinese presence in Africa from literature ... 38
Table 8. Common characteristics of Africa and China cultural values and their managerial implications ... 60
Table 9. Profile of managerial practices in Africa and China based on PODC ... 66
Table 10. Comparative study of entrepreneurial skills between Chinese and Africans ... 70
Table 11. Different forms of acculturation ... 89
Table 12. Demographic profile of the respondents ... 96
Table 13. Explanatory factors analysis ... 98
Table 14. Correlation between variables of interest ... 99
Table 15. Entrepreneurship skills development regression models ...101
Table 16. Conceptualization of Chinese Soft Power ...119
Table 17. Respondents’ profile ...122
Table 18. Participants’ experiences regarding network development ...124
Table 19. Participants’ Experiences Regarding Risk-taking ...126
Table 20. Participants’ experiences regarding optimism development ...128
Table 21. Participants’ experiences regarding pragmatism development ...129
Table 22.General characteristics of African countries ...142
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List of figures
Figure 1. Thesis structure ... 16
Figure 2. Flow diagram ... 29
Figure 3. Publication trend and distribution of the papers by type of methods ... 30
Figure 4. China’s investment in Africa (Quantity in millions) ... 34
Figure 5. Areas investigated and future directions of Sino-African research ... 42
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List of abbreviations
ACF: Factorial Confirmatory Analysis
CÉRUL: Comité d'éthique de la recherche de l'Université Laval (Laval University’s Research Ethics Committee)
CFA: Confirmatory Factor Analysis CFI: Comparative Fit Index SEM CFI: Comparative Fit Index
CIRRELT: Centre interuniversitaire de recherche sur les réseaux d'entreprise, la logistique et le transport (Interuniversity Research Centre on Enterprise Networks, Logistics and Transportation)
CMSP : Chinese Management Soft Power
CRSH: Conseil de Recherche en Sciences Humaines du Canada (Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada)
FDI: Foreign Direct Investment
FOCAC: Forum on China-Africa Cooperation
FRQSC: Fonds de recherche du Québec – Société et culture FSA: Faculté des Sciences de l’Administration
GDP: Gross Domestic Product GFI: Goodness of Fit Index
HRD: Human Resources Development HRM: Human Resources Management KM: Knowledge Management
KMO: Kaiser- Meyer- Olkin MNC: Multinational Corporations MNE: Multinational Enterprise MMR: Moderated Multiple Regression MSP : Management Soft Power PE: Private Enterprise
PODC: Planning, Organizing, Directing, and Controlling RMSEA: Root Mean Square Error of Approximation GFI SCA: Sociocultural Acculturation
SEZs: Special Economic Zones SMEs: Small and Medium Enterprises SOE: State-Owned Enterprise (SOE)
xii TQM: Total Quality Management
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Dédicaces
Je dédie ce modeste travail
À tous ceux qui se sont sacrifiés pour m’offrir les conditions propices à ma réussite;
Aux âmes de mes parents (maman et papa), ceux à qui je dois la réussite pour
l’éducation qu’ils m’ont prodiguée avec tous les moyens et au prix de tous les sacrifices
qu’ils ont consentis à mon égard, pour le sens du devoir qu’ils m’ont enseigné depuis mes
premiers pas;
À toute ma famille avec tous mes sentiments de respect, d’amour, de gratitude et de
reconnaissance pour tous les sacrifices déployés pour m’élever dignement et assurer mon
éducation dans les meilleures conditions pour leurs encouragements et leurs soutiens;
À mon épouse Imelda.
Que ce travail scientifique soit l’expression de ma plus grande affection et un témoignage
de mon attachement et de mon profond amour.
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« C'est la dureté de la noix de palme qui pousse le chasseur à trouver une pierre dure ! »
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Remerciements
Cette aventure académique a été agréable, sereine, motivante et réalisable grâce au concours et au soutien de plusieurs personnes. Ce projet est le fruit d’un long cheminement tantôt jalonné des périodes de découragement et de lassitude, tantôt ponctué d’enthousiasme et d’endurance.
Je tiens au prime abord à adresser mes remerciements, ma gratitude et toute ma reconnaissance au Professeur Zhan Su, un directeur de thèse hors pairs. Pendant plusieurs années, mon directeur de thèse, par sa disponibilité, sa patience et surtout ses conseils épris de bons sens a largement contribué à alimenter non seulement ma réflexion mais aussi mon être ontologique.
Mes sincères remerciements vont aussi à l’ensemble des membres du comité de thèse, aux professeurs Norrin Halilem, Fréderic Lasserre, Serge Kablan et Égide Karuranga. Vos conseils, vos suggestions judicieuses et vos commentaires m’ont aidé dans l’accomplissement de ce travail scientifique.
Que tous les membres de l’équipe de recherche et du personnel académique et administratif de la FSA reçoivent mes remerciements pour leur collaboration. Je remercie l’équipe de la bibliothèque qui m’a très tôt encadré dans le cadre de mon cheminement pour me familiariser avec les bases de données en sciences de gestion. Je remercie tous mes professeur(e)s du programme de doctorat qui m’ont accompagné et fourni les outils nécessaires à la réussite de mes études doctorales à l’Université Laval.
Aussi, aimerais-je remercier la faculté des sciences de l’administration de l’Université Laval, la Chaire Stephen A- Jarislowsky, le Groupe d'études et de recherche sur l'Asie contemporaine (GÉRAC), le Centre interuniversitaire de recherche sur les réseaux d'entreprise, la logistique et le transport (CIRRELT), le Conseil de Recherche en Sciences Humaines du Canada (CRSH) et le Fonds de recherche du Québec – Société et culture (FRQSC) qui ont largement contribué au financement de cette recherche. J’aimerais témoigner de ma profonde gratitude aux membres de ces institutions à divers niveaux.
Je remercie également tous les membres des associations des anciens étudiant(e)s de la Chine dans divers pays africains pour leur disponibilité.
Enfin, je ne saurais passer sous silence les commentaires, les discussions, les encouragements et autres soutiens que mes amis (Tohon Aurelas, Atouzo Baoubadi, Fahindé Charles, Mebounou Crescent, Épkinda Éric, Iko Afe Edwige, Codjia Hélyote, Aïhounhin Parfait, Mayuto Radjabou, Kérékou Sephora), frères et sœurs, confères et professeurs ont formulés à mon attention.
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Preface
Article 1: With this systematic review, we intend to achieve three aims: (1) to take an inventory of what have been done so far in the field of Chinese investments in Africa; (2) to critically analyze the actors, motivations, mode of entry, impacts and management challenges, in the light of international business theories; and (3) to identify research gaps for what needs to be done in the future. Based on different international business theories, this review offers new insights to exploring Chinese investments in African countries and contributes to the overall body of knowledge about Sino-Africa relationship.
Article 2: Given the significant presence of Chinese companies in Africa, the increasing integration of the two regions could raise significant managerial problems. Therefore, it would be useful to compare management practices between China and Africa. This article is to facilitate this understanding through ananalytical review of the literature. From our analysis, similarities and differences have been identified related mainly to management foundations, managerial styles, networking and entrepreneurship. This paper helps to strengthen knowledge on the dynamics of managerial practices of Sino-African organizations and shed light on the managerial practices that could ensure the success of Chinese enterprises in Africa. Article 3: Due to the growth of Africans in China, it is becoming increasingly timely and relevant to study how they are influenced by Chinese cultural values. Through the theory of acculturation, this article analyzes the influence of Chinese culture on the managerial practices of Africans trained in China. Various literature suggest that adaptation can lead to performance and creativity. We extend this to include network as a moderating factor. Using a survey of 378 African managers, we found out that sociocultural, psychological and academic adaptations positively influence entrepreneurial skills of Africans. In terms of moderating effects, network is seen to activate or strengthen the direct effect of adaptation on entrepreneurial skills development.
Article 4: Cooperation among countries of the South has created realities that are politically, economically and especially, culturally interconnected. In this article, we posit that Africans’ sojourn in China shows how Chinese local management cultures influence their capacities. Using an interpretative methodological approach based on Soft Power theory, we show that the themes emerging from the cognitive repertoire of African managers after their adaptation in China include network development, risk taking, optimism and pragmatism. The results of this study provide new perspectives for the exploration of Chinese Soft Power in Africa. They show that China does not only influence through aids, investments, economic model, etc. but it also inspires many countries due to its management idea known as Chinese Management Soft Power.
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Article 1 has been published in the journal - Management International. The references are as follows: Abodohoui, A., Su, Z., Da-Silva I. A. (2018). Chinese Investments in Africa: What Have We Learnt? Management International, 22(3), 129-142.
Article 2 was accepted and presented at the Canadian Council for Small Business and Entrepreneurship (CCSBE) conference held at Laval University in May 2017. This article has also been accepted for revision in the journal - Management International (HEC Montreal).
Article 3 has been accepted and presented at the Academy of International Business (AIB) conference which was held in Minneapolis in June 2018. This article has also been submitted to Entrepreneurship &
Regional Development.
Article 4 has been accepted and presented in Toronto in May 2018 at the Administrative Sciences Conference of Canada (ASAC). It received the Best Paper award in the field of Entrepreneurship and Family Affairs. The last paper has been submitted to International Business Review.
Affiliation of Co-authors
Dr Zhan Su is a professor of Strategy and International Business at Laval University (Canada). He is the doctoral supervisor of this thesis. He is currently the Director of Stephen-A.-Jarislowsky Chair in International Business, and acts as Director of the MBA in global Business at the Faculty of Administration, Laval University. His research focuses on soft power, corporate internationalization strategy, and cross-cultural management, IJVs, doing business in Asia and emerging countries.
Imelda da-Silva is pursuing PhD studies in Marketing at Harbin Institute of Technology (HIT). Her research focuses on brand management and development, intra-African trade, Chinese investments in Africa and business innovation. She is doing her thesis on the Chinese brand and the perception of Africans. She helped with some surveys in China.
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0. Introduction
In recent decades, Sino-African relations have developed, and China has become one of the most important partners of African countries (Sun, Jayaram & Kassiri, 2017). Foreign direct investment, company relocation or facilities, infrastructure construction, public development aid and loans have been multiplied. The impacts of this Chinese presence are analyzed in different ways according to the results of the exploited researches. Chinese investments can contribute to the economic and social progress of African countries through the creation of jobs to transfer managerial and entrepreneurial know-how, but it can also provoke reactions of distrust when they are understood as imperialist actions. Given these diverse realities, this study aims to guide the scientific debate not just on the analysis of the direct impacts of Chinese investments in Africa, but it aims above all, through Soft Power, to explore how contact between the two cultures can influence managerial and entrepreneurial behavior of African managers.
0.1 Research Context
For some years now, Chinese businesses have been characterized by their international outlook. Their influx into the continent of Africa is one of the most visible manifestations of that outlook. The slogan “Go Global” reinforced this internationalization strategy at the macroeconomic level (Deng, 2009) and at the level of the China-Africa cooperation (FOCAC) in the first decade of the 21st century. The China-Africa relation
was indeed built on the memories of the past (Alden, Large & Soares de Oliveira, 2008; Mohan & Lampert, 2013). This cooperation has given rise to a lot of concerns because of some very controversial assessments by some scholars (Alden, 2005; Dreher, Fuchs, Parks, Strange & Tierney, 2018; Rotberg, 2009). A lot of research has been carried out about Chinese presence in Africa, most of them concentrated on the controversies surrounding that presence (Gill, Huang & Morrison, 2007; Gagliardone, Stremlau & Nkrumah, 2012; Pan, 2010). For some, the cooperation does not benefit Africans and is not based on a win-win partnership. They draw attention to the Chinese dream of recolonizing African countries (Anshan, 2007; Lumumba-Kasongo, 2011). They argue that the lack of transfer of technology and skills contributes to keeping Africa in the vicious circle of dependency. For others, China’s entry into Africa opens new economic opportunities, or even a new horizon, for African countries (Tull, 2006; Rotberg, 2009). They argue that China offers African countries low interest loans and makes it possible for them to benefit from their many investments without asking for specific requirements. Yet, others underscore and praise the stability and the efficiency as well as the positive impacts of this cooperation for Africa (Cheung & Qian, 2009; Renard, 2011). Chinese presence in Africa has truly substantially transformed national economies through investment diversification and development partnership (Besada, Wang & Whalley, 2011). The recent positive economic performance recorded in many African countries could be attributed to the emergence of China as
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Africa’s major trading partner. The China-Africa relation should be a strategic partnership built on the principles of equality, trust and win-win cooperation (Anshan, 2007; Shinn & Eisenman, 2018).
To dissipate theoretical misunderstandings and refocus the discussion on the presence of China in Africa, this study proposes to explore a new perspective on the issue. Earlier studies had concentrated on the assessment of commercial activities between China and Africa, the real motives of China’s interest in Africa, the analysis of various kinds of aids to the continent, and the business relationships between Chinese and local businesses. This study will rather investigate the effects of Chinese soft power on the Africans who studied or are studying in China. It will analyze the perceptions and the influences that African students in China come under during or after their studies. This will enable one to propose new areas of research to the scientific community, as well as provide important tools to political leaders to enable them to make informed decisions on the subject. By applying Soft Power Theory to explore the impact the Chinese management has on Africa Skill development, this paper makes an important contribution to literature. This topic is of huge relevance as China has become an important player in international business.
0.2 Research Questions and Objectives
The main objective of this thesis is to examine how African managers and entrepreneurs are influenced by Chinese Soft Power. This research has also strengthened the literature not only on the impacts, but also on the determinants of Chinese presence in Africa. It has also allowed African managerial practices to be compared with those of China because of China's growing presence in Africa (Stahl, 2018).
Thus, this study answers the following key questions and sub-questions concerning China-Africa cooperation and in specific context of the influence of Chinese Soft Power on African managers and entrepreneurs:
What are the major research impacts discussed in the Sino-African literature?
How do African managers and entrepreneurs in China make sense of Chinese managerial practices?
The potential answers to these questions generate some other questions:
o What are the major research themes discussed in the Sino-African literature?
o What are the main differences or similarities in management practices in African and Chinese companies? What are the peculiarities of management practices in Chinese and African companies?
o How can Chinese culture influence Africans during their stay?
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0.3 Theoretical Approaches
0.3.1 Theory of Acculturation
This study is also the empirical exploration and the questioning of the process of “acculturation”. Several studies addressed the acculturation process of immigrants or international students (See Table 1). If culture is seen as a totality of interactive exchanges, and the society as a continuous product of values, norms and practices, we want to understand how the interactions constitute the problem of the cultural experience for the actors in the context of studying in a foreign land. In this study, we analyzed how Chinese culture influences African students’ actions during their stay in China. Daily, people consciously feel the need to make sense and understand what they are going through and especially when they change their environment (Sorrentino, 1986). The individual who wants to understand a confusing phenomenon would use his reasoning to create a new understanding instead of reducing what he observes to what he already knows. In a new environment, the individual is faced with uncertainty and ambiguity. Uncertainty is caused by lack of information (ignorance shock) while ambiguity is caused by too much information (confusion shock) (Saint-Charles, 2009).
To overcome these constraints, the newcomer has to select from available information while taking into account his background and these subsequent information and knowledge (Maillé, 2014). The information, whatever its nature (incorrect or incoherent), could help to create sense; if the individual perceives a coherence in the cognitive process, the information could contribute to the reduction of the uncertainty. In a stressful situation, the individual would tend to depend on what he knows better. That is what is called the phenomenon of regression (Delalonde, 2004).
Cultural acculturation comes with a learning process, socialisation and sharing of difficult skills to be formalized through interaction (Leroy, 2001). Adaptation would therefore be an opportunity to share knowledge, to enrich oneself with positive managerial practices of the host country while taking into account the past experiences of the actors (Brunton, 2014; Alexander, 1988). This acquisition could be done either through observation, imitation, or by the acquisition of experience through contact with the social actors of the host country. In an interactional perspective, the paradigm that constitutes a link between the works of (Weick, 1995) and those of (Wenger, 1999), learning (tacit or explicit) is possible in practice and especially when individuals have a mutual commitment, a common enterprise, and above all, a shared sense inventory. It is while relying on a “sense reservoir” (ideology and belief systems, traditions and diverse histories that are making the rounds in the organization) that the individual constructs the sense he makes of a given situation.
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Table 1. Selected previous studies on cross-cultural adaption of international students and skills development Author Sample nationality and size Theoretical
framework
Analytical methods Findings (predictors)
Akhtar et al. (2015) 110 international students from 32 African countries in China
62 items (5-point scales)
Adequate logical reasoning about cross-cultural
adaptation
Regression analysis A broad network of friends, prior cross-cultural experience, and prior knowledge of cultural differences had positive associations with satisfaction and adaptation of
international students in China. Brunton & Jeffrey
(2014)
196 international students enrolled at a New Zealand (NZ)
University between 2011 and 2012 Adequate logical reasoning about cultural adaptation Multiple regression analysis
This study illustrated that functional support and intercultural communication competence help international students to adjust to the new environment.
Cila & Lalonde (2014)
124 students from a large Canadian university (56 items; 4 to 9 scales) Comprehensive approach to the practice of Language brokering (LB) (Tse, 1996)
Hierarchical regressions The study explored various cultural outcomes of Language brokering (LB), with a specific focus on acculturation to mainstream and heritage cultures, as well as personal empowerment.
Lee & Pistole (2014)
Asian international students’ sample (N = 293) at Midwestern
University (USA) Socio cultural adaptation scale
(Ward & Kennedy, 1994)
Adequate logical reasoning about social interaction
theories
Hierarchical regression The tendency to gossip and place identity attachment were found to contribute positively to the sociocultural adaptation of international students (ISS).
Varela and Gatlin-Watts (2013)
84 business students who completed academic coursework
abroad (North America exchange program) (7-point Likert scale)
Cultural intelligence (CQ) Earley & Ang’s
(2003) Empirical studies content analysis (1996-2011); Confirmatory factor analyses; Hierarchical Regression
The results indicated that international sojourns are instrumental in developing multicultural competence (MC).
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Author Sample nationality and size Theoretical framework
Analytical methods Findings (predictors)
H. Zhang (2013) 3 International Chinese students (American universities) (27: items) Hofstede’s five cultural dimensions Narrative inquiry approach
More involvement with local people and society may have helped their understanding of local culture and people.
Hendrickson et al. (2011)
84 international students (5-point Likert scale)
Social capital theory Social network theory
ANOVA Pearson’s correlation
coefficients
International students with a higher ratio of individuals from the host country in their network claimed to be more satisfied, content, and less homesick.
Smith and Khawaja (2011)
91 studies worldwide Literature review Content analysis This review found that the international student literature provides support for some aspects of the acculturation models discussed
Sherry et al. (2010) 121 international students from 30 countries
Adequate logical reasoning
Content analysis Financial assistance scholarship and job opportunities will improve international students’ satisfaction.
Duanmu, Li & Chen (2009)
178 international students (New Zeland); Survey of International
Students conducted by the Ministry of Education of New
Zealand in 2003 (Ward & Masgoret, 2004) Adequate logical reasoning about cross-cultural issues Multiple regression analysis
The perceived importance of learning success to family, English writing ability, and social communication with their compatriots are significant predictors for all international students.
Dong & Chapman (2008)
270 recipients of Chinese government scholarships studying in Beijing and Shanghai
institutional integration scales (pascarella and terenzini 1980) (31 items; Four-point Likert-type
scale
Adequate logical reasoning grounded in Pascarella's (1985)
model o
Regression analysis Findings indicated that participants are generally satisfied with their experiences in China and are positive about the impact of the program in building friendships with their home countries.
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Author Sample nationality and size Theoretical framework
Analytical methods Findings (predictors)
Sawir et al. (2008) 200 intensive interviews with students, resident onshore in
Australia
Adequate logical reasoning about cross-cultural
adaptation
Content analysis The paper identifies a third kind of loneliness experienced by international students, cultural loneliness, triggered by the absence of the preferred cultural and/or linguistic environment.
Chia & Costigan (2006)
234 Chinese Canadian university students; 60 items (4, 5 and 6 scales) Person-centred approach Cluster analysis MANOVA
Enlarge Berry’s acculturation model.
S.-M. Kang (2006) 489 Asian-Americans (University of California); General Ethnicity
Questionnaire (GEQ, Scale 7; Tsai, Ying, & Lee, 2000)
(77 items) Berry’s acculturation perspectives Berry (1974, 1984, 1994) Multiple regression analysis
This research showed that language competence was a stronger predictor of adjustment than the other domains of acculturation.
Shalom & Horenczyk (2004)
365 young soldiers (military service in the Israeli Defense
Forces) Adequate logical reasoning grounded in different perspectives about adjustment
Multiple Regression Findings revealed that national identity was indeed positively related to adjustment. In contrast, ethnic identity was not correlated with adjustment.
Safdar, Lay & Struthers (2003)
85 male and 81 female Iranian immigrants to Canada Multidimensional Individual Difference Acculturation Model Longitudinal Structural Equation Modelling (SEM)
The immigrant’s level of psychosocial adjustment, a variable not often examined in previous acculturation studies, played an important role.
(Kagan & Cohen (1990)
159 students: 92 international and 67 U.S.)
(35 items)
Mendoza and Martinez's Model of Acculturation (1981)
Regression Cultural adjustment is simultaneously affected by employment level, language spoken at home, having both American and native friends, internal decision making, and work value.
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For Nonaka (1994), one of the heavy weights of the theory of learning, cultural acculturation is part of the problem of theaccess to knowledge (know-how). It is a process of transferring knowledge of culture and behaviour (Nonaka, 1994). Access to knowledge happens when the actors participate in an interactive community (Nonaka, 1994; Weick, 1993) or that of practice (Lave, 1991; Ostroff, 1992). When adaptation is successful, this capacity building could even be unintentional, emerging out of chance occurrence, implicit and unconscious (Reber, 1977). Moreover, when people think in the same way, the more they interact; and the more they think in the same way (Maillé, 2014). Cultural adaptation is therefore an opportunity (opening) for growth and personal development (Reid, 2009; Zimmermann, 1995).
Every society has its unique management system according to its cultural and socio-political characteristics. For instance, the Japanese management system of the 80s was very influential on that of the United States as the latter were obliged to take their inspiration from the Japanese model (Hamel & Prahalad, 2013). China is recognized globally as a hardworking society that maintains business relationships (for example, multicultural business networks mutually influence creation and innovation). The Chinese are good entrepreneurs who accord a lot of importance to hierarchy. During the sojourn of Africans in China, their adaptation and adjustment should probably allow them to build a rich managerial quality, following the example of the Chinese. Cultural adaptation should therefore allow Africans in China to learn new ways of doing business, new entrepreneurial values and new organizational roles.
0.3.2 The Paradigm of Soft Power
In general, power could be viewed as the ability to influence the behavior of others to get the desired outcomes. It is the ability to get another person to do something that he or she would not otherwise have done (Dahl, 1957; 2005). According to Wilson, power is an ability to influence another to act in a way in which that entity would not act otherwise (Wilson, 2008). In his Fables titled The Wolf and the Lamb (2007), the French poet, Jean de la Fontaine, had illustrated the way that power works in our society through this relationship: The strongest argues best, and always wins. Kenneth Boulding (1990) identified three faces of power such as destructive power, integrative power and the power to bring people together. The exercise of power helps to make and implement decision, to set agenda and to manipulate what others think they want (Weber, 1948; Bachrack & Baratz, 1962 cited by Haugaard, 2012). The work of Nye (1989) opened the gap about other research on the perception of power such as soft and hard power. But before Nye, some previous authors such as Carr (1946), Morgenthau (1952) and Cline (1975) had worked on power. Nye’s book - Bound to lead: the changing of American power was published in 1989 to repudiate the theory of Yale historian Paul Kennedy that United States had reached an “imperial overstretch” and was fast entering
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an age of decline. Nye (2004) describes soft power as “the ability to shape preferences of others…the ability to attract, and attraction often leads to acquiescence”. It is also the “ability to get others to want the outcomes you want because of your cultural or ideological appeal”. Soft power is still power, and it can still make enemies (Joffe, 2006). Power is power, no matter if it is soft, hard (Persuasion incitation attraction, use of carrots and inducement), smart (combines both hard and soft elements), sticky (Economic policies and institutions strength) or Sharp power (military) (Walter Russel Mead, 2007; Nye, 2009; Gallarotti, 2010). Human feelings such as attraction and affection can fickle, so soft power based on this are difficult to sustain. Earlier in his research, Nye (1990) identifies three sources of soft power: American culture, international laws and institutions, American multinationals corporations. But in his recent research, he encompasses this list to culture, political values and foreign policies (Nye & Shin, 2007). Nation culture, political values and international policies can be some important tools in the development of a nation and attraction for others. These resources help to create a more favourable image among the international audience and can enhance a country’s soft power (Fan, 2008). Vulving (2008) identifies three currencies of soft power that are benevolent, brilliance and beauty (3 Bs) that we use in Table 12.
Table 2. Comprehensive perspective on soft power Soft power currencies or
resources Production and reciprocal mechanism Tools of soft power
Benignity (shine of capabilities
and successes) - Gratitude and sympathy self-esteem of others; unselfishly - Behave in threatening or
non-conflicting ways to others - Altruism (positives attitudes) - Bi or multilateral cooperation
- Cultural events
- Foreign immigrant/asylum application - International students
- Exchanges programs
- Broadcasting or teaching a country’s language and promoting the study of a country
- Tourists
- Book sales and music sales - Popular sports
- Nobel prize winners - Life expectancy - Overseas aids
- Number of internet hosts - Spending on public diplomacy - Management and resolution of
conflicts
- Scientific collaboration amongst States
- (Nye, 2004; Fan, 2008; Vulving, 2009; Altunişik (2010). Brilliance (the resonance of
shared norms and goals) - Admiration Human beings to learn from the success of others
- Copying the roots of your success and your capability
- Imitation or emulation (practices, policies, values, or vision) Beauty (kindness of behavior and
attitude) - Admiration Tendency to seek union with like-minded people
- Confidence, friendship and cooperation
- Joining forces with those who pursue the same goal
- Need for aesthetic experience
(Charismatic –country– leader) Source: Based on the literature
Chinese soft power is envisioned as a means of multiples (Table 2). In the past, Chinese soft power is perceived to be more powerful that the hard power. More than 2,700 years ago, the Chinese philosopher
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Guan Zi (管子) gave a definition of the concept of soft power that is close to that of contemporary art. For him, a "wise emperor adopts an internal and external legal system, exercises his ideology and moral principles. As a result, neighboring countries become friends and trust the nation. When there are problems in a nation, neighboring countries come to the rescue " (Xuetong, 2006).
Sun Tse (孙子，544-496 BC), the author of Art of War, a Chinese military strategist of 2,500 years advocates winning a battle without a fight. The Chinese well-known philosopher Kong zi (孔子，551-479 BC) renamed Confucius by Jesuit missionaries (Moran, Abramson, Moran, 2014) believes that the ruler should win allegiance of people with virtue (soft power) not by using force (hard power). He advocated harmonious life through discipline, human relationship, ethics, politics and business relationship. For Mencius（孟子，372-289 BC), it is better to govern by morale example rather than the tyrant way because, according to Yin Yan philosophy, there is weakness in strength and strength in weakness. Lao Tze, one of the modern thinkers of Confucius ideology, advocates that the softest can win the hardest. Most of Chinese scholars include in soft power cultural power, language power, civilisation power and intellectual power. Wang Hunning (1993), one of the first analysts of Chinese Soft power, argues that culture is the main source of States’ soft power. Most Chinese writings point out the good values found in Confucius, Daoism and different schools of Chinese traditional culture as source of virtue, benevolent, peace and harmony (Li, 2008). Yan Xuetong believes that soft power lies in political power that is exclusively political, institutions, norms and credibility (Xuetong, 2006). Chinese soft power can be defined as power based on intangible or indirect influences such as organization (nation’s) culture, political values and philosophy or belief (Liang, 2012). It is the total sum of all the perceptions of a country in the mind of international students, tourists or stakeholders which would adopt and adapt its culture, political values and international policies. Chinese soft power is increasing in respect of its resources in the areas of culture, political values and diplomacy. China is translating these different resources successfully into desired foreign policy outcomes (Gill and Huang, 2006). Between China and African countries, there is a longstanding economic assistance, technological cooperation, support to agriculture and health assistance. Some scholars tend to contextualise the importance of science and technology as an element of soft power because technology has played an important role in shaping the geopolitics of the world over the years (Nye, 2004, 2014; McGiffert, 2009; Ding, 2014).
According to Kurlantzick (2005), economic vitality, cultural attraction, trade and diplomacy as well as military strength are what have made the United States the world’s dominant force. This definition has broadened the concept of Soft Power and removed it from a pro-Western vision that views Asian and African
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governments as authoritarian and therefore devoid of any Soft Power strategy. Kurlantzick (2007) argues that “nowadays, Soft Power is something outside the military and security spheres, it does not only include popular culture and public diplomacy, but economic, diplomatic and aid levers also.” (p.6).
From these different theoretical perspectives, each country, no matter how developed it is, has its soft power. The presence of African students in China through education cooperation could impact the way these foreign students perceive their skills. Beijing consensus (Ramo, 2006) or China’s economic development model that has its roots in Chinese soft power could be seen by them as a viable alternative to the African or western models of managerial practices. Chinese soft power has several managerial outcomes. However, it is not enough to have good cultural resources, political and international influence to benefit from the effects of soft power. Countries like India and Egypt hold a story of power for many years but are culturally weak when compared, for example, to the USA. Thus, factors such as capital structure, political structure, and social structure are crucial in the implementation of a real soft power (Treverton & Jones, 2005).
0.4 Methodology
In this thesis, a bunch of methods and theories has been mobilized to answer our research questions. This diversity has allowed us to emerge new ways while addressing new concepts and evolve knowledge from the objectives of the study. For Thietart (2014), diversity of approaches is a source of wealth and discovery in a field that is still far from being formalized as that of a normal science. Systematic review, integrative review, structural equation and qualitative methodology are respectively the methodological approaches used in this thesis.
0.4.1 Systematic Review
Following a comprehensive electronic search of relevant data that meet the requirements of our study, we consulted Normand Pelletier, an information resources specialist at Université Laval. To gather the maximum amount of data about China-Africa relationship, we conducted a review of the literature through exhaustive querying of ABI / INFORM, Business Source Complete, Academic Search, EconLit, PAIS International, Francis, ISI Web of Science, and Cairn databases. In order to avoid bias in the selection of journals, the faculty rank (Université Laval) was applied. This ranking is based on four benchmark rankings: the Financial Times (list of 45 top journals in management), ABS (Association of Business Schools), ABDC (Australian Business Deans Council), and CNRS (National Committee for Scientific Research). The classification also includes 28 journals that are indexed by any reference list. The search equation was thus: (Afric* AND Chin*) AND (Stat* OR SOE Or SME OR MNE) AND (partner* OR cooperat* OR Presence* OR Ventur* OR interna* OR Technolog* OR Transfer*OR Privat* OR local*OR Leader* OR entrepreneur* OR
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competit* OR strateg* OR impact* OR train* OR perspectiv* OR Determinant* OR network* su.exact (“soft power”). Each of the concepts of the chain of words is important and revealing in the understanding of Sino-African relations. Using Booleans operators (And, Or, Not, etc.), and proximity (Near, Next, Su.exact, etc.). Truncation (*) indicates that all the words with root and all characters preceding the symbol are identified and taken into account by the search engine (e.g. * = entrepreneur, entrepreneurship, etc.). As for the quotes (""), they imply that the Web browser must identify the exact concept. The operator "su.exact" helps to search for specific fields. A search su.exact ("Soft power*") will return specific documents on the term "soft power" without separating them in the text. The literature search was supplemented by a manual search from identified articles.
0.4.2 Integrative Review
Based on a thorough search in different management databases, we found out that there is little research that addresses African and Chinese managerial practices from a comparative perspective. In order to present an original conception integrating knowledge on the subject, we have adopted the writings in an integrative way in line with Whittemore & Knafl (2005)’s method. According to Torraco (2005), integrative literature review is a form of research that examines, criticizes, and synthesizes representative literature on a topic in an integrated way so that new frameworks and perspectives on the subject are generated. Whittemore & Knafl (2005)’s method of integrative literature review aims to analyze and synthesize writings in a rigorous way and to propose an original and integrative conceptualization of the subject under study. This literature review is supposed to provide a synthetic and original knowledge on African and Chinese managerial practices. We have rigorously followed the four steps (Table 3) identified by Whittemore & Knafl (2005). The rest of this research is devoted to the presentation of the results of our analysis, based on an integrative review of the writings.
Table 3. Different stages of integrative review
Step of review Decision/Illustration
Problem identification The identification of our research problem is clearly stated in the introductory part of this study. It is about comparing African and Chinese managerial practices in a perspective of synergy of practices between the two regions.
Search for papers Identify all literature related to African and Chinese managerial practices on electronic platforms using keywords. The following keywords, in English and French, were used in the various search engines: African managerial practices, Chinese managerial practices, African and Chinese management, African and Chinese management foundations, African and Chinese entrepreneurships, networking and businesses, Chinese network and business in Africa.
Evaluation of papers The evaluation of the identified writings was done according to several methods or criteria since there is not really a consensus among methodologists on how to evaluate the quality of the writings found. The articles selected are those published in journals (SSCI) indexed on Scimago and classified in the Laval University’s Faculty of Administration’s list. Analysis of the study For this step, we used the method of content analysis based on NVIVO 11 software. We
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Step of review Decision/Illustration
carried out a comparative study using the categories we identified. This recursive and iterative strategy of analysis seemed to us as the most appropriate because it enabled us to identify the determining managerial practices of China and Africa from the codification and the emergence of the themes.
Source: Based on own investigation
0.4.3 Moderated Multiple Regression (MMR)
The multiple regression model is a generalization of the simple regression model when the explanatory variables are in finite number. In recent years, interest in moderating variables in management has increased considerably. The simplest form of moderation is where a relationship between an independent variable X, and a dependent variable Y, changes with the value of a moderator variable Z. A simple test of a linear relationship between X and Y would be given by the regression equation of Y on X:
𝑌 = 𝑏0 + 𝑏1𝑋 + 𝜀
Where b0 is the intercept (expected value of Y when X = 0), b1 is the coefficient of X (the expected variation of Y corresponding to a change of one in X) and i is the residual (error term). Moderation represents the idea that the magnitude of the effect of an antecedent (organizational structure or strategy) on business outcomes depends on unforeseen factors, such as uncertainty and instability of the environment and products or services rendered by the company (Aguinis, Edwards & Bradley, 2017).
Indeed, many managerial or psychological theories have reached a level of sophistication and development sufficient for researchers to focus not only on the main effects of independent variables, but also on their interactive effects (Aguinis, 1995; Dawson 2014). The existence of a moderating effect implies that the relationship between two variables (for example, X and Y) varies according to the value of a third variable (for example, Z), called moderator (Zedeck, 1971). The moderating effects play a critical role in the theories of several other specialties of management and the social and behavioral sciences in general (Bedeian & Mossholder, 1994).
Several independent evaluations conducted over the past four decades indicate that MMR is an appropriate method for detecting the effects of moderating variables (Cohen, Cohen, West & Aiken, 1983; Zedeck, 1971). For example, using moderate multiple regression allowed Jones (2015) to study the moderating effect of psychological well-being on the relationship between personality and job satisfaction. Bruton, Oviatt & White (1994) studied acquisitions and verified whether the impact of the commercial relationship on acquisition performance was mitigated by the degree of distress of firms. Furthermore, in their research, Yahia, Montani & Courcy (2018) analyze the role of the moderator of the superior between the stressors present in the workplace and the innovation behaviors of the workers.
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Aguinis, Edwards & Bradley (2017), in their review of articles published in Strategic Management Journal
(SMJ) and Organization Science (OS) between January 2005 and December 2014, identified several issues
related to the use of moderate multiple regression, one of them being the size of the sample. In our research, the moderator variable was measured from Likert and therefore is of discontinuous type and the sample of 378 was kept for all variables. We also performed several sample tests to confirm the robustness of our analyzes.
0.4.4 Qualitative Approach
Through multiple questions, our research aims to discover and understand the managerial skills developed by African managers as a result of their stay in China. It is therefore based on empirical, exploratory and interpretative analysis (Cooper, Schindler, & Sun, 2006). This choice of approach is relevant in that it allows one to acquire a "solidly based perception of the reality of a particular milieu of reality" (Miles & Huberman, 2003).
0.4.5 Data Collection
The participants in our research are Africans who have studied in China and who have returned to their home countries. They are from Benin, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea Conakry, Niger, Senegal and Togo. In total, there are 440 respondents recruited between April 2015 and June 2018. We had a total of 378 respondents for our questionnaire (quantitative research) and 62 respondents for the interview (qualitative research). As part of our research, being also a former student of China, we identified friends with whom we studied in China and who are back in the countries. Most of these colleagues work in local or in Chinese companies. As part of our research, we adopted the guided and structured interview method as it is more commonly used and allows researchers to explore a certain number of topics, and helps the participant to give his points of view while respecting the structure of his responses (Marshall & Rossman, 2014; Patton, 2005). With respect to the quantitative research questionnaire, all items were derived from previous researches that measured similar constructs. They have been adapted to our research.
0.4.6 Research and fieldwork challenges
This research was conducted with a lot of challenges. First, it should be noted that the notion of Soft Power is recent and is much less studied in the management sciences. In political science, this notion is cleverly studied and there exists a rather rich literature on the concept. Secondly, it is difficult to conduct surveys and interviews in several African countries on one of the specified samples. Even though there are associations of former students from China who serve as intermediaries, it should be noted that the members are sometimes in remote environments. Finally, traveling across several African countries has many constraints. All forms of transportation have been mobilized to cross African borders.
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0.5 Qualities of Research and Ethical Considerations
The researcher is in constant search of the validity of his results. Indeed, this validity aims at the generalization of research by the respect of certain criteria of quality and ethical considerations. Thus, the validity of the knowledge produced by the researcher is measured by his ability to express in clear terms the truths on which he explicitly bases his reasoning and argumentation. The scientificness of our research lies in its ability to "engage the belief of the scientific community despite the local and contextual nature of the study" (Mukamurera et al., 2006: 111). In addition, the works of Lincoln & Guba (1985) as well as Miles & Huberman (2003) identify criteria for valuing the results of our research. These criteria are four in number: credibility, confirmability, transferability and reliability. These criteria of scientificness of our research are addressed here in terms of tools guaranteeing the generalization of our results and allowing us to construct valid knowledge but dependent on the context.
Credibility relies on the accuracy of the conclusions put forward by our participants that "stick" to reality (Fortin, Côté & Filion, 2006). Throughout our research, we have been methodologically rigorous in our reporting, the goals and objectives are our true sources of credibility. We also respected the transparency of the different justifications for our approach. We equally used triangulation as an additional way of increasing the credibility of our search. It makes it possible to use several observation methods (Denzin, 2017). Our research is the product of two data sources (interview and various documents) responding to this methodological perception. The analysis of the data, the back and forth between the many "patterns", "themes" and "gestalts" (Miles & Huberman, 2003), the depth of our analyzes confirm Patton's assertion: “being able to report that you engaged in a systematic search for alternative themes, divergent, patterns and rival explanations enhances credibility.” (2002: 553).
With respect to confirmability, we used our neutrality to reflect as accurately as possible the testimony of the participants. It allowed us to avoid bias (Miles & Huberman, 2003). Several excerpts from the participants' testimonies are cited in the work to allow readers and researchers to make respective interpretations of what we propose. Our raw data (the verbatim) are kept and can also be consulted at any time if necessary. The third criterion is that of portability. It allows the transposition of the results to other contexts than the ones under study. In other words, it is the extension of scope beyond the particularities of the sample (Miles & Huberman, 2003). Mukamurera, Lacourse & Couturier (2006) identify three conditions related to the transferability of results. These are: the theoretical relevance of the sample, the saturation of the data and the attainment of a level of abstraction. In our research, we specifically defined our sample to favor its theoretical applicability. We also had the respect of our thematic posture incrementally sought to achieve a level of perfect conceptualization.
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Reliability is the consistency and stability of the research process (Miles & Huberman, 2003: 503). We have described in an exhaustive way the details which underpin the framework and the elaboration of this research. These details will allow the "replicability" of our research by another researcher in respect of identical and similar situations.
Throughout this research, we have demonstrated respect for certain ethical principles governing social science research. Although the researcher is a recipient of several scholarships (Social Science Research Council of Canada, The Fonds de recherche du Québec – Société et culture (FRQSC), Faculté des Sciences de l’Administration, Interuniversity Research Center on Enterprise Networks, Logistics and Transportation and Fondation Choquette), the search for objectivity has not been tainted. The research questionnaires were approved by the Research Ethics Board of Laval University (CERUL) (Nº2018-102). We had also obtained voluntary appointments from the participants. We did not use physical or financial force (lack of coercion and manipulation) to gain their consent. Each of us has shown mutual respect. This study reveals an importance and a great nobility in the sense that it contributes in the development of Africa. We also respected the privacy, confidentiality and anonymity (Sieber, 1992 quoted by Miles & Huberman, 2003: 528) of the participants. The results of this research will not be diverted or used for personal purposes (proof of impartiality).
0.6 Thesis Structure
In the past few years, the Vice Dean of the School of management (Département des sciences de
l’administration) consistently gave series of conferences for doctoral students on the advantages and
challenges of writing thesis in articles form. Thus, gaining from that rich experience, this thesis is written in four articles. Each of the four articles is considered a specific objective and helps to meet the overall goal of the research. The general introduction specifies the context of Sino-African relations. The first chapter (article 1) allows us to take stock of the impacts of Chinese presence in Africa from the relevant research developed on the subject. The second chapter (article 2) allows a comparison of Chinese managerial practices with African one. These two chapters allow to contextualize not only the Chinese presence in Africa but also highlight the realities of management both in China and in Africa. In other words, it is important to understand African and Chinese managements before exploring the mutual influence between them. The third chapter (article 3) analyzes how networks developed by Africans as a result of their adaptation to Chinese culture influence their entrepreneurial abilities. Chapter four (fourth article) explores the managerial capacities developed by Africans under the influence of Chinese Soft Power. At the end, the general conclusion recalls the major findings of the thesis, the theoretical and empirical contributions, the managerial and political implications as well as the limits of the study. Figure 1 below summarizes the general framework of the thesis.
16 Introduction
Conclusion Figure 1. Thesis structure
0.7 References
Aguinis, H. (1995). Statistical power with moderated multiple regression in management research. Journal of
Management, 21(6), 1141-1158.
Aguinis, H., Edwards, J. R., & Bradley, K. J. (2017). Improving our understanding of moderation and mediation in strategic management research. Organizational Research Methods, 20(4), 665-685. Akhtar, N., Pratt, C. B., & Bo, S. (2015). Factors in the cross-cultural adaptation of African students in
Chinese universities. Journal of Research in International Education, 14(2), 98-113. Alden, C. (2005). China in Africa. Survival, 47(3), 147-164.
Alden, C., Large, D., & Soares de Oliveira, R. (2008). China returns to Africa: A rising power and a continent
embrace. Columbia University Press.
Alexander, P. A., & Judy, J. E. (1988). The interaction of domain-specific and strategic knowledge in academic performance. Review of Educational Research, 58(4), 375-404.
Influence of Chinese management soft power on African skills development
Chapter 1. Article 1. Chinese investments in Africa: What have we learnt?
Chapter 2. Article 2. African and Chinese managerial practices: a cross-cultural
study
Chapter 3. Article 3. Acculturation of Africans in China and entrepreneurship
development: moderation role of networking
Chapter 4. Article 4. Influence of Chinese Management Soft Power on African Skills Development
Main body of t
he thesi
