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To cite this version:
Oukili, Hamza
and Ababou, Rachid
and Debenest, Gérald
and Noetinger, Benoît Random walks with negative particles
for discontinuous diffusion and porosity.
(2019) Journal of
Computational Physics, 396. 687-701. ISSN 0021-9991.
Official URL:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcp.2019.07.006
Random
Walks
with
negative
particles
for
discontinuous
diffusion
and
porosity
H. Oukili
a,
∗
,
R. Ababou
a,
G. Debenest
a,
B. Noetinger
baInstitut de Mécanique des Fluides de Toulouse, IMFT, Université de Toulouse, CNRS - Toulouse, France bIFP Energies nouvelles, Rueil-Malmaison, France
a
b
s
t
r
a
c
t
Keywords: Diffusion
RandomWalkParticleTracking(RWPT) Discontinuities
Analyticalsolutions Porousmaterials Negativeparticles
Thisstudydevelopsanew Lagrangianparticlemethodfor modelingflowand transport phenomenaincomplexporousmediawithdiscontinuities.Forinstance,diffusionprocesses can be modeledby Lagrangian Random Walk algorithms. However, discontinuities and heterogeneitiesare difficulttotreat,particularlydiscontinuousdiffusionD(x)orporosity
θ (x).Inthe literatureonparticleRandomWalks, previousmethods used tohandlethis discontinuityproblemcanbecharacterizedintotwomainclassesasfollows:“Interpolation techniques”,and“Partialreflectionmethods”.Oneofthemaindrawbacksofthesemethods isthesmalltimesteprequiredinordertoconvergetotheexpectedsolution,particularly inthepresenceofmanyinterfaces.Theserestrictionsonthetimestep,leadtoinefficient algorithms.The RandomWalk Particle Tracking(RWPT)algorithmproposedhereis,like others intheliterature,discreteintimeand continuousinspace(gridless).We propose a novel approach to partial reflection schemes without restrictions on time step size. The new RWPTalgorithm is based onan adaptive “Stop&Go” time-stepping,combined withpartial reflection/refractionschemes, andextendedwith anew conceptofnegative massparticles.Totestthenew RWPTscheme,wedevelopanalyticalandsemi-analytical solutionsfordiffusioninthepresenceofmultipleinterfaces(discontinuousmulti-layered medium). The results show that the proposed Stop&Go RWPT scheme (with adaptive negative massparticles) fits extremelywell the semi-analytical solutions,even for very high contrasts and in the neighborhood of interfaces. The scheme provides a correct diffusivesolution inonlyafewmacro-timesteps,withaprecisionthatdoesnotdepend ontheirsize.
1. Introduction
Particlemethodshavebeenmuchusedtomodelthetransportofmass,heat,andotherquantitiesthroughsolids,fluids, andfluid-filled porousmedia. The last two cases involveboth diffusive and advective transport phenomena (due to the moving fluid). Hydrodynamicdispersion dueto detailedspatial variations of thevelocity field has alsobeen modeledas aFickiandiffusion-type process,e.g. influid-filledporous structures(see [1]).Other purelydiffuseprocessesincludeheat diffusioninmaterials(Fourier’slaw),andpressurediffusion(compressibleDarcyflowinafluid-filledporousmedium).
*
Correspondingauthor.Particlemethodsarebasedonadiscreterepresentationofthetransportedquantity(soluteconcentration,fluidpressure, fluidsaturation,heatortemperature)asdiscretepackets(the“particles”),eachcarryingaunitmass,oraunitheat,etc.The advantage ofparticle methodsis thatthey avoidsome ofthe problemsofEulerianmethods basedon PartialDifferential Equations(PDE’s),suchasnumericalinstability,artificialdiffusion,massbalanceerrors,and/oroscillationsthatcouldleadto negativeconcentrationsorsaturations.Varioustypesofparticlemethodshavebeendevised:non-LagrangianParticle-in-Cell methods(PIC);implementingMarkovprocessesinaPICframeworkwithstochastictimes[2];continuous-timeparticleson a grid [3];the time-domain random walk (TDRW)[4,5];andLagrangian particles withdiscrete time-stepsin continuous space (gridless). Such particle methods have been extensively used for modeling advective-diffusive solute transport in poroussoils,aquifers,andreservoirs[6].
In “Lagrangian” methods, space is assumed continuous, and particle positions X
(
t)
are real numbers (the method is then“gridless”).Inthepresentwork,wefocusonLagrangianparticletrackingtosolvediffusionprocessesbyrandomwalk (Wienerprocess),underthegenericnameRWPT(RandomWalkParticleTracking).AspecificstudyofthemacroscopicbehaviorofRandomWalkparticlesisnecessarywhendealingwithaheterogeneous ordiscontinuous diffusioncoefficient D
(
x)
.Thecaseofdiscontinuous diffusionisparticularlytroublesome,andthisisour mainfocus.Suchdiscontinuitiesoccurat“materialinterfaces”,withsuddenchangesofmicrostructure(compositematerials, layeredporousmedia,etc.),andatdiscontinuitiesinphase,forexampletheinterfacebetweensurfacewaterandgrounwater (an importantecological habitatin thehyporheic zone). Forsolute diffusion ina porous medium, an additionalpoint of interest is thecaseofdiscontinuous porosityθ (
x)
(if the mediumis water-saturated),or discontinuous volumetricwater contentθ (
x)
(ifthemediumisunsaturated).IntheliteratureonparticleRandomWalks, thedisplacementschemesusedforhandlingthediscontinuitycanbe char-acterizedintotwoclasses:(1)Interfacecoarsening,interpolation,anddriftvelocityscheme(e.g.[7,8]);(2)Partialreflection schemes (e.g.[9]).Thefirstclass(“interpolationtechniques”)smoothout thediscontinuity[10]:theinterfaceiscoarsened andtheparameters(diffusion,porosity)areconsideredcontinuousthroughthecoarsenedinterface.Thesecondclass (“par-tialreflectionmethods”), introducedby Uffink[9],implementsaprobabilistic reflection/transmission oftheparticles across the discontinuous interface:probabilities are assigned for particle reflection and transmission across the interface. Other similarpartialreflection/transmissionschemeswereinvestigatedby[11–17].
Lejay & Pichot [18] proposed a“two-step algorithm” (theirAlgo.2), equivalent toa Stop&Goprocedure: theparticle is
stopped atthe interface,andthen undergoes a “SkewedBrownianMotion” (SBM)forthenext step, whichmaylead the
particle to cross the interface. Their two-step algorithm was presented fora 1D finite domain with zero flux boundary conditions.Onthe otherhand,they alsopresenteda“one-step algorithm”(theirAlgo.3)where,itseems,they useatype of acceptance-rejectionmethod toobtainthe displacementinthe neighborhoodoftheinterface (this methodisdifferent fromours).Morerecently,Lejay&Pichot[19] testedtheirapproaches[18] byimplementing1Dbenchmarktests,involving comparisonsbetweentheirSBMandtwoRandomWalksapproachesintheliterature [9,15].
Oneofthedrawbacksoftheseapproachesisthatasmalltimestepisrequiredinordertoconvergetothecorrectsolution ofthediscontinuousPDE,evenifthenumberofparticlesisverylarge.Thisisparticularlylimitinginthepresenceofmany interfaces. Thislimitation becomes even more drasticfor very largediffusion contrasts,e.g., two orders of magnitudeor more.Thus,[20,17] showedthattheabovemethodsare onlyvalidforinfinitesimaltimesteps.Asmalltimestepmustbe usedinordertoavoidtheovershootofheterogeneousanddiscontinuoussubregionsofspacebytheparticles.
Inthisstudy,weproposeanovelapproachintheframeworkof“partialreflectionmethods”butwithoutrestrictionson time stepsize.ThenewRWPTalgorithmisdiscreteintimeandcontinuousinspace(gridless),andthenovelaspectshave to dowiththe treatmentof discontinuities.The newalgorithm isbasedon adaptive“Stop&Go” time-stepping,combined withpartialreflection/transmissionschemessimilarto[15–18],andextendedwiththeconceptofnegativemassparticles.
This paper is organized as follows. The next section, 2, presents the theory behind Random Walk Particle Tracking methods (RWPT),andthe correspondingmacroscopicdiffusionPDE. Section3presentsa novelparticle-basedmethodfor solvingheterogeneousanddiscontinuoustransportproblemsusingRWPTwith“negativemassparticles”.Section4compares analyticalsolutionstoourRWPTresults.Section5recapitulatesthemethodanddiscussesextensionsofthiswork.
2. Theory
Thissectionpresentsthetheoryofadvective-diffusivetransport,namely,theconcentration-based,macroscopicPDE’s,and therelatedtheoryofStochasticDifferentialEquations(SDE’s)drivenby whitenoise,governingparticlesatthemicroscopic scale.
2.1. ConcentrationbasedPDE’s 2.1.1. TheGaussianfunction(PDF)
Let usdefine aGaussian PDF, denoted G
μ
,
σ
2,
x, whereμ
is themean,σ
2 thevariance, and x=
X(
t)
the particlepositionatanyfixedtimet:
∀
xR
;
Gμ
,
σ
2,x
=
1σ
√
2π
exp−
(x
−
μ
)
2 2σ
2 (2.1)A Gaussian random variable (RV) withmean
μ
and varianceσ
2 is denoted Nμ
,
σ
2and hasthe Probability Den-sity Function (PDF) G
μ
,
σ
2,
x. Lettingσ
2=
2D0t, this Gaussian PDF represents the macroscopic concentration
solu-tion C
(
x,
t)
of the diffusion PDE with spatially constant diffusion coefficient D0, for an initial point source conditionC
(
x,
t)
=
M0δ (
x−
μ
)
,withunitmassM0=
1,inaninfinitedomain.2.1.2. Theadvection-diffusiontransportPDEforconcentration
Theequationgoverningthetransportofsolute concentration(C )inaheterogeneousmediumwithvariableparameters
D (diffusioncoefficient),
θ
(porosity)andV (velocity)is(seeforinstance[11]):∂ (θC
)
∂t
= ∇·(−θ
C V+
D·∇ (θ
C))
= −∇·{θ
C(
V+ ∇·
D+
D·∇ (
lnθ ))
} +
12
∇·∇·(
2θ
C D) (2.2)Notethatwedonotdistinguishbetweenvectorsandsecondranktensors.Thefirstequalitycorrespondstotheconservative (divergence)formofthePDE,whilethe secondequalitycorrespondstoits decomposedform(fromwhichapparent “drift velocity”termsemergeduetospatiallyvariablediffusionandporositycoefficients).
Fora1Dproblemwithscalardiffusion D, thetransportPDEforaninitialsourceatx
=
x0 ina homogeneousmediumwithconstantparameters D,
θ
andV is:⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩
∀
t>
0; ∀
xR;
∂
C∂t
(x,t)
= −
V∂
C∂
x(x,t
)
+
D∂
2C∂
x2(x,t)
∀
t>
0;
lim x→±∞C(x,t)
=
0∀
xR
;
C(x,
0)
=
M0θ
δ (x
−
x0)
(2.3)The last equation represents an initial point source located at x
=
x0 with mass M0, andδ (
x)
represents the Diracpseudo-function(
δ
distribution)(e.g.Schwartz[21]).ThisPDEwillbelaterformulatedforpurelydiffusivediscontinuousdiffusionandporositycoefficientsinsection2.2. TheanalyticalsolutionofEq. (2.3) is:
∀t
>
0; ∀x
R;
C(x,t)
=
M0θ
G(x
0+
V t,
2Dt,
x) (2.4)whereG istheGaussianPDFdefinedinEq. (2.1).
2.1.3. Fromconcentrationtoparticlepositions
LetusconsidernowaparticlebasedmethodtosolveEq. (2.3).Theconcentrationcanbeexpressedasfollows[22,23]:
C
(x,
t)=
R C(X
t,t
) δ (X
t−
x)d Xt=
Rδ (X
t−
x)dmt (2.5)where Xt anddmt represent,respectively,thepositionandmassofaninfinitesimalconcentrationpacket(tobediscretized
asa“particle”).
ThePDFofparticlespositionsatanyfixedtimet shouldfollowthedistributionG
(
x0+
V t,
2Dt,
x)
.Thus,thecorrespond-ingparticlepositionscanbegeneratedusingaGaussianRV:
Xt
=
N(x
0+
V t,
2Dt)
=
x0+
V t+
√
2 D t N
(
0,
1)
(2.6)whereN
(
0,
1)
designatesanormalizedGaussianRV(zeromeanandunitvariance).ForV=
0,(
Xt)
istheWienerprocess.Ascanbeseen,thePDFof
(
Xt)
isidenticaltotheconcentrationsolutioninEq. (2.4) dividedby M0.InthecaseofspatiallyvariablebutdifferentiablecoefficientsD
(
x)
andθ (
x)
,thecorrespondingSDEbecomes[22,11,24]:Xt+dt
=
Xt+
2D
(
Xt)
dt N(
0,
1)
+ {
V(
Xt)
+ ∇ (
D(
Xt))
+
D(
Xt)
∇ (
lnθ (X
t))}
dt (2.7)whichgovernstheGaussianMarkovianprocess
(
Xt)
.After“explicit”“discretization”,dt is replacedwiththefinitet step
[7–9,12,25,13–17].
2.2. Prototypeproblem:1Ddiffusionwithasinglesourceandasinglediscontinuity
In thissection,we define a purelydiffusive problem, withan initialDiracsource, inan infiniteporousmedium com-prising twosubdomains
1 and
2 separatedbyasingle discontinuity,or“materialinterface”.The interfaceislocatedat
x1−2
=
0,andtheinitial point sourceis locatedat XSource=
x0<
0.The subdomains1 and
2 havedifferentdiffusion
coefficients D1 andD2,anddifferentporosities
θ
1 andθ
2.Suchdiscontinuities canbe foundinsoils,fracturedrocks,andmanyother porousmaterials. Forinstance,[8] studiedoxygendiffusionthrough adiscontinuous grains/jointssystemin a submicronlayerofNickelOxide.
Here,toillustrateourRWPTmethod(asinLabolle’sanalysis[11]),wefocuson1Dsolutediffusioninaporousmedium withasingleinterface,wherebothD
(
x)
andθ (
x)
arediscontinuous.ThePDEsystemforthediscontinuousproblemis,forthedomain
= 1
∪ 2
:∀t
>
0; ∀x
i
;
∂ (θ
iCi)
∂t
=
∂
∂x
θ
iDi∂
Ci∂
x (2.8a)∀
t≥
0;
lim x→±∞Ci(x,
t)=
0 (2.8b)⎧
⎨
⎩
∀t
≥
0;
C1(x
1−2,
t)=
C2(x
1−2,t)
∀
t≥
0; −θ
1D1∂
C1∂
x(x
1−2,t)
= −θ
2D2∂
C2∂
x(x
1−2,t)
(2.8c)∀
xi
;
Ci(x,
0)
=
M0θ
iδ (x
−
x0)
(2.8d)InEq.(2.8a),each PDErepresentsamassconservationequation forthesolute ineachsubdomain.Inthecaseathand, porosities
θ
1 andθ
2 are constantin eachsubdomain andcan befactored out fromeach PDE.Thesystem(2.8c) enforcesthecontinuityofsolute concentration(masspervolumeofsolvent)andofarealsolutefluxdensity.Inalltheseequations, Fick’slawisusedforthediffusiveflux.
Theanalyticalsolutionofproblem2.8isgivenbyC1 andC2(
∀
t≥
0):(
1)
: ∀
x≤
x1−2;
C1(x,t
)
=
C1S(x,
t)+
C1R(x,t)
(2.9a) C1S(x,t)
=
M0θ
1 G(x
1−2+ (
x0−
x1−2) ,
2D1t,x) (2.9b) C1R(x,t)
=
M0θ
1 R1−2G(x
1−2− (
x0−
x1−2) ,
2D1t,x) (2.9c)(
2)
: ∀
x≥
x1−2;
C2(x,t
)
=
M0θ
2(
1−
R1−2)
×
G(x
1−2+ β
1−2(x
0−
x1−2) ,
2D2t,x)
(2.9d) R1−2=
θ
1√
D1− θ
2√
D2θ
1√
D1+ θ
2√
D2 andβ
1−2=
√
D2√
D1 (2.9e)•
C1S (“S”for“Source”)isthesolutionofthisdiffusionproblemwithoutinterface(nodiscontinuities).•
C1R isthesymmetricofC1S relativetotheinterfacex=
x1−2,multipliedbycoefficient R1−2 (R forReflection).•
C2 isthesolutionofadiffusionproblemwithinitialmassM0(
1−
R1−2)
locatedatx1−2+ β1
−2(
x0−
x1−2)
.Eqs.(2.9) extendpreviousanalyticalsolutionsgivenby[26,7,27].
3. Methodsandalgorithms
In this section, we start by explaining the need for a new algorithm to deal with discontinuities. Then we discuss previous methodsproposed intheliterature.Finally,wepresentournewmethodanddiscussits advantagescompared to thepreviousones.
3.1. DiscontinuityproblemforRandomWalk
ThemoststraightforwardtestofanalgorithmfordiffusionwithdiscontinuousD
(
x)
isthe“uniformconcentrationtest”, wheretheexactsolutionofthediffusionPDEisconstantconcentrationC(
x,
t)
=
C0atalltimes(t)andallpositions(x).Thisisobtainedbyimposingconstantinitialconcentration C
(
x,
0)
=
C0,andimposingeitherzerofluxconditions∂
C/∂
x=
0,orelse DirichletconditionsC
=
C0,atbothboundaries.Therandomwalkequationcanbewrittenasfollowsfor1DdiffusionwithvariableD
(
x)
:X(p)
(t
n+
tn)
=
X(p)(t
n)
+
tn∂
D∂x
X(p)(t
n)
+
2DX(p)(t
n)
t
nZ(p)(t
n)
(3.1)However,thisequationislimitedtothecaseofcontinuouslyvariablediffusioncoefficient.Letusnowfocusonthecase ofdiscontinuous D
(
x)
.Ifwenaïvelyinsertthediscontinuous D(
x)
intheaboveequation,adeficitofconcentrationappears near the interface of discontinuity, where D1<
D2. We can deal with this deficit of concentration using two differentschemes(reflection,smoothing).Forthispurpose,aStop&Goalgorithmisnecessary;itisdescribedinthefollowingsection.
3.2. Partialreflectionandextensions(algorithm) 3.2.1. PartialreflectionschemeforthecaseR1−2
≥
0Thegeneralprincipleofthispartialreflectionscheme,sofar,issimilartotheonepreviouslyusedinliterature[15–17]. The fractions
|
R1−2|and(
1− |
R1−2|)are interpretedasprobabilities.The issueof“negativeprobabilities”will betackledlaterbelowandinsection3.2.2.Here,wefocusonR1−2
≥
0.Thus,thedisplacementalgorithmfor X
(
t)
becomes:⎧
⎪
⎪
⎨
⎪
⎪
⎩
JR
1−2K =
1;
X(t)
=
x1−2−
N(x
0−
x1−2,
2D1t)
:
XRlreflectedJR
1−2K =
0;
X(t)
=
x1−2+
D2 D1 N(x
0−
x1−2,
2D1t)
:
XRrrefracted (3.2)where
J
R1−2K designates a Bernoulli RV that is equal to 1 with probability|
R1−2| and equal to 0 with probability(
1− |
R1−2|),x0 istheinitialparticleposition X(
0)
,andx1−2istheinterfaceposition.However,untilnowwehaveconsideredonlytheabsolutevalueofR1−2.Thus,thepreviousalgorithmissufficientonly
incaseswhereR1−2 ispositive.
3.2.2. PartialreflectionschemeforthecaseR1−2
<
0Negative partialreflection probability R1−2 corresponds to a subtractionin theanalytical solution
(
C(
x,
t))
. However,itis difficultto“substract” particlesata specificlocation (position)withRWPTcomparedto addingparticles.The reason isthat,whenattempting tosubstractaparticleata specifiedlocation,onehastoact indirectlybysearchingforparticles in a neighborhood ofthe desired location, whileadding a particle ata specific location isalways possibledirectly. This subsectiondiscussesanewmethodtodealwithnegativeR1−2 forasingleinterface(wehavealsoextendedthemethodto
multipleinterfacesinthenextsubsection).
Fig. 3.1. Partialreflectionschemewithnegativemassparticles,foradomainwithdiscontinuousdiffusionandporosity(e.g.,here,
D
2<D1).Eachgivenparticlearrivingattheinterfacewithnegative
R
1−2istransmittedwithprobability1.Inaddition,twoparticleswithoppositemassespopupwith|R1−2|probability.
Forthe caseof negative R, we propose thefollowing algorithm. First,the particle isalways refracted. Secondly, with probability
|
R1−2|, two newparticles are created: one is refracted and has the same mass asthe original particle,andtheother isreflected withamassofopposite sign(Fig. 3.1). Thisalgorithmallows ustomodeltheexact solutiontothe discontinuousdiffusionproblem.Thus,thedisplacementalgorithmforeachparticle Xk
(
t)
becomes:⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩
Xk(t
)
=
x1−2+
D2 D1 N(x
0−
x1−2,
2D1t){
refracted}
J
R1−2K =
1;
Xkpos(t)
=
x1−2+
D2 D1 N(x
0−
x1−2,
2D1t){
refracted}
J
R1−2K =
1;
Xkneg(t)
=
x1−2−
N(x
0−
x1−2,
2D1t)
{
reflected}
(3.3)3.3. Multipleinterfaces
Aftercrossing oneinterface, aparticlecould eventually crossasecond interface. Thealgorithm shouldbe abletodeal withanynumberofinterfacescrossedbyagivenparticle,inasingletimestep.
3.3.1. Semi-analyticalsolutionforadiffusionproblemwithN
≥
2 interfacesToobtaintheRWPTalgorithmthatdealswithmultipleinterfaces,letusfirstgeneralizethesolutionEq. (2.9) ofEq. (2.8) forN-interfacesand(N
+
1)layers.ThegeneralizationofEq. (2.8) foriJ
1;
N+
1K
is:∀t
>
0; ∀x
i
;
∂ (θ
iCi)
∂t
=
∂
∂x
θ
iDi∂
Ci∂
x (3.4a)⎧
⎨
⎩
∀
t≥
0;
lim x→−∞C1(x,t)
=
0∀t
≥
0;
lim x→+∞CN+1(x,t
)
=
0 (3.4b)⎧
⎨
⎩
∀t
≥
0; ∀i
J
1;
NK Ci xi,i+1,t
=
Ci+1 xi,i+1,t
∀
t≥
0; ∀
iJ
1;
NK −θ
iDi∂
Ci∂
x xi,i+1,t
= −θ
i+1Di+1∂
Ci+1∂
x xi,i+1,t
(3.4c)∀x
i
;
Ci(x,
0)
=
M0θ
iδ (x
−
x0)
(3.4d)The solutionEq. (2.9) iscomposed ofthreegaussians,one ofwhich(C1S
(
x,
t)
) isthesolutionofa purediffusiveproblem, andtheothertwodependonCS1 andontheinterfaceposition.LetusdefinetwolinearoperatorsLi j andL∗i j:
Li j
(G
(x
0,
2Dit,x))=
Ri jG 2xi−j−
x0,
2Dit,x (3.5) L∗i j(G
(x
0,
2Dit,x))=
1−
Ri j G xi j+
Dj Di x0−
xi−j,
2Djt,x (3.6) ThusthesolutionEq. (2.9) couldbewrittenasfollows:⎧
⎨
⎩
∀
t>
0; ∀
x≤
x1−2;
C1(x,t)
=
C1S(x,t)
+
L12 C1S(x,
t)∀
t>
0; ∀
x≥
x1−2;
C2(x,t)
=
L∗12 C1S(x,t)
(3.7)Thedecomposition(Eq. (3.7))canbefurthergeneralized:foreachindividualinterface,newgaussiansaregenerated,with parameters chosen to fitthe solution.Hence, each time agaussian function g initiallyina subdomain
(
i)
encountersan interfaceatpositionxi−j,weaddLi,j(
g)
tothesolutioninsubdomain(
i)
andL∗i,j(
g)
tothesolutioninsubdomain(
j)
.SeeAlgorithm1.
Algorithm1Semi-analyticalsolutionfordiffusionwithN
≥
2 interfaces.1. Ckconcentrationinsubdomain
k
2. Initialize
C ik
=CSwithCS
thesolutionofadiffusionproblemwithnodiscontinuity. 3. uk= ±1 thedirectiontowardstheinterfaceslimitingsubdomain(k).4. while(Ck)notconverged do
(a) Ck=Ck+Lk,k+uk(C ik)and
Ck
+uk=Ck+uk+L∗k,k+uk Ci k (b) uk+uk=ukanduk
= −uk (c) C ik=Lk,k+uk(C ik)andC ik
+uk=C ik+uk+L∗k,k+uk(C ik) 5. endFor the two-interface problem (N
=
2), the previous algorithm leads to an analytical solution for diffusion with an initial source,withdiscontinuousdiffusioncoefficientsandporositieshavingthreedifferentvalues(threelayers).Thus the analytical⎧
solutionforasourcelocatedatthepositionx0 insubdomain(
i=
1)
,∀
t≥
0:⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩
∀
x≤
x1;2;
θ
1 M0 C1(x,
t)=
id+
L12+
+∞ i=0 L∗21(L
23L21)
iL23L∗12∀
x1;2≤
x≤
x2;3;
θ
2 M0 C2(x,
t)=
+∞ i=0(id
+
L23) (L
21L23)
iL∗12∀
x≥
x2;3;
θ
3 M0 C3(x,
t)=
L∗23 +∞ i=0(L
21L23)
iL∗12 (3.8)Theanalyticalsolutionforasourcelocatedatthepositionx0insubdomain
(
i=
2)
,∀
t≥
0:⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩
∀
x≤
x1;2;
θ
1 M0 C1(x,t)
=
L∗21 +∞ i=0(L
23L21)
i(id
+
L23)
∀
x1;2≤
x≤
x2;3;
θ
2 M0 C2(x,t)
=
+∞ i=0(id
+
L21) (L
23L21)
i(id
+
L23)
∀
x≥
x2;3;
θ
3 M0 C3(x,t)
=
L∗23 +∞ i=0(L
21L23)
i(id
+
L21)
(3.9)withtherightsideofEq. (3.8) isappliedtoG
(
x0,
2D2t,
x)
.ThissolutionisdetailedinAppendixA,andithasbeenverifiedbysubstitutionintothegoverningPDE’s.
3.3.2. GeneralizationoftheRWPTalgorithmforN
≥
2 interfacesThesameideaofgeneralization oftheanalyticalsolutioninsubsection3.3.1 (fromoneinterfaceintoamulti-interface) hasbeenappliedtotheRWPTmethodforaproblemwithN interfaces.Ifaparticlecrossesan interface,then(step 1)its positionis alteredaccordingtoprevious algorithms that dealwithdiscontinuities (see subsection3.2,Eq. (3.2) for R
≥
0 andEq. (3.3) for R<
0).After this(step 2), ifthenew particleposition doesnot belong toits initial subdomain, norto the adjacent subdomains, then go back to “step 1”. Thereafter, the particle continues undergoing this algorithm within a conditional loop, until the particle doesnot cross an interface (it then reaches its final position within the loop). See Algorithm2.Algorithm2RWPTalgorithmforN
≥
2 interfaces.1. Considerparticle(k)withmass
mk
andpositionXk
. 2. while particle(k)crossesinterfaces do(a) If R1,2≥0 then
i. IfJR1,2K =0; then theparticle(k)is
refracted to
thepositionX
kRrasinEq. (3.2) endif ii. IfJR1,2K =1; then theparticle(k)isrefracted to
thepositionX
kRlasinEq. (3.2) endif (b) Else (caseR
1,2<0)i. Theparticle(k)is
refracted to
thepositionX
Rr k . ii. IfJR1,2K =1; then Createtwoparticles“A”and“B”:A. withmass
mk
andattherefracted position X
Rr k . B. withmass−mkandattherefracted position X
Rlk. iii. endif
(c) end 3. end
Thisalgorithmwillbe testedinsection4,withtheanalyticalsolutiondefinedinsubsection2.2.Then,itwillbe com-paredwithageneralizedanalyticalsolutionforapurediffusionproblemwithtwointerfacesandthreedifferentdiffusion coefficientsandwatercontents:thedetailedanalyticalsolutionforthis3-layercaseispresentedinEq. (3.8).Andfinally,it willbevalidatedwithanevenmoregeneralizedsemi-analyticalsolutionwhichalgorithmhasbeendetailedintheprevious subsection3.3.1.
3.4. Postprocessing:fromparticlestoconcentrations
Post-processinginRandomWalkmethodisessentialsincetheprimaryobjectiveofthesimulationistogetthe concen-tration(temperatureorpressure)field.AspecialattentionshouldbegiventoNegativeunitmassandAdaptivemassparticle methodsinparticular,sincetheyareverydifferentfromtheclassicalRandomWalksimulation.Here,massconservationis stillmaintained,sinceeachtimewecreateanegativemass,wecreatealsoapositiveone.
Themacroscopicconcentrationisdeterminedfromthedistributionofparticlepositions Xt weightedbytheirrespective
masses,dmt
=
C(
Xt,
t)
d Xt.Thiscanbeexpressedformallyas1:C
(x,
t)=
R C(X
t,t
) δ (X
t−
x)d Xt=
Rδ (X
t−
x)dmt (3.10)1 Moreprecisely,inagivendomain ,thelocalconcentration
C
(x,t)isrelatedtothePDFofparticlepositions fXt(x;t)by
C
(x,t)=M (t)fXt(x;t) whereM
(t)isthetotalmassoftheparticlesinsidethedomain attimet.
The solutionisdescribed fortwo casesof“initial”point sources C
(
x,
0)
=
M0.δ (
x−
x0)
locatedatx0<
x1:2<
x2:3 andC
(
x,
0)
=
M0.δ (
x−
x1)
locatedatx1:2<
x1<
x2:3.Inthefirst case,thesourceisintheleft layer,butsimilarsolutionsareobtainedforanysourceposition.ThesesolutionsareusedinthetextinrelationtothegeneralizationofourRandomWalk algorithm,andforcomparison/validationofresults(Section4,Fig.4.2).
Forasourcelocatedatleft
(
x0<
x1:2)
theinitialcondition forthediffusionproblemofEq. (A.1) is:⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩
∀
x≤
x1:2;
C1(x,
0)
=
M0θ
1δ (x
−
x0)
∀
x1:2≤
x≤
x2:3;
C2(x,
0)
=
0∀
x≥
x2:3;
C3(x,
0)
=
0 (A.2)Thesolutionofthediscontinuousdiffusionproblem(Eq. (A.1))withinitialcondition(A.2) is:
∀
t≥
0; ∀
x≤
x1:2;
θ
1 M0 C1(x,
t)=
G(x
0,
2D1t,x)+
R1:2G(−
x0+
2x1:2,
2D1t,x)
+
+∞ i=0(
1−
R1:2)
R2:3(R
2:3R2:1)
i(
1−
R2:1)
×
G−
x0+
2x1:2+
2(i
+
1)
√
D1√
D2(x
2:3−
x1:2) ,
2D1t,x (A.3a)∀t
≥
0; ∀x
1:2≤
x≤
x2:3;
θ
2 M0 C2(x,t
)
=
+∞ i=0(
1−
R1:2) (R
2:3R2:1)
i×
G√
D2√
D1(x
0−
x1:2)
− (
2i+
1) (x
2:3−
x1:2)
+
x2:3,
2D2t,x
+
R2:3×
G−
√
D2√
D1(x
0−
x1:2)
+ (
2i+
1) (x
2:3−
x1:2)
+
x2:3,
2D2t,x (A.3b)∀
t≥
0; ∀
x≥
x2:3;
θ
3 M0 C3(x,
t)=
+∞ i=0(
1−
R1:2) (R
2:3R2:1)
i(
1−
R2:3)
×
G√
D3√
D1(x
0−
x1:2)
+ (
2i+
1)
√
D3√
D2(x
1:2−
x2:3)
+
x2:3,
2D3t,x
(A.3c) AndthesolutionofEq. (A.1) withtheinitialcondition⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩
∀x
≤
x1:2;
C1(x,
0)
=
0∀
x1:2≤
x≤
x2:3;
C2(x,
0)
=
M0θ
1δ (x
−
x1)
∀
x≥
x2:3;
C3(x,
0)
=
0 (A.4) is:∀t
≥
0; ∀x
≤
x1:2;
θ
1 M0 C1(x,
t)= (
1−
R2:1)
+∞ i=0(R
2:3R2:1)
i×
G x1:2+
D1 D2(
2i(x
2:3−
x2:1)
+
x0−
x1:2) ,
2D1t,x
+
R2:3G x1:2+
D1 D2(
2i(x
2:3−
x2:1)
+
2x2:3−
x0−
x1:2) ,
2D1t,
x (A.5a)∀
t≥
0; ∀
x1:2≤
x≤
x2:3;
θ
2 M0 C2(x,t
)
= −
G(x
0,
2D2t,x)+
+∞ i=0(R
2:3R2:1)
i× (
G(
2i(x
2:3−
x1:2)
+
x0,
2D2t,x)
+
G(
2i(x
1:2−
x2:3)
+
x0,
2D2t,x)+
R2:3G(
2i(x
2:3−
x1:2)
+
2x2:3−
x0−
x1:2,
2D2t,x)+
R2:1G(
2i(x
1:2−
x2:3)
+
2x1:2−
x0−
x2:3,
2D2t,x)) (A.5b)∀
t≥
0; ∀
x≥
x2:3;
θ
3 M0 C3(x,t)
= (
1−
R2:3)
+∞ i=0(R
2:1R2:3)
i×
G x2:3+
D3 D2(
2i(x
1:2−
x2:3)
+
x0−
x2:3) ,
2D3t,x+
R2:1G x2:3+
D3 D2(
2i(x
1:2−
x2:3)
+
2x1:2−
x0−
x2:3) ,
2D3t,x (A.5c) The above solutions have been checked by direct substitution in Eq. (A.1a) and the initial and boundary conditions Eq. (A.1b),Eq. (A.1c) andEq. (A.2).Theinfiniteseriesobtainedinthissectionforconcentration C
(
x,
t)
havetheformofafunctionh(
x,
t)
definedas:h
(x,t)
=
+∞ n=0 A√
tz nexp−
(x
+
Cn+
D)2 Bt (A.6) withB,
t>
0; x,
A,
C,
DR
andz=
R2:1R2:3 (productofpartialreflectioncoefficients).Theirconvergenceisstudiedinthenextappendix(AppendixB).
Appendix B. Studyoftheconvergenceandcontinuityoftheseriesh
Inthisappendix,westudytheconvergenceoftheinfiniteseriesh
(
x,
t)
(A.6) whichhastheformofthesolutionfoundin AppendixA.Thissolution(concentrationC(
x,
t)
)wasusedinFig.4.2tovalidatetheRandomWalkParticleTrackingmodel proposedinthispaperfordiscontinuousdiffusion.B.1. Pointwiseconvergenceusingd’Alembertcriteria Theorem1(d’AlembertRatiotest[29]).Let
an,
nN
beasequenceofcomplex numberssuchthatL
=
limn→+∞|an|an+1||exists.IfL
<
1,thentheseries+∞n=0anconvergesabsolutely.Thus,+∞n=0anispointwiseconvergent.IfL
>
1,thentheseries+∞n=0anisdivergent.IfL
=
1,thenthecaseisundecided.Using Theorem 1, we now show that our series h
(
x,
t)
is pointwise convergent. This series is of the form h(
x,
t)
=
+∞ n=0Un(
x,
t)
,where: Un=
A√
tz nexp−
(x
+
Cn+
D)2 Bt (B.1)|
Un+1|
|
Un|
= |
z|
exp−
(x
+
C(n
+
1)
+
D)2− (
x+
Cn+
D)2 Bt (B.2)|
Un+1|
|U
n|
= |
z| exp−
2xC+
C2+
2DC Bt exp−
2C2n Bt (B.3) IfC=
0,thentheseriesconvergesfor|
z| <
1 and B,
t>
0;x,
A,
DR
,h(
t,
x)
=
√At 1 1−zexp
−
(x+D)2 Bt.Thiscaseoccursif thedistancebetweentwointerfaces
(
|
x1:2−
x2:3|)goestozero(wemaydismissthiscasehere).Otherwise,ifC
=
0,then |Un|Un+1||→
n→+∞0.Bythe d’AlembertRatio test,the seriesh converges∀
zC
;∀
B>
0,
∀
t>
0;∀
x,
A,
C,
DR
.Inconclusion,theseriesh
(
x,
t)
andtheanalyticalconcentrationssolutions(Eqs. (3.8) and(3.9))convergepointwisein allcasesofinterest.B.2. Uniformconvergence
Theorem2([29]).Assume
(
fn)
isasequenceoffunctionsdefinedonE,andassume|
fn(
x)
| ≤
Mn(
xE,
n=
1,
2,
3, . . .)
.ThenfnconvergesuniformlyonE if
Mnconverges.Theinfiniteseriesh
(
x,
t)
isoftheform:h
(x,t)
=
+∞ n=0 Aznexp−
Bt ln(t)
+
2(x
+
Cn+
D)2 2Bt (B.4)Letusdefine gn
(
x,
t)
as:gn
(x,t
)
= −
Bt ln
(t)
+
2(x
+
Cn+
D)22Bt (B.5)
Fort
≥
1 wehave gn≤
0.Thus, Aznexp−
Bt ln(t)
+
2(x
+
Cn+
D)2 2Bt≤ |
A| |
z|
n (B.6)Sincetheseries
n+∞=0|
A| |
z|
n convergesfor|
z| <
1,h isuniformlyconvergentonR
×
[1; +∞
[. For0<
t≤
1 wehave −eB≤
Bt ln(
t)
≤
0.•
First,ifC>
0 andforafixed x0R
;∃
n1/
∀
n≥
n1;∀
x≥
x0;Bt ln(
t)
+
2(
x+
Cn+
D)
2≥
Bt ln(
t)
+
2(
x0+
Cn+
D)
2≥
0.Hence,theseriesh convergesuniformlyon[x0; +∞[
×
]0;
1].•
Secondly,ifC<
0 andforafixedx0R
;∃
n2/
∀
n≥
n2;∀
x≤
x0;Bt ln(
t)
+
2(
−
x−
Cn−
D)
2≥
Bt ln(
t)
+
2(
−
x0−
Cn−
D)
2≥
0.Theseriesh convergesuniformlyon]0;
1]×
]−∞;
x0].Theorem3([29]).If
(
fn)
isasequenceofcontinuousfunctionsonE,andif fn→
f uniformlyonE,thenf iscontinuousonE.Consequence Forz
C
suchthat|
z| <
1,h iscontinuouswithrespectto(
x,
t)
onR
×
]0; +∞
[.Conclusion Inallcasesofinterest,theanalyticalinfiniteseriesconcentrationsolutions(Eqs. (3.8) and(3.9))arepointwise convergentandcontinuouswithrespectto
(
x,
t)
onR
×
]0; +∞
[.References
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