THE CHRONOLOGY AND THE PERIODIZATION OF THE NORTH-

The periodisation of the Neolithic in the north-east of the Iberian Peninsula is still under discussion. This is partly caused by the fact that much of the available radiocarbon data is considered problematic due to the types of the samples used, the too high standard deviations or the poor association of the dates with the contexts. Traditionally, five periods have been established based on factors such as the morphology and decoration of the pottery, the models of the settlements, the techno-morphology of the stone and bone implements, the characteristics of the jewellery, the funerary practices and the treatment of the buried. These periods are: Cardial Early Neolithic, Epicardial Early Neolithic, Postcardial Neolithic, Middle Neolithic and Final Neolithic-Chalcolithic (Tarrús 1985;

Mestres 1992; Miró 1994; Gibaja 2003; Molist et al. 2003; Martín et al. 2010).

This traditional periodisation is based on the chrono-cultural sequence (with strong parallels with those established for South-Eastern France) proposed by Jean Guilaine (Guilaine & Muñoz 1964). The French archaeologist divided the Neolithic of the north-east of the Iberian Peninsula into four phases: the Early Neolithic associated with Cardial and Epicardial pottery, the Postcardial Early Neolithic associated with Montboló ceramics, the Middle Neolithic related to the "Pit Burials" funerary practice and the Final

Neolithic-Chalcolithic associated with Veraza ceramic typology. Following the same chronological framework, on the basis of the first published radiocarbon dates (Muñoz 1965), the analysed archaeological sites were assigned to the respective periods during the seventies.

Around the same time, two different Postcardial groups were distinguished in the literature based on the pottery typology in the period between 5100-4900 and 4700 cal.

BC. The first group is the Montboló type, found in the northern part of the region (the Ter River Valley), which can be assigned to the plain pottery horizon of the Western Mediterranean as the technology and morphology that it demonstrates is similar to those of the Chasséen horizon in France and the Pit Burials horizon in North-Eastern Iberia. The other group is the Molinot type characterised by closed globular vessels with symmetric handles decorated with a ribbon pattern. A few burials dating from this period have been also documented: a burial in the cave of “Can Sadurní” and some isolated pits in the Penedès region and the Ebro Delta region, such as the “Ca l’Estrada” settlement.

According to Martín and Villalba (1999), this period was followed by the Middle Neolithic, lasting from 4300 to 3500 cal. BC. The “Pit Burials” could thus be assigned to this period. The pottery of the Middle Neolithic was made from fine pastes and displayed smooth line shapes with Chasséen elements (Martín & Villalba 1999).

Finally, around 3500-3300 cal. BC, the material culture is believed to have changed significantly (subspherical ceramics, non-drilling press elements...), and so are the funerary structures, as the period saw the emergence of successive burials in collective hypogea (Martín & Villalba 1999). The Veraza pottery typology dating from this period has also been documented on both sides of the Pyrenees, though their study and characterisation is still ongoing.

All results of radiocarbon dating performed since then have more or less been assigned to this chrono-cultural periodisation. However, in many cases, the established chronological attribution to each of these periods has been somewhat adjusted by the different authors, thus making it rather difficult to propose a standardised and reliable chronology (Barceló 2008A; Antolín 2013; Oms et al. 2016) (Table 1).

Phase Periodisation according to Antolín 2013 & Barceló 2008A

Periodisation according to Oms et al. 2016

Cardial Early

Neolithic 5400-5000 cal. BC 5500-4850 cal. BC Epicardial Early

Neolithic 5000-4500 cal. BC 4930-4420 cal. BC Postcardial

Neolithic 4500-4000 cal. BC 4690-3800 cal. BC Settlements. 4690-3790 cal. BC Inhumations: 4320-3850 cal. BC Middle Neolithic 4000-3200 cal. BC 4250-3150 cal. BC

Late

Neolithic-Chalcolithic 3200-2300 cal. BC 3560-2310 cal. BC

Table 1. Summary table of the two currently agreed periodizations.

Currently, the common proposal is that the Neolithic begins with the arrival of Cardial pottery from the Mediterranean coast and/or the south of France between 5800-4900 cal.

BC. Unfortunately, stratigraphic gaps thwart any attempts at determining whether there was continuity between the Mesolithic and the Neolithic groups. Nevertheless, what the currently available data suggests is that the occupation of the area by Mesolithic groups was scarce and dispersed, while there was an absence of any population during the first half of the 4th millennium cal. BC, which would have facilitated the consolidation of the Cardial horizon (Morales & Oms 2012). Martín et al. suggest that the transition between Cardial and Epicardial groups could be explained by demographic pressure (Martín et al.

2010: 199-200). However, this explanation and interpretation should be regarded with caution since, as mentioned above, very few examples of funerary structures have been documented from both the Cardial period (just one in the “Cova Bonica” cave (Daura et al. 2019) and one in the cave of “Can Sadurní”), and only four from the Epicardial period:

“Cova dels Lladres” (Ten 1986 & 1989), “Cova del Pasteral” (Bosch 1985), “Cova de

l'Avellaner” (Bosch & Tarrús 1990; Gibaja et al. 2018) and “Plaça Vila de Madrid” (Pout et al. 2010).

Likewise, there is diversity of opinion regarding the exact point of the transition from the end of the Postcardial horizon to the beginning of the Middle Neolithic “Pit Burials”

horizon. Some authors believe the beginning of the “Pit Burials” horizon to be around 4300 cal. BC (Beeching 2007; Oms et al. 2016), while others suggest a point in time closer to 4000 cal. BC (Barceló 2008A; Martin 2009; Antolín 2013). According to the first group, some “Pit Burials” would have been contemporaneous with some Postcardial burials, such as “Els Mallols” (E114) and “Sant Pau del Camp” (E18). This theory could be supported by the newly available results of radiocarbon dating from the Postcardial sites of “Pujolet de Moja”, “Ca l'Estrada”, “Hort d'en Grimau” and “La Serreta” associated with Molinot pottery, which situate them around 4400-4100 cal. BC (Oms et al. 2016).

Moreover, new data suggests that individual inhumations in pits or stone boxes are not unique to the Middle Neolithic, but were also present in the Early Epicardial and Postcardial Neolithic. Some examples are: a group of stone boxes and chambers with a tumulus in Tavertet (Girona) (Molist et al. 1987; Cruells et al. 1992), pit and stone box burials in Amposta (Tarragona) (Bosch 1996) (it should, however, be noted that most of them have either not been dated at all or the results of their radiocarbon dating are very doubtful)

and the aforementioned pit burials of “Hort d'en Grimau” and “Sant Pau del Camp”

(Barcelona) (Mestres 1989; Granados et al 1991). Conversely, funerary contexts in caves (“Cova del Toll”), in non-sepulchral pits (“Timba dels Barenys”) or in mine contexts (“Can Tintorer”) dating from the Early Neolithic have also been documented.

Thus, new discoveries have called into question the traditionally defined homogeneity of the periodisation. Although the cultural "facies" have traditionally been assigned to a specific geographical and socio-economic framework, the funerary structures that characterise these cultural facies sometimes occur, sharing space and time. This co-occurrence has also been documented in the French "Chasséen" horizon, the North Italian

"VBQ" horizon and in the "Chamblandes" burials (Bagolini 1990; Boujot et al. 1991;

Loison et al. 1991; Mahieu 1992; Bagolini & Grifoni 1994; Beyneix 1997; Loison 1998;

Vaquer 1998; Chambon & Moinat 2007).

This evidence questions the chronological typology on which the periodisation of the Neolithic of the north-east of the Iberian Peninsula has traditionally been based, especially with regard to the very concept of the “Pit Burials” horizon. This concept, as will be proposed in this work, rather than a "cultural package", should be understood as a kind of funerary practice circumscribed within the frame of different social groups in different regions and during different periods.