Scientific relevance

This dissertation contributes to the literature on solidarity by proposing a comprehensive framework to identify and study its core political aspects. It is based on an original empirical study, working across disciplines to examine and showcase the various dimensions of political solidarity.

It advances knowledge on the relevance of universal orientations of political solidarity for the social and political rights of the most vulnerable groups. The approach focuses on relevant implications

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of individual and collective dispositions and practices as they relate to political solidarity within institutional and non-institutional settings.

Moreover, the dissertation assembles research on attitudes of support for the institutionalisation of social rights and related perceptions of deservingness across vulnerable groups (Banting and Kymlicka 2017; Crepaz et al. 2008; van Oorschot and Uunk 2007). By focusing on political values and social dispositions (Gerhards et al. 2020; Bansak et al. 2016), the study contributes to the literature on political actions targeting the wellbeing and rights of others (Polletta 2020; della Porta 2018; Lahusen and Grasso 2018). The empirical analyses substantiates the diversity of actors enacting political solidarity, with examples from individuals and civil society organisations sustaining political solidarity for the welfare and rights of the most vulnerable people and groups (Lahusen et al. 2021; Lahusen et al. 2020).

The remainder of this section explores the scientific relevance of this dissertation according to four primary areas of contribution:

First, starting from its conceptual analysis of the various perspectives of solidarity and its political dimension, this study contributes to the use of an analytical tool to identify and define political solidarity. The analytical tool is employed to characterise political solidarity and unveil key explanatory factors characterising, triggering and describing practices and attitudes of political solidarity across groups.

To capture, describe and define political solidarity, literature is referenced from various disciplines, including political science, psychology and sociology. Each of these scholarly strands have advanced the concept of solidarity, but are largely limited to the discourse defined by their particular disciplinary focus. This dissertation builds on these different perspectives, threading together interconnections to understand different aspects of political solidarity in relationship to memberships, attitudes and practices. As such, solidarity is conceptually framed as two-step process, where solidarity is first defined and then this definition is specified to describe a political solidarity (see Section 1.4). This approach helps to illustrate that solidarity is conditional by memberships, and that the attitudes and practices of solidarity can have a political dimension in relation to claims for the rights and wellbeing of others.

Second, this study contributes to prior literature by integrating three levels of analysis. At the micro-level, the study examines individual practices and attitudes regarding the political dimension of solidarity. At the meso-level, the analysis focuses on the organisational forms and characteristics of citizen networks and collective initiatives operating in political solidarity with the most vulnerable.

Lastly, at the macro-level, it examines the interplay between individual attitudes of political

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solidarity and policy frameworks, substantiating how policy frameworks shape attitudes of political solidarity, oriented by membership obligations to specific groups.

Third, this study includes four empirical papers, three of which are peer reviewed and published in scholarly journals. Each of these papers contribute to the existing literature on the drivers of political solidarity through generalisable findings. In addition, each paper proposes a robust and systematic conceptualisation and operationalisation of political solidarity, which is examined by employing a range of methodological tools (from frequentist to Bayesian approaches). Moreover, these four research contributions benefit from the use of new cross-national data sets collected within the EU project, “European paths to transnational solidarity at times of crisis: Conditions, forms, role models and policy responses” (TransSOL). These empirical data are used to analyse various dimensions of solidarity, including its political dimension by examining practices and attitudes in relationship to three groups (unemployed and disabled people and migrants/refugees) in eight EU countries (Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Poland, Switzerland and the UK).

Finally, the fourth major contribution relates to the overall question that motivates the study: How does solidarity bind people and groups together such that their shared responsibility towards the welfare of others motivates them to engage in individual or collective actions of support and care, regardless of risk or cost to themselves? Within the context of the ongoing crises in Europe discussed earlier, this dissertation studies actors who enact political solidarity to defend collective endeavours and support the rights of people in need. Analysis throughout the four empirical chapters in this dissertation looks at the practices of political solidarity (e.g., activism to defend refugee rights; participation in organisations to support the rights of unemployed people and people with disabilities), underscoring the diversity of solidarity practices and actors. Nonetheless, findings reveal that not all attitudes and practices of care and support bounded by shared obligations and commitments to groups are political. Moreover, these attitudes and practices can appertain to institutional and non-institutional settings. The analysis of the political dimension of solidarity has also underscored the political conflict between universal versus particular orientations of the practices and attitudes of political solidarity. This divide is a key element to understanding the boundaries to political solidarity in non-institutional and institutional settings based on the cultural-identity conflict, and has been associated with research on the bi-dimensionality of the European political space (Beramendi et al. 2015; Häusermann and Kriesi 2015; Helbing et Kriesi 2014).

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