AND PRINCIPLES
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appropriate legislation”;
“adopt appropriate legislative and other measures … prohibiting all discrimination against women”;
“establish legal protection of the rights of women”, including through public institutions;
“refrain from engaging in any act or practice of discrimination”;
“take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination” by non-state actors;
“modify or abolish existing laws, regulations, customs and practices which constitute discrimination”; and
“repeal all national penal provisions which constitute discrimination”
The International Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination specifically prohibits of discrimination based on “race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin”, cf. Article 1. In the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities non- discrimination is among its general principles, cf. Article 3, and it is among the obligations of states to “ensure and promote the full realization of all human rights and fundamental freedoms for all persons with disabilities without discrimination of any kind on the basis of dis-ability”. Article 5 recognizes the right to equal protection and equal benefit of the law, and Article 6 specifically recognizes the issue of double discrimination of women and girls with disabilities.
Temporary special measures can be used to ensure substantive equality (affirmative action) and do not constitute prohibited discrimination, cf. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women Article 4, Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination Article 1 and Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Article 5.
Non-discrimination is a core principle guid-ing the human rights system. Every person has a right to enjoy human rights without
treaties. This right is paramount for the fulfilment of all other human rights and is an obligation of immediate effect. The right not
Women’s right to control their fertility through invoking the prohibition against all forms of discrimination against women may be consid-ered a fundamental key that opens up wom-en’s capacity to enjoy other human rights.1 When health clinics for example deny treat-ment to women that do not have their hus-band’s consent, the health clinics are violating the non-discrimination clauses of the Conven-tion on the EliminaConven-tion of All Forms of Discrim-ination against Women and discriminating against women based on their marital status.
The equal enjoyment by men and women of the rights protected by the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights need to be addressed, having multiple discrimination in mind.2 Multiple discrimina-tions occur when a person is discriminated not just due to being, for example, a woman but also for being, for example, a member of an indigenous group. It is important to acknowledge this issue when considering how to secure reproductive rights for all as women belonging to vulnerable groups are often those with least access to reproductive services.3 It is similarly important to recall that formal equality, meaning laws and poli-cies that on paper treat all in an equal man-ner, is not sufficient; laws and policies must be made in such a manner as to alleviate the disadvantage suffered by various groups, leading to substantive equality.
1 Cook, Rebecca, “International Protection of Women’s Reproductive Rights”, New York University
An example of indirect discrimination which not only treats women differently to men but which also violates the rights of women to decide if and when to have children is when women are not hired or are given low-level jobs because they might get pregnant.
The notion of female inferiority and stereo-typical gender roles perpetuate violations of women’s reproductive rights and states are obliged to tackle such assumptions of inferiority.
“Eliminating discrimination in practice requires paying sufficient attention to groups of individuals which suffer historical or persistent prejudice
instead of merely comparing the formal treatment of individuals in similar situations. States parties must there-fore immediately adopt the necessary measures to prevent, diminish and eliminate the conditions and attitudes which cause or perpetuate substantive or de facto discrimination.”
Source: Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR) General Comment No. 20, 2009
States should address discrimination in the private sphere, for example within families, by adopting measures, including legislation, to ensure that individuals are not discrimi-nated on prohibited grounds in the private
ences must be taken into account. Under certain circumstances, such differences will require non-identical treatment. This is an important principle to keep in mind when dealing with sexual and reproductive health.5
On a few occasions, the Committee on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and the Committee on the Rights of the Child have mentioned that inequality between women and men often makes women unable to secure safe sexual practices, leading to increased exposure to HIV, and the need to empower girls and women in general.6
Unequal power relations based on gender are a core concern for reproductive rights, as inequality makes it difficult or impossible for women and adolescent girls to refuse sex or insist on safe and responsible sex practices.
Inequality also influences the occurrence of harmful practices, such as female geni-tal mutilation, polygamy and marigeni-tal rape, increasing women’s risk of contracting HIV/
AIDS and other STIs.7
5 Committee on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, General Recommen-dation No. 25 from, 2004.
6 Committee on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women Papua New Guinea, 2010, Committee on the Rights of the Child Angola 2010, Committee on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women Burkina Faso 2010, Committee on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discri-increase public awareness of HIV and AIDS, especially with respect to women and children;
2. Ensure that programmes to combat AIDS give special attention to the rights and needs of women and children and the factors relating to the reproductive role of women and their subordinate position in some societies; and
3. Ensure the active participation of women in primary health care and as care pro-viders, health workers and educators in the prevention of infection with HIV.8 In relation to the girl-child, states should address the issue of gender-based discrim-ination. In combination with judgmental views on the sexual activities of girls, dis-crimination limits girls’ access to preventive measures and other services. States should also take steps to protect the lives of chil-dren by paying attention to sexuality and behaviour even if it is outside of what is con-sidered socially acceptable. Moreover, states must protect girls against harmful practices, such as early and forced marriages, which not only violate girls’ rights but also increase the risk of contracting HIV. States are fur-ther obliged to put in place prevention pro-grammes taking into account the reality of adolescent lives and ensuring equal access to appropriate information, life skills, and to preventive measures. Children, including
8 Committee on the Elimination of All Forms of
those affected by HIV/AIDS, should be involved in designing and implementing the relevant programmes and plans.9
In his report of 27 February 2007 to the Human Rights Council,10 the Special
Rappor-9 General Comment No. 3 on HIV/AIDS and the rights of the child from 2003.
10 OHCHR A/HRC/4/32.
teur on the rights of indigenous peoples noted the triple discrimination to which indigenous women are often victims (being indigenous, poor and female) and mentioned some exam-ples of the consequences of this, such as substantially higher infant mortality and lower access to medical care during childbirth.
These issues must be addressed by states.
BOX 8. REPRODUCTIVE RIGHTS AND DISABILITIES
According to the WHO an estimated 15% of the world’s population, more than 1 billion peo-ple, live with a disability.11 Just as is the case for persons without disabilities, persons with disabilities have sexual and reproductive needs and are entitled to have their reproductive rights respected. Most of the barriers to their exercise of their rights stem from the ignorance and attitudes of societies and individuals, including health-care providers, rather than from the actual disabilities.
It is frequently assumed that persons with disabilities are not sexually active and therefore have no need for sexual and reproductive health services. This is not the case. Research shows12 that persons with disabilities are as sexually active as persons without disabilities. Their reproductive rights need to be respected as much as the rights of non-disabled persons.13 Nonetheless, per-sons with disabilities are more often denied information about sexual and reproductive health.
They have also been denied the right to decide whether, when and with whom to have a family.
Rights of persons with disabilities to access sexual and reproductive health are also con-nected to development. As mentioned, persons with disabilities make up 15% of the world’s population overall. However, lower-income countries have a higher prevalence of persons with disabilities than higher-income countries. Disability is more common among women, older people, children and adults who are poor.
persons with disabilities was the adoption of the Convention on the Protection of the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CPRD) in 2006. The Convention came into force in 2008. One of the most important characteristics of the Convention is its paradigm shift, making disabilities a societal problem, and not an individual one. State parties, not the individual person with disabilities, are responsible for the promotion of rights, including reproductive rights. Several articles of the Convention refer to sexual and reproductive health. Article 25 is especially relevant, requiring states to ensure equal access to health services for persons with disabilities, with specific mention of sexual and reproductive health and population based public health programmes.
While the promotion of rights for persons living with disabilities has generally progressed, there is still a long way to go. For example, according to WHO, “persons with disabilities are up to three times more likely than non-disabled persons to be victims of physical and sexual abuse and rape. Persons with intellectual and mental disabilities are the most vulnerable”.14
NHRIs can play a role promoting the rights of persons with disabilities through training, monitoring and raising awareness of the human rights issues involved. Just as NHRIs should try to mainstream their programmes with respect to gender, so they should with respect to disabilities. UNFPA and the WHO have come up with “Ten key messages that raise awareness:”
1. Disability is everyone’s business.
2. Persons with disabilities are not necessarily sick.
3. Persons with disabilities have sex too.
4. Access means more than ramps.
5. Persons with disabilities want the same things in life that everyone wants.
6. For persons with disabilities prejudice can be the biggest barrier.
7. Everywhere and always, persons with disabilities are entitled to self-determination, privacy, respect and dignity.
8. It is best and usually easy to mainstream health services that accommodate persons with disabilities.
10. Programmes best suit persons with disabilities when persons with disabilities help to design them. “Nothing about us without us” is a key principle.