Non-utilitarian traces

4.4.2.2.1. Transportation traces

Only one implement shows non-utilitarian traces. The tool is a large blade used for two different activities: specifically, the first for harvesting vegetables and the second for working mineral substances (Fig. 4.12, e1). According to the morphology and dimensions of the blank, it seems unlikely that the blade was produced at the site. My hypothesis is that this tool

Fig. 4.17. Use-wears from the Espluga de la Puyascada. C4.2430 and C1.201- Blades used for cutting soft indeterminate materials; a1-2) Macro-traces. C4.2435- Tool used as wedge; b1-2) Macro-traces. Note the bifacial scarring of both proximal and distal edges. C3.450- Core used for pounding/grinding activities on both faces; c1-2) Macroscopic views, 5X.

WE SFT

SFT

a2 a1

b1 b2

c2 c1

PO/GR

was made and used outside the site and, later, taken to Espluga de la Puyascada, where it was resharpened and used for other activities. A confirmation of this hypothesis may come from the observation of a long striation underneath the mineral polish. This type of long strias is one of the most characteristic wears produced by the transportation of lithics tools, especially if tools were carried in a bag or other containers together with other lithic items (Mazzucco & Clemente 2013). It is generally very difficult to distinguish such types of wear from post-depositional wears; however, in this case, being the striation clearly interrupted and overlapped by the use-polish, it seems clear that it was produced before discarding the tool. If this interpretation is correct, this type of tool, characterized by a long use-life, as it was transported, resharpened, and retooled, would represent a perfect example of Binford’s curated tools (Binford 1973: 215; Shott 1996: 261).

4.4.2.3. Residues

The only residue that I have observed macro- and microscopically (and possibly related to use), consists of some reddish spots on the tip of a borer that was employed for drilling mineral materials. More specifically, such traces have been left by repairing some broken pottery vessels. The presence of these reddish spots may be ceramic residues themselves (Fig.

4.16, b1). However, since no specific analysis of their chemical and mineralogical composition is available, this interpretation remains hypothetical.

4.5. Discussion

The Neolithic levels of Espluga de la Puyascada attest to a long human occupation during the entire course of the fifth millennium cal BC. Available data does not allow more specific times of occupation of the site to be ascertained. It is to remark that, considering the settlement pattern (a large and open rock-shelter) and its geographical position (mid-altitude site, located on an abrupt and steep elevation), it is more likely that the site was not occupied continuously for such a long period of time, but it went through a series of episodic frequentations of different duration. This appears to have been the most plausible scenario, also comparing Espluga de la Puyascada with other sites of the region that show similar characteristics (e.g. Balma Margineda - Guilaine & Martlzuff 1995; Cova Els Trocs - Rojo et al. 2014). However, both archaeological and chronological data is still too scarce to advance a clear reconstruction of the site and its function and new excavations are certainly needed to put forward more detailed hypotheses.

The excavators themselves have initially used great caution while interpreting the site because of partial and preliminary data (Baldellou, 1981, 1987a, 1987b, 1994). Their work mostly focused on a general chrono-cultural interpretation of the deposit, mainly based on ceramic materials and radiocarbon dates. The result was the attribution of Puyascada to the so-called Epicardial or Final Cardial phase (Baldellou 1981), an interpretation that has substantially been confirmed in more recent works with similar purposes (Manen 2002;

Manen & Sabatier 2003; Oms et al. 2012).

On the contrary, the socio-economic aspects of the site have been little discussed. The interpretation of these has hitherto mainly relied on the outcomes of archaeozoological studies (Castaños 1987). P. Castaños has evidenced, in his work, the highest percentage of domestic animals, especially sheep/goat species, compared to wild ones, which appear to have been at low numbers at the site; however, he has clearly remarked the partial and

preliminary nature of his observations.

The relative abundance of domestic animals has also been compared to the scarcity of remains attesting to agricultural activities. Baldellou points out that Espluga de la Puyascada witnesses «una forma de vida pecuaria»¹ (Baldellou 1981: 85), characterized by «una actividad pastoril más enraizada y de mayor entidad»² (Baldellou, 1994: 59), where agriculture probably represented a complementary or secondary practice.

A broader and more detailed analysis of the current geographical and topographical context, in which Puyascada is located, has been accomplished by Ramón and Rodanés (1995), who have emphasized:

i. the altitude of the site;

ii. the abrupt topography of its surroundings, which represents a strong limit for long-distance movements;

iii. the local environmental conditions unsuitable for agricultural activities;

iv. the favourable conditions for seasonal herding activities;

Following the same line of research, Baldellou & Utrilla (1999) proposed, some years later, a land-occupation model for the Ésera Valley based on a complementarity between sites, wherewith they have put forward a mobility between settlements located in the valley bottom (such as Cueva del Moro del Olvena), more strictly associated with an agricultural system, and sites located near possible pasture areas, like Puyascada, also hypothesizing some intermediary settlements.

However, all of these considerations are based exclusively on conjectures and additional empirical data is needed to support such hypotheses. Palaeoenvironmental works for the area do not exist and such models are based on the present-day landscape and its current or historical exploitation; similarly, the economic orientation of the site is exclusively deduced from the presence/absence of specific categories of artefacts (i.e. sickle blades, mills, etc.), which, however, have not undergone any techno-functional study aimed at ascertaining their actual use.

The latter is the purpose of the present work instead. The lithic industry has only preliminarily and superficially been studied by a typological point of view, regarding it as a very small and uncharacteristic assemblage Baldellou (1987a). My analysis has proved that, although it is a partial sample, the lithic industry of Puyascada offers some interesting data about the economic orientation of the site.

The low number of specimens does not allow any complete reconstruction of the technological processes carried out at the site to be achieved; however, on the basis of the record available at the moment, it seems that the majority of materials were transported from distant sources, mainly from the chert formations of the Ebro Valley. Locally, knapping activities must have been limited to the production of small blades, while the largest implements were more likely flaked elsewhere. In addition, the employment of non-exhausted cores for pounding and grinding activities suggests a little exploitation of raw material. Probably, at Puyascada, the main knapping activities were related to tools maintenance and configuration and only marginally to core reduction.

In terms of function, most of the blade blanks were destined to plant-reaping activities.

1 Proposed translation: “a pastoral way of life”.

2 Proposed translation: “a well-established pastoral activity of greater relevance”.

Extensive cereal-induced polishes are not represented amongst the observed use-wears, this suggesting that most of the plants were harvested for non-alimentary purposes. The use of wild grasses to build bedding areas and pavements has recently been documented in the nearby Els Trocs Cave (Lancelotti et al. 2014). In addition, stalks and grasses could also be gathered for different purposes such as providing fuel, medicinal plants, etc. Not even the presence of a mill fragment and a grindstone at Puyascada implies that agricultural works took place locally. More likely, cereal grains were transported to the cave as food resources, as is documented at Els Trocs Cave (Lancelotti et al. 2013) and Cova del Sardo de Boí (Gassiot et al. 2014), which go back to roughly the same time.

The main production activity appears to have been the processing of animal carcasses.

The percentage of instruments associated with butchering activities is proportionally significant. Moreover, this type of traces should be considered underrepresented in the assemblage, since they have been covered or affected by post-depositional agents. This data matches the information provided by the archaeozoological study that indicates that domestic animals were slaughtered at the site.

On the contrary, the other activities inferred from the micro-wear analysis mainly refer to isolated tasks related to the maintenance and repair of specific categories of objects. Among these, one can mention leather and wood artefacts. Also pottery vessels were probably repaired at the site, but, in this latter case, it is possible that also some stages of the production process took place locally. The presence of a blade and a half-shell with traces of ceramics scraping may indeed indicate that other phases of pottery manufacturing were carried out on site, such as the finishing and smoothing of vessels.

In the case of bone/antler artefacts, it is difficult to ascertain whether the tools were produced locally or outside the site. The bone industry is quite abundant and varied;

however, the traces observed on the lithic tools mainly seem to refer to short works for finishing or resharpening them. Moreover, the absence of intensive activities (i.e. bone and antler sawing) seems to support the idea of maintenance only. However, taking into account the biased sample, it is not possible to make any definitive points; the analysis of a larger sample of materials is necessary for confirming these observations and verifying whether or not those artefacts were produced locally.