Chapitre 1. A conceptual framework for migrant simultaneous engagement in
1.1 Migrants’ simultaneous engagement in multiple societies
“Simultaneous engagement enables linkages between dispersed people to tighten, new livelihood opportunities to emerge, social institutions to change, and hybrid identities to develop” (Mazzucato, 2008, p. 7344)
Today, some migrants45 are simultaneously engaged in their home and host countries, resulting in a fluid movement of people, goods, money and ideas between two or multiple nation-states (Glick Schiller et al. 1992). The movement and communication over long distances, connecting physical, social, economic and political spaces, has been accelerated by twentieth century technologies such as air transportation, telephones, satellite technology, faxes and the internet (Mazzucato,
42Glick Schiller and Fouron, “Terrains of Blood and Nation.”
43 Glick Schiller, Basch, and Blanc, “From Immigrant to Transmigrant.”
44 Mazzucato, “The Double Engagement.”
45 Not all migrants because some migrants do not live a transnational life, but instead remain active only in their host country.
8 Andean migrant associations’ host and home country engagement
200846), as well as the more recent growth of social media. Today’s migrants can be simultaneously engaged in multiple societies regardless of geographic location.
According to Tsuda (2012, p. 634), to truly theorise transnational simultaneity, the dynamic relationship between migrant’s integration47 in the host society and the cross-border engagement with the country of origin needs to be explored as “one coherent transitional process”, where migrant’s simultaneous engagements in both (or multiple) societies are analysed as related processes that impact each other and no separate processes that can happen at the same time. Dealing with homeland engagement and integration as separate matters mistakenly leads to an incomplete view of migration that can result in inadequate policies (Mazzucato, 2008).
As Bilgili (2014, p. 30148) expresses, “a plausible way to enhance the positive association between integration and development may be to further encourage the active involvement of migrants in both their home and host countries, without compelling them to make a choice about permanent residence”. Dual citizenship, believes the scholar, facilitates simultaneous engagements in multiple societies as it allows more mobility. Migrants engage in both societies through transnational practices which simultaneously impact both the sending and receiving country (Tsuda, 2012).
1.1.1 Transnational practices49
According to most transnational scholars, transnational practices fall into three categories: economic, political and sociocultural (Itzigsohn & Saucedo, 200250; Portes 200151; Portes et al., 199952; Perrin & Martiniello, 201153; Reinsenauer & Gerdes, 201254; Snel et al., 200655). However, there is not consensus in the academic community on the type of activities included per category, and some scholars identify four categories, dividing the sociocultural category into social- or civil-societal and cultural (Al-Ali et al., 200156; Itzigsohn et al, 199957).
This study is framed primarily on sociocultural practices undertaken by Andean migrant associations. However specific economic and political practices within some migrant associations are also identified. As such, the following discussion summarizes key elements of these three primary categories.
46 Mazzucato, Simultaneity and Networks in Transnational Migration.
47 Tsuda refers to assimilation in his text as it is common in the US context.
48 Bilgili, “Migrants’ Multi-Sited Social Lives.”
49 Some scholars refer to this as transnational “activities”: e.g. Portes et al., 1999, Al – Ali, 2001, Snel et al., 2006).
50 Itzigsohn and Saucedo, “Immigrant Incorporation and Sociocultural Transnationalism.”
51 Portes, “Introduction.”
52 Portes, Guarnizo, and Landolt, “The Study of Transnationalism.”
53 Perrin and Martiniello, “Homeland-Oriented Activities and Integration in the Host Society.”
54 Reisenauer and Gerdes, “From Return-Oriented to Integration-Related Transnationalisation.”
55 Snel, Engbersen, and Leerkes, “Transnational Involvement and Social Integration.”
56 Al-Ali, Black, and Koser, “Refugees and Transnationalism.”
57 Itzigsohn et al., “Mapping Dominican Transnationalism.”
A conceptual framework for migrant simultaneous engagement in 9 multiple societies and through migrant associations
Economic practices
Transnational economic practices include remittances, transnational investments and transnational companies. Remittances are the largest private transfers in the global economy in terms of volume and stability (Guarnizo 200458). It is also important to name collective transfers of funds in these transnational economic practices, whether they are collected by an informal group of migrants or a formal migrant association.
Transnational investments occur when remittances are used for commercial purposes in real estate, construction or small businesses (shops, restaurants, repair services).
Finally, transnational companies include formal and informal activities created by transnational entrepreneurs. For example, mail companies, nostalgic cultural trade enterprises, magazines, radio, hairdressers, clothing shops, ethnic restaurants, crafts and micro-enterprises and other businesses after migrants return to their country of origin (Al – Ali et al., 2001; Castillo, 200959; Portes et al. 1999).
Political practices
Transnational political practices include participation in electoral activities, political affiliation and fundraising or mobilisation for political purposes in both home and host societies (Al-Ali et al., 2001, Guanrizo et al., 200360; Portes et al. 1999), as well as support to community projects and charity organization in the country of origin (Guanrizo et al., 2003). Ostergaard-Nielsen (2003) identifies three domains of political action: 1) homeland politics, which involves migrant political activism regarding their country of origin in their host society; 2) migrant politics, which involves activities undertaken in the host society to improve the situation of migrant groups; and 3) translocal politics, which refers to host country initiatives to improve the conditions of communities in the country of origin.
Sociocultural practices
Sociocultural practices are oriented towards reinforcing migrant ethnic identity, recreating a sense of community in the host country but also maintaining contact with family and friends in the country of origin. It includes collective enjoyment of cultural events, national festivities and ethnic goods, social remittances, and mutual support and assistance. Social activities in host countries range from social clubs and community organization to sporting or charitable activities associated with countries of origin (Al-Ali et al., 2001; Itzigsohn & Saucedo, 2002; Portes et al. 1999; Snel et al., 2006).
Some scholars include the civic component in the category of social practices, which includes participation in formal and/or informal migrant organizations61 (Al-Ali et al., 2001; Itzigsohn et al, 1999). According to Cordero-Guzman (200562), these migrant groups and organizations provide assistance during the migration process, adaptation and integration in the host country, represent the migrant community and identity, and link migrants with their country of origin.
58Guarnizo, “Aspectos ecónomicos del vivir transnacional.”
59 Castillo Rueda, “L’engagement des associations de migrants dans le développement du pays d’origine.
Cas d’étude : les projets de codéveloppement entre l’Espagne et la Colombie.”
60 Guarnizo, Portes, and Haller, “Assimilation and Transnationalism.”
61 Some scholars include the participation of migrant into migrant organization in the political practices:
Portes et al. 1999, Guanrizo et al., 2003.
62 Cordero-Guzmán, “Community-Based Organisations and Migration in New York City.”
10 Andean migrant associations’ host and home country engagement
As mentioned earlier, some scholars separate the cultural aspect of transnationalism as a fourth category, but this study includes it as part of this sociocultural category.
Cultural practices refer to music, song, dance, artistic and literary events, celebration of nations holidays, and promotion of native language among children (Al-Ali et al., 2001). It also includes symbolic practices, such as the formation of values, identities and tastes (Itzigsohn et al, 1999). According to Levitt (199863), this reinforces the identity and cultural ties of the migrant community, as well as the collective memory of the shared past (history) through meetings and celebrations.