(CN- 12/3)
(P rep a red by the S ecretariat o f the A gen cy)
O utline o f P r e p a r a to r y W ork
1 In D e c e m b e r 1958 the D i r e c t o r G e n e r a l o f the In te r n a tio n a l A t o m ic E n e r g y A g e n cy in stitu ted a P a n e l o f E x p e r t s to a d v is e h im on the p r o b le m o f c iv il lia b ility fo r n u c le a r h a za rd s T he P a n e l con v en ed fo r th ree s e r ie s o f m e e tin g s , the f i r s t fr o m 23 to 28 F e b r u a r y 1959, the s e c o n d fr o m 11 to 22 M ay 1959 and the th ird fr o m 20 A ugust to 1 S e p te m b e r 1959
2 T he P a n e l p r e p a r e d the d r a ft o f a c o n v e n tio n in th is fie ld T h e d ra ft te x t, tog e th e r w ith a c o m m e n ta r y th e re on e la b o r a te d b y the S e c r e ta r ia t and approved by the P a n el, and the P a n e l's r e p o r t, w e re tran sm itted to a ll M em
b e r States with a r e q u e st to com m u m ca te th eir v iew s to the D ir e c to r G eneral b y 31 Ju ly 1960 T h e c o m m e n ts r e c e iv e d w e r e a ga in c ir c u la te d to the G o v e rn m e n ts o f a ll M e m b e r S tates w ith a r e q u e s t f o r s u b m is s io n o f a d d i
tio n a l co m m e n ts
3 On 1 F e b r u a r y 1961 the A g e n c y 's B oa rd o f G o v e r n o r s s e t up an In te r
g o v e r n m e n ta l C o m m it te e , c o n s is t in g o f r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s o f the fo llo w in g 14 M e m b e r S ta tes A r g e n tin a , B r a z i l , C a n a d a , C z e c h o s lo v a k S o c ia l is t R e p u b lic , F in la n d , F r a n c e , F e d e r a l R e p u b lic o f G e r m a n y , In d ia , Japan, P ola n d , Union o f S ov iet S o c ia lis t R e p u b lic s , U m ted A ra b R e p u b lic , Umted Kingdom o f G reat B ritain and N orthern Ireland and Umted States o f A m erica The In tergovern m en tal C om m ittee was entrusted with the task o f con sid erin g the dra ft co n v en tion p re p a r e d by the P a n el o f le g a l e x p e r ts , as w e ll as the com m en ts th e reo n r e c e iv e d fr o m G ov ern m en ts, and o f p re p a rin g a re v is e d dra ft con vention
4 T h e C o m m itte e m e t fr o m 3 to 13 M ay 1961 in V ien n a , and e la b o ra te d a r e v is e d te x t w h ich w as again c ir c u la t e d to M e m b e r G o v e rn m e n ts w ith a re q u e st fo r o b se r v a tio n s T h is text tog eth er with the com m en ts r e c e iv e d , is r e p r o d u c e d m C o n fe r e n c e d o c u m e n ts C N - 1 2 /1 and C N - 1 2 / 1 /A d d 1 5 On 5 M a r ch 1962 the B o a r d o f G o v e r n o r s d e c id e d to co n v e n e an in t e r n a tion a l c o n fe r e n c e e a r ly m 1963 fo r the n e g o tia tio n and c o n c lu s io n o f the C on ven tion , and to re c o n v e n e the In te rg o v e rn m e n ta l C o m m itte e b e fo r e the C on feren ce The In tergovern m en tal C om m ittee m et a cco rd in g ly fo r a second
X These com m ents relate to the draft C onvention as established by the Intergovernm ental C om m ittee at its second m eeting in October 1962 set out in docum ent CN 1 2 /2 This text constitutes the basic p ro
posal submitted to the International C on feren ce on C iv il Liability for Nuclear D am age The final text o f the Convention as adopted by that C on feren ce on 19 May 1963 differs o f course from the text in d o c u - m e n tC N -1 2 /2 In the text o f the present com m ents referen ce is m ade in square brackets to the cor responding articles o f the final text o f the V ienna C onvention as w e ll as other appropriate indication s re lating to the final text
6 5
5
s e s s io n fr o m 22 to 27 O c to b e r 1962 to e x a m in e the d ra ft p r e p a r e d by it at its f i r s t m e e tin g m the lig h t o f the c o m m e n t s s u b m itte d th e r e o n In the c o u r s e o f its d e lib e r a tio n s it a ls o took into a cco u n t the C on ven tion on L ia b ility o f O p e ra to rs o f N u cle a r S h ip s, adopted by the D ip lo m a tic C o n fe re n ce on M a r itim e L a w at B r u s s e l s on 25 M a y 1962 T h e r e p o r t on the s e c o n d m e e tin g , as w e ll as the r e v is e d text o f the d ra ft co n v en tion , a re con ta in ed m C o n fe re n ce d ocu m en t C N -1 2 /2
6 T he p re s e n t a r t i c le - b y - a r t ic l e co m m e n ta ry is b a sed upon the c o m m e n ta r y r e f e r r e d to in p a ra g ra p h 2, but has b e e n r e v is e d to take into a cco u n t the m any im p o rta n t a lte ra tio n s w h ich have b e en m ade s in c e the d ra ft le ft the P anel stage and was c o n s id e r e d by G overn m en ts The com m en ta ry does not r e f l e c t the o b s e r v a tio n s m a d e by G o v e rn m e n ts and by the m e m b e r s o f the I n te r g o v e r n m e n ta l C o m m it te e , th e s e a r e r e p r o d u c e d m d o c u m e n ts C N - 1 2 /1 , C N - 1 2 / 1 / A dd l a n d C N -1 2 /2
B a c k g r o u n d and S c o p e I
7 The p e a ce fu l u tiliz a tio n o f n u cle a r e n e rg y in v o lv e s h a za rd s w h ich, b e ca u se o f th e ir p ote n tia l m a g m tu d e and th e ir p e c u lia r c h a r a c t e r is t ic s , a r e not fu lly p rov id ed fo r by the ru le s o f c iv il law devised fo r conventional risk s S p e cia l h a za rd s m ay a r is e w h en ev er a la r g e - s c a l e e m is s io n o f ion izin g r a diation is p o s s ib le L a r g e - s c a le e m is s io n s m a y o rig in a te in a r e a c t o r in sta lla tion , o r m a y o c c u r m the p rod u ction , r e p r o c e s s in g , c a r r ia g e and d is p o s a l as w a ste, o f n u clea r fu els capable o f spontaneous c r itic a lity
8 It is thus d e s ir a b le that s p e c ia l le g is la t io r be d e v ise d to p ro v id e r u le s and p r o c e d u r e s to e n s u r e the m a x im u m p o s s ib l e fin a n c ia l p r o t e c t io n fo r the p u b lic, without ex p osin g the op era tin g , m anufacturing and tran sp ortation in d u strie s to an u n rea son a b le o r in definite burden o f lia b ility and to the ris k o f h a r a s s in g litig a t io n w ith r e s p e c t th e r e to Such s p e c ia l le g is la t io n has been enacted o r is planned in a num ber o f cou n tries A re g io n a l Convention, a im in g at u n ify in g the r u le s on th ird p a r ty lia b ilit y fo r n u c le a r d am age in W e s te rn E u r o p e , w as sig n ed on 29 July 1960 b y a lm o st a ll M e m b e rs o f the O rgan isation fo r E uropean E co n o m ic C o -o p e ra tio n , and a supplem ental C on
vention th ereto was sign ed on 31 January 1963
9 N a tion a l and r e g io n a l s o lu tio n s a r e h o w e v e r , not s u ffic ie n t to c o p e w ith a ll a s p e c ts o f n u c le a r h a z a r d s , as d am age a ttrib u ta b le, fo r in sta n ce to r a d io a c t iv e fa l l- o u t o r to c o n ta m in a tio n o f w a te r b o d ie s m a y o c c u r at a co n sid e ra b le d istan ce fr o m the p la ce w here the o rig in a l d isch a rg e o f io n iz in g r a d ia tio n too k p la ce M o r e o v e r , as a co n s e q u e n ce o f the g e o g r a p h ic a l lo c a t io n o f the o p e r a tin g and m a n u fa ctu rin g in d u s tr ie s as it is at p r e s e n t and m ay b e e x p e cte d to be m the future the m alfu n ction in g o f a n u cle a r in sta lla tio n co u ld , d ir e c t ly o r in d ir e c t ly , in v o lv e in d u strie s in s e v e r a l cou n tr ie s In addition, there are the hazards inherent in international transporta
tion o f fu e ls ca p a b le o f c n t i c a l i t y ou tsid e an in s ta lla tio n , m p a r tic u la r o f irra d ia te d fuel elem en ts and o f oth er ra d io a ctiv e p rod u cts and w aste Under ex istin g ru le s re g a rd in g ju ris d ictio n a l com p eten ce and ch o ice o f law , a sin gle in c id e n t m ig h t g iv e r i s e to s u its in s e v e r a l S ta te s, and the c o u r t s s e iz e d o f th e s e s u its m ig h t ap p ly d iffe r e n t la w s to s im il a r c la im s a r is in g out o f the sa m e in cid en t Such a m u ltip licity o f d iffe re n t la w s applied by a m u lti
p lic ity o f com p eten t c o u r ts , and the ensuing le g a l u n certain ty, m akes it d if
fic u lt to p r o v id e a d eq u a te fin a n c ia l p r o t e c t io n f o r the p u b lic In d u s tr ie s
cou n tries o f the fo r m e r OEEC at P a n s on 29 July 1960 (h erein after r e fe r r e d to as the " P a n s C onven tion")
ARTICLE I
[numbering o f paragraphs has been changed]
D efin itio n s
16 In g e n e r a l it sh ou ld be n oted that the d e fin itio n s adopted a r e in te r c o n n e c te d and s o m e o f the d e fin itio n s a r e u s e d a s a p r e d ic a t e f o r o th e r s
" N u c l e a r f u e l " , " R a d io a c t iv e p r o d u c t s o r w a s t e " ,
" N u c le a r m a t e r ia l"
17 T he a bove th re e d e fin ition s d efin e v a r io u s c a t e g o r ie s o f m a te r ia ls and a r e p a rtly o v e r la p p in g b e c a u s e the s a m e m a t e r ia l m ig h t l a l l w ithin m o r e than on e d e fin itio n T h e s e d iffe r e n t d e fin itio n s w e r e d r a fte d in o r d e r to take in to a c co u n t the s p e c i f i c h a z a r d o u s p r o p e r t ie s o f v a r io u s m a t e r ia ls , and the d e g r e e o f r is k in v o lv e d d ep e n d in g on the u s e o r lo c a t io n o f th e s e v e r y sa m e m a te r ia ls T h e c o r r e s p o n d in g p r o v is io n s o f the B r u s s e ls C on vention a re A r tic le I (5) (nuclear fu el) and (6) (ra d ioa ctiv e produ cts or w aste), and o f the P a n s Convention A r tic le 1 (a) (in ) (n u clear fu el) (i v) (rad ioactive p rod u cts o r w a ste) and (v) (n u clear su b sta n ces)
18 The d efin ition o f "n u c le a r m a te ria l" is e x c lu s iv e ly co n ce iv e d fo r r a d io a c tiv e m a t e r ia ls b e in g in the c o u r s e o f t r a n s p o r t and t h e r e f o r e e x c lu d e s m a te r ia ls w hich, in view o f th eir le s s dan gerous nature, are not co n sid e re d to w a rr a n t s p e c i f i c r u le s f o r +heir t r a n s p o r t T h u s , fu e l m the f o r m o f natu ral and d e p le te d u ra n iu m , and c e r ta in typ es and u s e s o f r a d io is o to p e s a re exem p ted F o r the sa m e r e a s o n s it was not c o n s id e re d n e c e s s a r y that the s y s t e m o f the C o n v e n tio n sh ou ld c o v e r c e r t a in ty p e s o f r a d io is o t o p e s when lo c a t e d o u tsid e a n u cle a r in s ta lla tio n 1 T he e x em p tion c la u s e in the d efin ition o f "r a d io a c tiv e p rod u cts o r w aste" reg a rd in g these types o fr a d io - ls o t o p e s is in ten ded to apply on ly to r a d io is o t o p e s having r e a c h e d the fin a l sta g e o f fa b r ic a tio n s o as to be u s a b le , without any fu rth e r p r o c e s s in g , fo r the p u rp o s e s in d ica ted in A r t ic le I (2)
19 F o r the p u r p o s e s o f th is C o n v e n tio n it is not n e c e s s a r y that the fu e ls con stitu te o r a p p ro a ch a c r it ic a l m a s s , l e the fo r m and am ount re q u ir e d to ca u s e a d iv e r g e n t ch a in r e a c t io n A m o n g the r is k s in h e re n t m t r a n s p o rta tio n , sto r a g e o r d is p o s a l as w a ste m u st be cou nted the r is k that su ch a c r i t i c a l m a s s be attained w hen s e v e r a l c o n s ig n m e n ts c o m e a c c id e n ta lly in to co n ta c t w ith on e an oth er I f it is tru e that by a p p ro p r ia te tr a n s p o r ta tion , s to ra g e and w aste d isp o sa l p r a c tic e s n u clea r in ciden ts can be avoided, the lo w o r n o n -e x is t e n t r i s k f a c t o r sh o u ld b e r e f l e c t e d in lo w o r n o m in a l in s u r a n c e c h a r g e s It is o b v io u s , h o w e v e r , that s u c h in c id e n ts m u s t b e c o v e r e d b y the C o n v e n tio n sh ou ld th ey n e v e r t h e le s s o c c u r
1 [In the final text such radioisotopes are also excluded if inside a nuclear installation]
" N u c le a r r e a c t o r "
20 T h e d e fin itio n c o r r e s p o n d s a lm o s t w o r d f o r w o r d to A r t ic l e I (10) o f the B r u s s e l s C o n v e n tio n T h e P a r is C o n v e n tio n d o e s not c o n ta in su ch a d e fin itio n T h e t e r m " n u c le a r r e a c t o r " o n ly c o v e r s f i s s i o n d e v ic e s and ex clu d e s fu sion r e a c t o r s It w as c o n s id e re d im p o s s ib le to c o v e r the la tter s in c e th e ir h a z a r d fa c t o r w a s s t i ll unknown S u b c r it ic a l a s s e m b l ie s a re a ls o e x c lu d e d
" N u c le a r in s ta lla tio n "
21 T h e c o r r e s p o n d in g d e fin itio n o f the P a r i s C o n v e n tio n a p p e a r s m its A r t ic l e 1 (a) (n )
22 T his definition is intended to c o v e r all potential fixed s o u r ce s o f ionizing ra d ia tion capable o f causing la r g e - s c a le n u clea r damage It helps to identify the p e r s o n lia b le fo r n u c le a r d a m a g e and i s , i f a p e r in s ta lla tio n li m it o f li a b il it y is c h o s e n , im p o r ta n t m the co m p u ta tio n o f the li m it o f li a b il it y 23 T he r is k o f l a r g e - s c a l e d a m a g e b ein g ca u se d b y io n iz in g r a d ia tio n is p rese n t w h en ever n u cle a r fu els u ndergo o r a re capable o f undergoing a su s
tained d iv erg en t chain r e a c tio n A c co rd in g ly , the d efin ition in clu d es fa c ili
tie s in w hich c n t ic a l it y is attained d e lib e ra te ly (r e a c to r s ) and those in which th ere e x is ts a r is k o f unintended c r it ic a lit y (fa c ilitie s m w h ich n u cle a r m a t e r i a ls a r e p r o d u c e d o r fa b r ic a t e d b y u sin g n u c le a r fu e l, w h e r e th ey a re p r o c e s s e d o r r e p r o c e s s e d , o r any p la ce w h ere su ch n u cle a r m a te r ia ls are s to r e d )
24 L a r g e - s c a le d a m a g e a ttr ib u ta b le to io n iz in g ra d ia t io n m a y a ls o b e ca u se d by d ir e c t e x p o s u r e to r a d io a c t iv e p ro d u c ts o r w a ste w h ich p r e s e n t no d a n g er o f c n t i c a l i t y , o r b y e x p o s u r e to o r in g e s tio n o f s u b s ta n c e s o r o rg a n is m s w h ich have b een con tam inated by r a d io a c tiv e p ro d u cts o r w aste
T he d efin ition t h e r e fo r e a ls o in clu d es fa c ilit ie s in w h ich su ffic ie n t am ounts o f r a d io a c t iv e p r o d u c ts a r e lo c a t e d s o that th ey p r e s e n t a r i s k o f l a r g e - s c a le d a m a g e
25 S u b -p a ra g ra p h (b) is intended to in clu d e se p a ra tio n plants in w hich nu
c le a r m a t e r ia l (e g e n ric h e d u ra n iu m ) is fa b r ic a te d b y u sin g n u c le a r fu el (e g natural uranium ) as a startin g point It does not, h ow ever, c o v e r such d e v ice s as c y c lo tr o n s o r a c c e le r a t o r s m which n u clea r m a te ria l m ay be p r o d u ced in v e r y s m a ll q u a n tities It a ls o c o v e r s any f a c i lit ie s su c h as p lu ton iu m and is o t o p e s e p a r a tio n p la n ts and f a c i l i t i e s f o r the f a b r i c a t io n o f r a d io is o t o p e s (e g c o b a l t - 60 b o m b s f o r th e r a p e u t ic a l u s e )
26 P la c e s o f sto ra g e in ciden tal to tran sp ortation are not co n sid e re d nuclear in s ta lla tio n s the p u r p o s e o f th is e x c e p tio n is to p r e s e r v e , w h e r e v e r p o s s ib le , u n ifo rm ity o f la w with r e s p e c t to n u clea r con sign m en ts The con cep t o f stora g e in ciden tal to tran sp ortation is not fu rth er defined whether storage is o r is not in cid e n ta l to tra n sp o rta tio n w ill g e n e r a lly depend upon w hether o r not, as a m a tter o f fa ct and under the te r m s o f the c o n tra c t o f c a r r ia g e , the p a r tic u la r con sig n m en t re ta in s its iden tity w h ile in s to ra g e
27 T h e p r o v is o to p a r a g r a p h 5 p e r m it s the In s ta lla tio n State to d e c la r e that s e v e r a l f a c i lit ie s sh a ll b e c o n s id e r e d as b e in g a sin g le in sta lla tio n if they b e lo n g to one and the sa m e o p e r a to r and a re lo c a t e d on the sa m e site T h is is in k eep in g with the s c h e m e o f the C on ven tion w h e re b y fo r p u rp o se s
o j d eterm in in g the lim its o f lia b ility no im p o rta n ce is attached to the i n d iv i
dual h azard c o e ffic ie n t o f a g iv en i n sta lla tion The fa c t that an in sta lla tion c o n s is t s o f s e v e r a l fa c ilit ie s d o e s not ap p ea r to be o f m a t e r ia l im p o rta n c e to the r is k o f o f f - s it e dam age attribu table to a sin g le in ciden t C o n v e rse ly it is c o n c e iv a b le that b y p o o lin g th e ir w a r n in g , s a fe t y and w a s te d is p o s a l fa c i lit ie s the o v e r a ll h a z a rd c o e ff ic ie n t o f a c o m b in e d n u c le a r s ite ca n be re d u ce d If the con d itio n s o f iden tity o f site a re not fu lfille d , the o p e ra to r w ill be cu m u la tiv ely lia b le as p ro v id e d fo r in A r t ic le II (4)
"O p e r a to r "
28 The co rre sp o n d in g p ro v isio n s are to be found m A rticle I (4) o f the Brus s e ls Convention a n d A rticle 1 (a )(v i)o ft h e P a ris Convention
29 T h is d e fin itio n id e n tifie s the p e r s o n who is lia b le fo r n u cle a r dam age In m o s t in s ta n c e s a p e r s o n w ill have b e e n a u th o riz e d to o p e r a te a n u cle a r inst.allat.inn If, h o w ev e r, no e x p r e s s /authorization has been g iven , the law o f the In s ta lla tio n State w ill - b y a s p e c ia l p r o v is io n o r by the a p p lica tio n o f g e n e ra l p r in c ip le s - id en tify the p e r s o n who w ill be c o n s id e r e d the o p e r a to r T h is p e r s o n m a y b e the o w n e r, the p o s s e s s o r o f the in s ta lla tio n o r the p e rso n who has de fa cto co n tro l o v e r it It should be noted that pursuant to A r t ic l e II, 2 the In sta lla tio n State m a y d e sig n a te a c a r r i e r o r p e r s o n s handling ra d io a c tiv e w aste as an " o p e r a t o r " m r e s p e c t o f n u clea r m a te ria l
"in s ta lla tio n State"
30 T h e t e r m "In s ta lla tio n S tate" is n e c e s s a r y to d e sig n a te the State that has le g is la t iv e c o m p e te n c e w ith r e g a r d to n u c le a r d a m a g e R e a c t o r s and oth er n u clea r in stallation s m ay co n ce iv a b ly be op era ted outside the te r r ito r y o f any State - e g on the High Seas o r m the A n ta rctic reg ion s It is th e re f o r e p r o v id e d that any State w h ich o p e r a te s o r w h ich has a u th o r iz e d su ch in s ta lla tio n s s h a ll b e c o n s id e r e d the In sta lla tio n State
31 In tern ation al n u cle a r in sta lla tio n s, su ch as the Joint Institute in Dubna and the E u rop ean C om pany fo r the C h em ica l P r o c e s s in g o f Irra d ia te d F u els (EUROCHEM IC) a r e , m the a b sen ce o f p r o v is io n to the c o n tr a ry in the c o n v e n tio n se ttin g up the C o m p a n y o r O r g a m z a tio n o r m any a g r e e m e n t c o n clu d ed w ith the h ost State, s u b je c t to the law o f the State w h e re the in s ta l
la t io n i s lo c a t e d m r e s p e c t o f c i v i l l i a b il it y T h is S tate w ill th en b e the In sta lla tion State fo r the p u rp o se s o f the C onvention T h e re a re a lso in te r
nation al o rg a n iz a tio n s o p e ra tin g la b o r a t o r ie s o r r e s e a r c h in stitu tes w h ich, at le a st fo r the tim e bein g, are not equipped with r e a c to r s , such as the E u ro
p ean O rg a m z a tio n fo r N u c le a r R e s e a r c h m G e n e v a , and the In te rn a tio n a l A to m ic E n e rg y A g en cy n ear S e ib e r s d o r f A u stria A s lon g as th ese e sta b lish m e n ts a re not equ ipped w ith r e a c t o r s o r do not s t o r e n u cle a r m a t e r ia ls , they do not constitute n u clea r in sta lla tion s as defined in A r ticle I (5) and the Convention th e r e fo r e d oes not apply to them
"N u c le a r in cid e n t", "N u cle a r dam age"
32 T h e c o r r e s p o n d in g p r o v is io n s a re A r t ic le I (7) and (8) o f the B r u s s e ls C on ven tion and A r t ic le 1 (a) (l) o f the P a r is C on ven tion
33 The s p e c ia l r u le s o f the C onven tion are n e c e s s a r ily only a p p lica b le with
CONFERENCE ON CIVIL LIABILITY FOR NUCLEAR DAMAGE
m a y den y r e c o v e r y fo r c e r t a in ty p e s o f d a m a g e , the r e s p o n s ib ilit y o f the State m ig h t n e v e r t h e le s s b e e n g a g e d u n d er g e n e r a l r u le s o f p u b lic in t e r national law fo r any dam age ca u sed in another State fo r which com p en sa tion has not b een paid
" P e r s o n "
37 T h is d efin ition is id e n tica l with that se t out in A r t ic le I (3) oi the B r u s s e l s C on v en tion and ten d s to b e as w id e as p o s s ib le in o r d e r to o v e r c o m e d iffe r e n c e s as r e g a r d s the co n ce p t o f a p e r s o n und^" d iffe re n t national law s
ARTICLE I A (formerly Article X)
[This A rticle has been elim inated]
I n c id e n ts o r D a m a g e m N o n -C o n t r a c t i n g S ta te s
38 T h e C o n v e n tio n is a p p lic a b le , in p r in c ip le , o n ly to n u c le a r in c id e n ts w h ich o c c u r and to dam age su ffe r e d on the t e r r it o r y o f C on tra ctin g P a r tie s , o r ou tsid e the t e r r i t o r y o f any State (e g on the High S ea s) i f the o p e r a to r lia b le is s u b je c t to the C on v e n tio n H o w e v e r , the la w o f the In s ta lla tio n State m ay extend the application o f the C onvention to incidents and to damage o c c u r r in g in n o n -c o n tr a c tin g States It m a y , without v io la tin g the C on ven tion , p ro v id e that c la im s re su ltin g fr o m an in cid e n t o c c u r r in g on the t e r r i t o r y o f a C o n tra c tin g P a r t y s h a ll b e g o v e r n e d b y the C o n v e n tio n (e g be in clu d e d in the li m it o f li a b il it y ) e v e n th ou gh the d a m a g e is s u ffe r e d in a n o n -c o n tr a c tin g State In sta lla tio n S tates m a y a ls o w ish to exten d the a p p lic a tio n o f the C on ven tion to in cid e n ts o c c u r r in g in n o n -c o n tr a c tin g States in the c o u r s e o f in tern a tion a l tra n s p o rta tio n to o r fr o m C o n tra ctin g States Such e x ten sio n s o f the r u le s o f the C onvention can o f c o u r s e be binding only upon the co u rts o f a C ontractin g State in which suits fo r such fo re ig n damage m ight be brou g h t, o r w h ere e x ecu tio n o f ju d gem en ts m a y be sought b e ca u se the defendant has a s s e ts th e re W ithin th ese lim it s , su ch e x te n sio n w ould g e n e r a lly ip r o t e c t o p e r a t o r s , by e lim in a tin g the p o s s ib ilit y that a c tio n s be file d a g a in st th em on the b a s is o f o r d in a r y t o r t law
ARTICLE E O p e r a t o r 's L ia b ility
39 The p ro v isio n s co rresp on d in g to paragraph 1 o f this A rticle are A rticle H (1) and (4) o f the B r u s s e ls C on ven tion and A r t ic l e s 3 and 4 (a) to (c) o f the P a r is C on ven tion
40 In o r d e r to fa cilita te , fo r the v ic t im s , the filin g and litig a tion o f c la im s, and fo r the p e r s o n s lia b le the p u rc h a se o f fin a n cia l c o v e r a g e fo r th e ir l i a b ility , the C on ven tion ch ann els lia b ility fo r n u cle a r dam age to one p e r s o n w ith r e s p e c t to e a c h in cid e n t T h is p e r s o n is the o p e r a t o r o f the n u c le a r in sta lla tio n c o n c e r n e d , w ho shaH a lw a y s b e lia b le fo r in cid e n ts o c c u r r in g in h is in s ta lla tio n
41 With r e s p e c t to n u clea r in ciden ts in volvin g n u clea r m a teria l loca ted outside
u n less the c o n tr a r y is p r o v id e d fo r b y the In sta lla tion State T h e o p e ra to r w ill, h o w e v e r, be lia b le fo r in cid e n ts o c c u r r in g o r dam age s u ffe r e d on the High S e a s, c f A r t ic le I 'A
O th er P e r s o n s L ia b le
44 T h e r e a re tw o p o s s ib le e x ce p tio n s to the p r in c ip le that the o p e ra to r is e x c lu s iv e ly lia b le F i r s t , it m a y b e p r o v id e d in the le g is la t io n o f the In stallation State that a c a r r ie r o r p e rs o n s handling ra d io a ctiv e w aste be liable in lie u o f the o p e r a to r o f a n u c le a r in sta H a tion (A r t ic le II (2 )) T h is s u b stitu tion m u st have b e e n r e q u e s te d b y the c a r r i e r o r w a s te d is p o s a l
" o p e r a t o r " c o n c e r n e d and m u st have the co n sen t o f the o p e r a to r o th e rw ise
" o p e r a t o r " c o n c e r n e d and m u st have the co n sen t o f the o p e r a to r o th e rw ise