'He went home (rather than dOl.ng somethl.ng else).' 8. /Juu-dl.l./ 'l.n spl.te of everythlng, anyway'
khaw
r~u-tualwaa , khaw maJ-sabaaJ maag t khaw k5-JalJ paJ tham lJaan: JUU-dll.
'He reallzed that he was very slck, but he went to work In sp1te of It. '
9. /than-th1l/ 'lmmedlately' klab baan than-thll1 si •
'go r1ght on home. '
10. /188J/ 'slmply,' after negatlve 'at all'. Often preceded by a a /maJ/ -modal 1n the same clause.
khaw kS-klab baan: 188J •
'He slmply went home. '
(Now 1S the t1me.)' khaw maJ-daJ-klab baanr sa leeJ •
'He d1dn't go home at all. ' thl1-nl1 maJ-m11 satem: leeJ .
'There aren't any stamps here at all. '
11)
/th11/ 'th1S one t1me, for once.' Often follows general modal verbs llke /kh8a/(3.3.1.2.)
1n commands and requests.pham Jaag capaJ: sa th11 • 'I'd llke to go th1S once.
kh8a ha J khaw duu: th11 .
'Let h1m have a look at 1t. ' paJ Sa-th111 Sl •
'Why don't you goJ r
12)
/noaJ/ or /noJ/ 'th1s Ilttle th1ng, for a wh1le' Often follows general modal verbs llke /kh8a/ 1n commands and requests.phom Jaag capaJ:
sa
n;nJ .'I'd llke to try gOlng. (It's the th1ng to do.)' waan na:t;] nl:t;]-nl:t;]: no J, da J' rna J.
'Can you Slt st1ll for a m1nute~ , kwaad baan sa-noaJ: si
t .
'Sweep up the house, w1ll you~,
13)
/k5-leew: kan/ 'and be done w1th 1t.' Common 1n suggestions and agreements, and 1S usually set off 1n a phrase of 1tS own.ploaJ haJ-paJ , k5-leew: kan . 'Let 1t go and be done w1th 1t. '
3.
/thamaJ/ ClassThese complement1ves belong to both the /ba:t;]-een/
(1.
above) and the /ee:t;]/ (2. above) classes; that 1S, they occur at both the beg1pll1ng and end of clauses. The class mean1ng 1S 't1me, place, or manner-or1entat1onoJ
the subJect-pred1cate sltuat1on.' The placement of the 1tems also makes a Sllght but cons1stent d1fference In the1r mean1ng; the clause-f1nal pos1t1on makes the t1me, place, or manner element d1st1nct1ve, and the clause-1n1t1alPOS1-/sa/ around the pred1cate re1nforces th1s d1st1nct1on (see f1rst pa1r of examples below).
The class 1S probably closed, but 1S qU1te large, S1nce 1t 1ncludes a great many standard t1me express10ns, such as 'yesterday,' and most 1nter-rogat1ve lexemeso The examples g1ven below are representat1ve ones.
1) /thamaJ/ 'why?'
thamaJ , khaw thy~-maa haa khun •
'Why d1d he (happen to) come call1ng on you?' khaw maa haa khun: sa , thamaJ •
'What d1d he come ual11ng on you for?' 2) /Ja~aJ/or /J~a~-raJ/ 'how?'
Ja~aJ thy~-tham naa Ja~anl la
t .
'How d1d your face get l1ke that?' tham naa Ja~an , daJ Ja~aJ' lao
'How can you make your face l1ke that?'
3)
/mya-raJ/ of /meraJ/ 'when? rkhun capaJ amee-rikaa , mya-raJ • 'When are you g01ng to Amer1ca~, mya-raJ , khun capaJ amee-rikaa 0
'When would you ever go to Amer1ca? ' khun pen thahaan meraJ
t
0'When were you a sold1er?'
4)
/thl1-naJ/ or /thinaJ/ 'where~' khaw cood rod: waJ , thl1-naJ •'Where d1d he park the car?' thl1naJ , thl1 khaw cood rod •
'Where was 1t he parked the car~'
5)
/Ja~~n/ 'that way,' and /Ja~{1/ 'th1s way' JaDan , khun maJ-t5~-kaanl1g: ryy •'In that case you don't need 1t any more.2' khun t3~-kaan Ja~{1: ryY .
'Is th1s the way you want 1t~'
6.
/ph0-dll/ 'Just then,' /diaw-n{l/ 'now,' /welaa-nan/ 'at that tlme, I /t~0-paJ/ 'from now on,' /t~0-maa/ 'from then on,' and many other tlme expreSSlons.raw kamla~ phuud thy~ khunl JUu thl-dlaw , ph0-dll khun maa . 'We were Just talklng about you, and then you came. '
raw kamla~ phuud thy~ khun-samag: JUu thl-dlaw , khaw maa ph0-dll .
'We were Just talklng about Samak when he came.' diaw-n{l , pham mll thura maag •
'Now, I'm very busy.'
pham mll thura maag , diaw-n{l 'I'm very busy now.'
welaa-nan , khaw Ja~-Juu naJ kru~-theeb • 'At that tlme he was stlll In Bangkok. '
7.
/thll-nll/ or /thrnll/ 'here,' /thll-nan/ or /thrnan/ 'there,' /thll-noon/ or /thrnoon/ 'over there, at the other place,' /kha-thll/ 'on the spot,' and many other place expreSSlons.thll-nll , maJ-mll naam •
'There's no water here (lncldentally).' mll naam , thll-noon •
'There's water way over there (that's where It lS).' thll-nan mll khE~-maa th~g-wan .
'They have horse-raclng there dally (that's one of the thlngs they have).'
man taaJ kha-thll • 'It dled on the spot.'
8.
/khaa~-naJ/ 'lnslde' and all derlvatlves of /naJ/-class pre-posltlons(4.2.1.)
belong In thls class ofcomplementlves, except when they functlon as preposltlons themselves.
3.2.3.
PronounsA
pronoun lS any substantlve WhlCh occurs wlth weak stress ln one or more of the typlcal substantlve posltlons - l.e. as tOP1C, subJect, obJect, complement, or modlfler. Other substantlves, e.g. claSSlflers(3.2.5.),
also occur wlth weak stress, but only as constltuents of enumeratlons, not asSln-gle lexemes fllllng one of the maJor posltlons of a predlcatlon. Pronouns also occur wlth normal and even loud stress, and commonly flll the maJor posltlons. They are frequently modlflers, but seldom functlon as heads, except when an enumeratlon lS the modlfler:
/khun/
/khun tha~-soo~/
'you'
'both of you'
Slnce weak stress lS not always predlctable from the morphophonemlc transcrlptlon used here, l t must sometlmes be lnferred for pronouns. The general rule lS that, unless the rhythmlc pattern glves clear eVldence other-wlse, a glven pronoun has normal stress only when lt lS the head of an endo-centrlc expresslon (example above), and has weak stress everywhere else.
Ex-ample of weak-stressed pronouns ln subJect and lndlrect obJect posltlons:phil , khaw haJ sataa~ khun le€w •
'My brother, he gave you the money already. '
Slnce pronouns typlcally do not head endocentrlc expresslons, one of thelr maJor functlons lS to slgnal that a glven sequence of noun-plus-predl-catlve lS a predlcatlon rather than a noun expreSSlon. ThlS lS done by lnser-tlon of the pronoun In the subJect slot; the orlglnal subJect then becomes tOP1C, and lS often set off ln a separate phrase. In the followlng examples /baan/ 'house' lS a noun, /JaJ/ 'blg' lS a predlcatlve (adJectlve), and /man/
' I t ' lS a pronoun.
or
'The house lS blg.' 'A blg house. '
'The house (It) lS blg. '
(predlca tlon) (noun expresslon) (predlcatlon only) Pronouns, llke classlflers, have covert relatlonshlps wlth nouns -for example, /khaw/ Substltutes -for nouns llke /phil/ 'older slbllng,' and /man/ Substltutes for nouns llke /baan/ 'house' and /maa/ 'dog.' The meanlngs and soclal connotatlons of pronouns ln ST are so complex, however, that clas-slflcatlon on a semantlc basls lS extremely dlfflcult. (It should also be pOlnted out that many semantlc 'equlvalents' of pronouns are structurally nouns - for example, a prlest uses /aad-tamaphaab/, a noun meanlng ' I , ' ln all the contexts where an ordlnary man mlght use a pronoun such as
/pham/
'I ' . )
The class of pronouns lS small, but not closed (for a recent lnnova-tlon, see the 23rd set under 1) below). Whlle l t lS often dlfflcult to pln down the meanlngs of pronouns, to some extent they do occur ln structural sets. Such sets can be establlshed by analysls of slngle exchanges (lnvolv-lng only two speakers), where soclal requlrements dlctate the cholce of flrst and second person pronouns, the same pronouns belng selected throughout the exchange. Thlrd person and other pronoun selectlon, however, does not depend entlrely on the relatlonshlp between speaker and hearer, but also on the sta-tus of persons referred to, and hence no slmllar sets can be establlshed beyond the flrst and second person level.
Pronouns are sub-classlfled, therefore, lnto two groups. 1) members of sets, and 2) general pronouns. Some lndlcatlon of meanlng and soclal connotatlons has been attempted, but translatlons are of necesslty vague.
Certaln sets contalnlng only one real pronoun are fllled out wlth klnshlp terms, WhlCh have normal stress and are personal nouns (3.2.1.7.). other sets are fllled out wlth ordlnary nouns. The suppletlve ltems WhlCh are not pronouns are glven ln parentheses.
Where there are several varlant forms of a pronoun lexeme, the most common cltatlon form lS Ilsted flrst, wlth less careful varlants llsted below In descendlng order of formallty, under the flrst occurrence.
1) Pronoun sets
Sltuatlon
1. General pollte, male speaker
2.
General pollte, female speaker3.
Deferentlal, male speaker4.
Deferentlal, female speakerFlrst Person pham pham
dlhan dian llchan
ian aahan
dlchan
Second Person khun
khun