INTRODUCTION

1.1. BACKGROUND

The oil and gas industry is a global industry that operates in many Member States of the IAEA. There are several facets to the industry including:

 The construction sector responsible for manufacturing and fabricating facilities and equipment;

 The production sector responsible for developing and exploiting commercially viable oil and gas fields;

 ‘Downstream’ sectors dealing with transport of the raw materials and their processing into saleable products;

 Marketing sectors responsible for the transport and distribution of the finished products.

Radioactive materials, sealed sources and radiation generators are used extensively by the oil and gas industry, and various solid and liquid wastes containing naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM) are produced. The presence of these radioactive materials and radiation generators results in the need to control occupational and public exposures to ionizing radiation.

Various radioactive wastes are produced in the oil and gas industry, including the following:

 Discrete sealed sources, e.g. spent and disused sealed sources;

 Unsealed sources, e.g. tracers;

 Contaminated items;

 Wastes arising from decontamination activities, e.g. scales and sludges.

These wastes are generated predominantly in solid and liquid forms and may contain radionuclides of artificial or natural origin with a wide range of half-lives.

The oil and gas companies themselves are not experts in every aspect of the technology applied in their industry. Frequently the necessary expertise is provided to the industry by specialized support organizations. Obviously it is in the interests of the oil and gas industry to demonstrate an appropriate standard of basic radiation safety, environmental protection and waste management and to have a common understanding of requirements and controls to establish efficient and safe operations.

1.2. OBJECTIVE

As one means of promoting safety in the oil and gas industry, as well as encouraging a harmonized approach to regulatory control, the IAEA organizes training courses in cooperation with governments and institutions in Member States. These are aimed at individuals in developing countries with responsibilities in the area of regulating the radiological aspects of the oil and gas industry and the implementation of the necessary control measures. The objective of this training manual is to provide a reference document to

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support the delivery of IAEA training courses on radiation protection and the management of radioactive waste in the oil and gas industry.

1.3. SCOPE

This training manual describes the technologies involving radioactive materials and radiation generators that are used within the various oil and gas industry sectors. It provides specific guidance on:

 Ensuring the radiological health, safety and welfare of workers and the public, and protection of the environment;

 The safe management of radioactive waste;

 Organizational responsibilities.

It forms a framework within which the regulatory bodies of Member States, oil and gas field operators, service companies and workers can develop a common understanding.

The training manual reviews the applications of ionizing radiation at onshore and offshore oil and gas industry facilities, transport and distribution systems, and service company bases. Good working practices are described for the following work activities involving potential exposures to ionizing radiation and radioactive materials:

 Industrial radiography, including underwater radiography;

 Installed gauges, including those used to make level and density measurements;

 Portable gauging equipment;

 Well logging, including ‘measurement while drilling’ and wireline techniques;

 Work with radiotracers;

 The accumulation and disposal of NORM and the decontamination of equipment contaminated by NORM;

 Radioactive waste management;

 Accidents involving radioactive sources and materials.

Training course lecturers may not necessarily teach directly from this text, but may use it to enhance their presentations and as general reference material. Students will find this training manual a useful reference during and after the training course sessions. The group discussions provided in this training manual are used during the course to enhance communication and understanding and to evaluate progress in learning. Other exercises may also be introduced if it is determined that they are more suitable for the specific participants.

1.4. STRUCTURE

This training manual consists of 16 sections. After this introductory section, Sections 2 and 3 provide reviews of radioactivity and radiation and of radiation protection principles, while Section 4 provides a general overview of the basic concepts of occupational radiation protection. Good comprehension of these three topics is essential for deriving full value from the training sessions. Section 5 describes the basic technology and terminology associated with the oil and gas industry, the typical construction of oil and gas wells, and the processes in which ionizing radiation is applied.

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Sections 6–16 address the main technical content of the training course. Section 6 describes the responsibilities for radiation protection in the oil and gas industry. Section 7 covers the applications of sealed sources and radiation generators, the types of source used, and their radiation protection and radioactive waste safety aspects. Sections 8 and 9 deal with two ‘special focus topics’ — gamma radiography and nuclear gauges. Section 10 deals with the use of unsealed radioactive material, including the radiation protection aspects and the management of radioactive waste arising from its regular use. A third ‘special focus topic’ — on personal protective equipment — is covered in Section 11. The origin and deposition of NORM in oil and gas production, NORM treatment and NORM transport facilities are described in Section 12, which also discusses radiation protection measures in dealing with NORM and the options for managing and disposing of different types of waste arising at oil and gas facilities and at decontamination plants. Section 13 deals with radiation monitoring in the workplace. Section 14 deals with emergencies and contingency planning, as a result of accidents with sealed and unsealed sources. Section 15 describes a case study from the United States of America, concerning an incident involving a ruptured well logging source. Finally, Section 16 covers the planning and activities associated with the decommissioning of oil and gas facilities.

The course consists of six modules, comprising 29 separate lectures and eight group discussions. Several modules are supported by group discussions, including exercises, designed to encourage students to make practical use of the lecture material. Notes for use in these group discussions are provided at the end of the document, together with details of the training course programme. A CD-ROM is also included, containing the presentational material used in the training course, the course syllabus and additional notes for presenters.

1.5. THE IAEA AND RELEVANT SAFETY-RELATED PUBLICATIONS

The IAEA is an independent, intergovernmental, science- and technology-based organization that serves as the global focal point for nuclear cooperation. It was set up as the world’s “Atoms for Peace” organization in 1957 within the United Nations family. The IAEA works with its Member States and multiple partners worldwide to promote safe, secure and peaceful nuclear technologies. The IAEA Statute, the original version of which was approved by 81 nations in 1956, outlines the three pillars of the IAEA’s work:

(i) Safeguards and Verification: The IAEA is the world’s nuclear inspectorate, with more than four decades of verification experience. Inspectors work to verify that safeguarded nuclear material and activities are not used for military purposes.

(ii) Safety and Security: The IAEA helps countries to upgrade nuclear safety and security, and to prepare for and respond to emergencies. Work is keyed to international conventions, standards and expert guidance. The main aim is to protect people and the environment from harmful radiation exposure. In the safety area, the IAEA’s activities cover nuclear installations, radioactive sources, radioactive materials in transport, and radioactive waste. A core element is setting and promoting the application of international safety standards for the management and regulation of activities involving nuclear and radioactive materials.

(iii) Science and Technology: The IAEA helps countries mobilize peaceful applications of nuclear science and technology. The work contributes to goals of sustainable development in the fields of energy, environment, health and agriculture, among others, and to cooperation in key areas of nuclear science and technology. The main areas of 3

activity are technical cooperation, research and development and energy and electricity generation. Through its technical cooperation activities, the IAEA supports cooperative projects achieving tangible social and economic benefits for people in developing countries. Many channels and partnerships provide expert services, specialized equipment, training and other types of support.

More information can be found on the IAEA’s website http://www.iaea.org.

The safety standards established by the IAEA provide support for Member States in meeting their obligations under general principles of international law. These standards also promote and assure confidence in safety and facilitate international commerce and trade. The standards reflect an international consensus on what constitutes a high level of safety for protecting people and the environment from harmful effects of ionizing radiation. They are issued in the IAEA Safety Standards Series, which has three categories:

(i) Safety Fundamentals: These present the fundamental safety objective and principles of protection and safety, and provide the basis for the safety requirements;

(ii) Safety Requirements: An integrated and consistent set of Safety Requirements establishes the requirements that must be met to ensure protection of people and the environment, both now and in the future;

(iii) Safety Guides: These provide recommendations and guidance on how to comply with the safety requirements, indicating an international consensus that is necessary to take the measures recommended (or equivalent alternative measures). The Safety Guides present international good practices, and increasingly they reflect best practices, to help users striving to achieve high levels of safety.

Supporting publications on protection and safety are issued in other series, in particular the IAEA Safety Reports Series. Safety Reports may describe good practices and give practical examples and detailed methods that can be used to meet safety requirements. This training manual is based closely on the structure and the content of IAEA Safety Reports Series No. 34 Radiation Protection and the Management of Radioactive Waste in the Oil and Gas Industry [1]. The following 13 other IAEA publications are also relevant to the material provided in the training course:

(i) Fundamental Safety Principles: Safety Fundamentals SF-1 [2];

(ii) International Basic Safety Standards for Protection against Ionizing Radiation and for the Safety of Radiation Sources (the BSS): Safety Series 115 [3];

(iii) Occupational Radiation Protection: Safety Guide RS-G-1.1 [4];

(iv) Application of the Concepts of Exclusion, Exemption and Clearance: Safety Guide RS-G-1.7 [5];

(v) Predisposal Management of Radioactive Waste, Including Decommissioning: Safety Requirements WS-R-2 [6];

(vi) Management of Radioactive Waste from the Mining and Milling of Ores: Safety Guide WS-G-1.2 [7];

(vii) Decommissioning of Medical, Industrial and Research Facilities: Safety Guide WS-G-2.2 [8]

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(viii) Regulatory Control of Radioactive Discharges to the Environment, Safety Guide WS-G-2.3 [9];

(ix) Assessing the Need for Radiation Protection Measures in Work Involving Minerals and Raw Materials: Safety Report 49 [10];

(x) Manual on Gamma Radiography: Practical Radiation Safety Manual IAEA-PRSM-1 [11];

(xi) Manual on Nuclear Gauges: Practical Radiation Safety Manual IAEA-PRSM-3 [12];

(xii) Workplace Monitoring for Radiation and Contamination: Practical Radiation Technical Manual IAEA-PRTM-1 (Rev.1), 2004 [13];

(xiii) Personal Protective Equipment: Practical Radiation Technical Manual IAEA-PRTM-5 [14].

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