310. Efforts to promote and develop cleaner and environmentally-friendly energy systems for transport have been under way at the global level for a number of years.
65
311. In 1997, the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change called for developed nations to reduce emissions by an average of 5.2 per cent from a 1990 baseline. The Protocol came into force on 16 February 2005.
The Conventions Clean Development Mechanism allows the developed signatory countries to the Protocol to offset excessive climate change emissions by financing clean technology in developing countries through a credit mechanism. Thus, although developing nations do not have reduction requirements under the Protocol, they can sell credits gained through the Mechanism to other nations that do. Currently Clean Development Mechanism projects are being supported by many institutions, including the governments of Finland, Japan and the Netherlands, as well as the World Bank through its Prototype Carbon Fund.
312. As part of the NEPAD initiative with regard to the environment, a programme on climate change has been developed for Africa. Many African countries have completed their first national communications under this programme and are working on their second. Currently, most African countries (86 per cent) have ratified or acceded to the Kyoto Protocol and are translating its provisions into action.
313. As mentioned above, African and many other developing nations do not have reduction requirements under the Protocol, because of their negligible share of global greenhouse gas emissions. However, efforts to reduce vehicle emissions and develop environmentally-sound transport systems, albeit limited in scope, have been under way in the past few years.
314. To improve fuel efficiency and air quality, Egypt has taken a number of measures, including making legal provision for mandatory inspection and certification of vehicles.
In Cairo, a vehicle emission testing, engine tuning and certification programme has been in place since 1999. Currently, vehicle emission testing and certification are a mandatory requirement for licensing vehicles in Egypt.
315. Where the use of cleaner fuels is concerned, having fully phased out leaded gasoline in the capital city, Egypt is implementing plans to switch to more environmentally-friendly power sources for the transport sector. The major initiatives in this respect include the development of compressed natural gas as a transport fuel and electrification of railways and buses.
316. Under the Clean Development Mechanism, the Global Environment Facility has sponsored various projects, including public transport systems using cleaner technology. One such project was the development of a mass transport system based on fuel cell technology. Although the project did not go beyond the trial phase, GEF had sponsored a fuel cell bus project in Egypt, but Egypt withdrew from the project, mainly owing to the high cost and limited benefit. Bus rapid transit, the other mass transport system sponsored by GEF, is running successfully in Egypt and Nigeria.
317. Although emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases are of increasing concern in many African countries, some citizens take consolation in the
66
fact that Africa's overall share of global emissions of such gases is still minimal. In recognition of this minimal role, the Heads of State and Government of the African Union, meeting in Addis Ababa in January 2009, reiterated the need for those countries which have contributed the most to global warming to compensate for the damage done to Africa's economy, in line with the "polluter pays" principle.
318. Since Agenda 21 was adopted, many countries in Africa have put environmental protection legislation in place. An important component of the environmental laws is the provision that requires project sponsors and developers to undertake an environmental impact assessment (EIA) of each proposed project before it is implemented. A number of countries have complemented such laws with supporting regulations and sectoral guidelines for implementation.
319. Many African countries, including Egypt, Ethiopia, Nigeria, South Africa and the United Republic of Tanzania, have developed guidelines on EIA for agriculture, industry, mining and roads, as well as social impact assessment and resettlement guidelines. The environmental laws of these countries classify projects in terms of their potential environmental impacts. In Egypt, for example, the most environmentally-clean projects, or those that have a minor impact on the environment, are classified as "white projects "; those that could result in substantial environmental impacts are labelled "grey projects'"; and those which are likely to cause potential environmental impact are classified as "black projects". White projects are not required to go through an EIA process. Grey projects and black projects, on the other hand, must undergo limited and fully-fledged EIA respectively.
Box 7: Uganda's National Environment Statute
In 1995, Uganda enacted a National Environment Statute requiring an environmental impact assessment for all development activities likely to negatively impact on the environment before they are implemented. The National Environment Management Authority was created and mandated to operationalize and implement this requirement.
Transport is among the sectors for which EIA guidelines have been developed. The developer must indicate the likelihood of impact on the environment and its mitigation measures.
In the conduct of ElAs for roads, for example, the EIA system emphasizes comprehensive coverage, including compensation for property and/or land lost, selection of least-cost road alignments, etc.
The issue of HIV/ AIDS is of serious concern in connection with road projects, and most road project ElAs now have to define mechanisms for minimizing the spread of HIV/AIDS.
Source: Justin Ecaat, "A review of the application of environmental impact assessment in Uganda", ECA, October 2004.
320. Other African countries employ the project classification developed by UNEP.
Under this classification. Category A projects are those having significant adverse environmental impacts requiring full impact assessment, while category B projects are those with some adverse environmental impacts of lesser significance. To determine
67
whether or not a full EIA is required, an initial environmental examination is carried out. If this indicates that a full EIA is not required, the initial environmental examination itself is taken as the final environmental assessment report. Category "C"
projects are those which are unlikely to have adverse environmental impacts and hence require neither an initial environmental examination nor an EIA. Rural travel and transport programmes can be classified as category B, as they have an obvious adverse impact on the biophysical environment and rural society (Ethiopian Rural Travel and Transport Programme, 2002).
321. Other measures taken by African countries to address the potential environmental impacts of transport include amendment of legal provisions on the import of vehicles.
For example, new cars imported into Benin, Cape Verde, Kenya, Mauritius and the United Republic of Tanzania are (or will soon be) required to be fitted with catalytic converters. Some countries have either implemented or are planning to implement regulations limiting the age of second-hand imported vehicles or levying heavy taxes on older vehicles. Eritrea, Mauritius and the United Republic of Tanzania fall in this category.
322. In addition to controlling the import of old vehicles and the fitting of anti
pollution devices in new vehicles, Kenya's National Environmental Management Agency is working together with the Kenya Bureau of Standards to put in place standards for emissions from vehicles.
323. In Morocco, a project for emissions monitoring and reduction called
"Amelioration of air quality and reduction of air pollution from vehicles" was undertaken to support the implementation of a government decree on air pollution.
The project involved the testing of a total of 100,000 vehicles in a number of cities in Morocco for levels of emissions.
324. In Ghana, Mali, Mozambique and the United Republic of Tanzania, biodiesel projects involving the planting of jatropha trees for biodiesel production were undertaken in 2004 and 2005. Although the projects were initially intended to provide biodiesel for use as household fuel, the eventual aim is scaling up toward supplying fuel for transport.
Box 8: Jatropha project in Ghana and Mali
In Ghana, a small local community jatropha project worked with women's groups to produce cosmetics and small amounts of fuel for milling engines. This was replicated by another project on a larger scale in a different region of the country, with emphasis on biofuel production at scales more relevant to the transport sector. Partnerships with government agencies were created from the beginning of the projects. The combination of these projects, plus the networking efforts of some project proponents, led to the creation of a national biofuel policy committee, charged with making recommendations for mainstreaming biofuel in the Ghanaian transport sector.
In Mali, the grantee has been working with communities to establish jatropha plantations and markets for several years now and the featured project itself replicated previous projects, with the additional focus on supply chains for motor vehicles. Through the participatory project design, a village focal point has been established in each village to diffuse acquired jatropha knowledge to neighbouring people, thus setting up an informal institution for replication. The private sector is playing a great role in the process by commercializing components of the supply chain.
325. South Africa, where the ambient concentration of sulphur dioxide in its largest cities is already lower than that of Cairo, planned to reduce the maximum sulphur content in petrol from 500 ppm in 2004 to 50 ppm in 2010, and in diesel from 3,000 ppm in 2004 to 50 ppm in 2010.
326. While cleaner fuels and technologies, a proper modal mix and traffic management, among other factors, can contribute to sustainable transport, environmental sustainability can also be significantly improved by creating proper land use patterns. Integrating transport planning into land use planning has important effects on reducing energy consumption and hence greenhouse gas emissions, noise and traffic congestion and accidents.
327. Owing to their close proximity to markets, jobs, schools, etc., urban residents can choose between different modes of transport. They can walk, take any available public transport or use private cars. On the other hand, where residential areas are located farther away from the city centre, as with suburban and rural areas, transport choices become increasingly limited. So in the more affluent African societies, residents in suburban areas increasingly rely on private cars for their transport needs.
328. As demand for motorized transport is closely related to the distance from residential areas to the location of goods and services, African countries are giving serious consideration to transport issues in their development programmes and urban development policies. Many have indicated their commitment to undertake or update land use studies and incorporate their sectoral development programmes in their land use plans.
329. In cooperation with their development partners, African countries are striving to develop environmentally sound maritime transport systems.. The activities of the Port Management Association of Eastern and Southern Africa are noteworthy in this connection.
69
330. The Association is currently collaborating with the ECOPorts Foundation in Europe to undertake activities in the African region under the African Green Ports initiative. This focuses on an integrated approach to the management of all wastes in port towns and cities; development of a regional system for marine pollution surveillance; baseline information, pollution problem identification and assessment;
a regional workshop on the handling of hazardous materials in ports; a study on port reception facility requirements and costs in some countries; and a regional seminar or workshop on ratification of international conventions related to protection of the marine environment.
331. The African Green Ports initiative was expected to be officially launched in December 2009 during the PMAESA African Ports Conference.
332. Given the global nature and impact of aviation, ICAO has developed guidelines on land use planning to be adhered to by member States. They include guidance on using various tools to minimize the impact of aircraft noise in the vicinity of airports, and describe the practices adopted for land use planning and control in several States.
Economic instruments to mitigate the environmental impact of aviation
333. Despite its many advantages, air transport is associated with significant negative impacts on the environment, mainly owing to its emissions which in turn lead to air pollution, ozone layer depletion and global warming. The noise from aircraft, particularly during take-off and landing, is also a source of negative impacts on human health.
334. Measures that have been taken to mitigate the negative impact of air transport on the environment at the global level (which has a direct bearing on Africa's aviation) also include the development of more energy-efficient aircraft, improvements to operational efficiency and application of stricter regulations. During the last three decades or so, significant improvements have been made in aircraft fuel efficiency.
Aircraft of the recent generation consume three times less fuel per seat-kilometre than those of earlier generations.
335. Regulatory measures in place to control the environmental impact of air transport include emission certification standards developed by ICAO for emissions of carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, unburned hydrocarbons and smoke.22
336. ICAO first discussed the introduction of emission-related charges at the 1991 Conference on Airport and Route Facility Management. The initial options evaluated were: a fuel tax, with revenue going to national treasuries; a revenue-neutral charge based on aircraft efficiency, with higher charges on less fuel-efficient aircraft offset by lower charges on more fuel-efficient ones; and an en route emissions charge, with revenues recycled to the aviation sector (for example, to defray the costs of the harmful
22 Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation, annex 16.
effects of emissions and to support air traffic modernization, early retirement of aircraft and research and development activities).
Phasing out leaded petrol and reducing sulphur in diesel and petrol
337. The Clean Air Initiative in sub-Saharan Cities was launched in 1998 to control the deterioration of air quality in Africa, with the support of the World Bank and a number of other multilateral and bilateral donors. In 2001 African governments adopted the Dakar Declaration, which committed them to phase out leaded petrol by December 2005.
338. As part of efforts to contribute to the global Clean Air Initiative, UNEP established the Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles to promote the process of phasing out leaded fuel. Since its launch in 2002, the Partnership has been engaged in promoting the adoption of clean fuels and vehicles by providing technical, financial and networking support to countries in Africa and other parts of the world.
339. Thanks to the Partnership, by 2003 over 50 per cent of all petrol sold in sub-Saharan Africa was unleaded. By 2004, three countries with refineries (Ghana, Nigeria and the Sudan) and six importing countries (Cape Verde, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Mauritania, Mauritius and Rwanda) had reached the point where all the petrol used was completely unleaded. In the same year, unleaded petrol accounted for an estimated 57 per cent of consumption of all petrol in sub-Saharan Africa.
340. By the end of 2005, all of sub-Saharan Africa was expected to have phased out leaded petrol. This target was eventually met on 1 January 2006. By the end of 2008, only two African countries (Algeria and Tunisia) had not phased out leaded petrol, having set early 2009 as their target.
341. In addition to the elimination of lead in petrol, the reduction of sulphur in diesel fuel and petrol and the adoption of cleaner vehicles and vehicle technologies has been a major area of activity in support of the development of sustainable transport.
Starting from a 2002 level of over 2,000 ppm of sulphur in diesel and petrol in over 95 per cent of African countries, the governments agreed to reduce levels to less than 500 ppm by 2006 and further to less than 50 ppm by 2010.
342. However, by February 2009, only eight countries (all of them in Southern Africa) had succeeded in reducing sulphur in motor fuels to 500 ppm, and only two countries to 50 ppm. Thus, the vast majority of African countries (over 75 per cent) were still using motor fuels with sulphur levels greater than 2000 ppm.
343. As part of the efforts underway to address the problem of slow progress in implementing the commitment to reduce sulphur in diesel fuels, national awareness workshops were held in Cotonou, Benin and Bamako, Mali in March 2009. The workshops, which were also attended by representatives from Nigeria and Togo and the Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles Clearing House, recommended the
71
progressive reduction of sulphur levels in diesel fuels to 50ppm, with common targets and time frames to be set by a task force.