Baudrillard, J. (1998). Société de consommation: Ses mythes, ses structures (Vol. 53). Sage.
Brown, S., & Morrison, A. M. (2003). Expanding volunteer vacation participation an exploratory study on the mini-mission concept. Tourism Recreation Research, 28(3), 73-82.
Buckley,R.C. (2006) Adventure Tourism. Oxford: CAB International.
Burawoy, M. (2005). For public sociology. American Sociological Review, 70(1), 4-28.
Callanan, M., & Thomas, S. (2005). Volunteer tourism. In M. Novelli (Eds.), Niche tourism, (pp.183-200). Oxford, Great Britain: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Chouliaraki, L. (2012). The theatricality of humanitarianism: a critique of celebrity advocacy. Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies, 9(1), 1-21.
Conran, M. (2011). They really love me!: Intimacy in volunteer tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 38(4), 1454-1473.
Deighton, J. (1992). The consumption of performance. Journal of Consumer Research, 19(3), 362-372.
Ehrenberg, A. (1994). Le culte de la performance. Paris, Calmann-Lévy.
Ehrenberg, A. (1995). L'individu incertain. Paris, Calmann-Lévy.
Ehrenberg, A. (2008). La fatigue d'être soi: dépression et société. Paris : Odile Jacob.
Callanan, M., & Thomas, S. (2005). Volunteer tourism. In M. Novelli (Eds.), Niche tourism, (pp.183-200). Oxford, Great Britain: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Escobar, A. (1995). Imagining a post-development era. In J. Crush (Eds.), Power of development,(pp. 211-227). London, Great Britatin: Routledge.
Chapitre1.Introduction
Guttentag, D. A. (2009). The possible negative impacts of volunteer tourism.
International Journal of Tourism Research, 11(6), 537-551.
Higgins-Desbiolles, F. (2008). Justice tourism and alternative globalisation. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 16(3), 345-364.
Jenkins, R. (2005). Globalization, corporate social responsibility, and poverty.
International Affairs, 81(3), 525-540.
Latour, B. (1996). On actor-network theory. A few clarifications plus more than a few complications. Soziale Welt, 47(4), 369-381.
Latour, B. (2005). Reassembling The Social: An Introduction To Actor-Network-Theory. Oxford: Oxford university press.
Law, J. (1992). Notes on the theory of the actor-network: Ordering, strategy, and heterogeneity. Systems Practice, 5(4), 379-393.
Law, J., & Hassard, J. (1999). Actor Network Theory And After. Oxford, Great Britain: Blackwell.
Mostafanezhad, M. (2013). The geography of compassion in volunteer tourism.
Tourism Geographies, 15(2), 318-337.
Mostafanezhad, M. (2013). The politics of aesthetics in volunteer tourism.
Annals of Tourism Research, 43, 150-169.
Palacios, C. M. (2010). Volunteer tourism, development, and education in a postcolonial world: Conceiving global connections beyond aid. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 18(7), 861-878.
Rahnema, M., & Bawtree, V. (1997). The Post-development Reader. London&
New Jersey, Zed Books.
Rist, G. (1996). Le développement. Histoire d'une croyance occidentale. Paris, Sciences Po
Said, E. (1978). Orientalism: Western representations of the Orient. New York, Pantheon.
Chapitre1.Introduction
Scott, J. C. (1990). Domination And The Arts Of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts.
Ann Harbor, MI, Yale university press.
Sin, H. L. (2009). Volunteer tourism—“involve me and I will learn”?. Annals of Tourism Research, 36(3), 480-501.
Smith, V. L., & Eadington, W. R. (Eds.). (1992). Tourism Alternatives: Potentials And Problems In The Development Of Tourism.Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Stanford, D. (2000). A review of the education of tourists to achieve sustainable tourism. Unpublished Masters Thesis, Lancaster: Lancaster University.
Tomazos, K., & Butler, R. (2010). The volunteer tourist as ‘hero’. Current Issues in Tourism, 13(4), 363-380.
Tourism Research and Marketing (TRAM). (2008). Volunteer Tourism: A Global Analysis: a Report. Atlas.
Wearing, S. (2001). Volunteer Tourism: Experiences That Make A Difference.
Trowbridge, Great Britain: Cabi.
Wearing, S., & McGehee, N. G. (2013). Volunteer tourism: A review. Tourism Management, 38, 120-130.
Wearing, S., & Neil, J. (1999). Ecotourism: Impacts. Potentials and Possibilities.
Hungary: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Weber, K. 2001 Outdoor adventure tourism: A review of research approaches.
Annals of Tourism Research, 28(2), 363–380.
Wheeller, B. (1993). Sustaining the ego. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 1(2), 121-129.
Peace Corps n.d. Retrived from https://www.jfklibrary.org/JFK/JFK-in-History/Peace-Corps.aspx
Chapitre1.Introduction
Chapitre2.Methodology
Chapitre2.Methodology
The understanding of the volunteer tourism phenomenon requires a deep analysis of the lived experience in order to grasp the internal dynamics that govern the relationship between guest and host. A qualitative approach methodology was adopted (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994). Ethnography was used as it allows the immersion in the daily life of social groups or communities and thus, the understanding of their social and cultural environment including their roles, activities and rules (Hammersley & Atkinson, 2007).
An important challenge to this study was the length of the ethnography. It took only two months over two periods of time. This is certainly one of the limitations of this study. This is due to my teaching duties and relational with my first supervisor at that time. The study was mostly on my own cost and during my holidays. The only support I had was from a Swiss foundation for the second study. Moreover, in terms of the robustness of this ethnography, it is important to note that this ethnography is not about Nepal, it is rather about a volunteer tourism journey. From that point of view, it is important to note that in average a volunteer tourism journey lasts one month, so my stay was to some extent representative to a typical journey in an orphanage. Finally I used several methods of data collection such as Facebook and blogs that allowed me to see how volunteers live this experience from a different perspective. I was also involved in the orphanage’s life even after I left and was considered part of the family. The contact with the orphanage and volunteers never stopped.
Eventually, studying this phenomenon from different perspectives and in different contexts allowed me to overcome some of the study’s limitations and led to a better understanding and interpretation of the data.
Another crucial point is the immediate acknowledgment that a reflexive ethnographic approach is imperative. Indeed, the analysis of a specific culture in a particular time and space while disregarding the macro context is not relevant in the case of volunteer tourism.
In fact, beyond being an alternative tourism market under the moral economy umbrella (Mostafanezhad, 2013), the volunteer tourism is a contemporary
Chapitre2.Methodology
phenomenon reflecting a societal shift on the local and global scales (Butcher &
Smith, 2015). First, just like other forms of tourism, it links the global north to the global south under a specific power relationship. Second, it involves a very intimate interaction between individuals articulated through volunteering, which is embedded in a development discourse. Third, it reflects the contemporary society of individuals under the rise of autonomy and the culture of performance (Ehrenberg, 1994). Consequently, a micro level analysis could not be truthful without taking into consideration the global forces and macro connections that shape the individual experience. In order to overcome this challenge, I adopt the extended case method (ECM).
In the next section, I will introduce the ECM and its main features, with reference mainly to the work of Burawoy (1991; 1998; 2009). Then I will give a detailed account on the field and the methods of data collection.