■ Introduction
The need to reconcile economic and ecological goals is not a recent pheno menon. It was first highlighted during the United Nations Conference on Human Environment, organised in Stockholm in 1972. A wind of thought known as "eco-development" was came into being in reaction to the pessi mistic visions of the Club of Rome on the gradual depletion of natural re sources due to economic activity and population growth. The Brundtland Commission report, ordered by the United Nations and published in 1987, then clearly explained how it was impossible to separate economic deve lopment issues from those affecting the environment. In this report which recommended the adoption of new more environmentally friendly produc tion and consumption methods, the concept of "sustainable" or "durable development" was defined as "a process of change in which the use of re sources, the choice of investments and the orientation of technical develop ment as well as institutional changes are determined by both current and future needs".
However, it was not until the Earth Summit which held in Rio in 1992 that the right to a healthy environment became attached to the right to develop ment and that an action program as recommendations (Agenda 21) was adopted, with a desire to reconcile environment protection, economic effi-rienrv and sorial pnnitv
The Economies of Central Africa - 2013
Following this Summit, sustainable development as a requirement spread around the world in a context marked by increased concerns on climate change and its main causes. Consequently, the problem of the efficiency of production and consumption methods of industrialised countries, and thus of the capacity of a given country to enter a cycle of strong economic growth without damaging the environment returned on the agenda. As time went by, it became clear that one of the greatest threats that humanity must-face is global warming due to human activity.
Yet, in the late 1990s, the international community's commitment to and in volvement in development reduced.In order to boost these crucial themes, the United Nations introduced the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)29and added them as lead project on their agenda. This provided time to generate funds from donor countries for these priority actions. The facts were clear, the stakes set, but implementation was at a standstill and delays were exacerbated under the impact of three globalisations.
Today, we are faced with major changes linked to the globalisation of the economy which integrates increasingly larger populations in the industrial society, and which destabilizes social protection systems. Added to this, the globalization of communication increases the movement of information and trade. Quasi instantaneous financial transactions devoid of financial parities and fiscal borders continue to feed the crisis. Finally, there is the third glo balization - the imperative requirement for the collective management of the planet's resources and environment (Cancussu et al, 2012). Meanwhile in general, at the global level, inequalities have been reducing for a score of years now. However, within countries, they have been increasing consi derably, triggering another unquantifiable phenomenon of precarious jobs in developed countries (Bourguignon, (2012) and an explosion of the in formal sector in Central Africa.
29. The eight MDGs are: reducing extreme poverty, achieving universal primary education, promoting gender equality and empowering women, reducing child mortality rates, improving maternal health, combating HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases, ensuring environmental sustainability, developing a
Hence, while the economy of the planet is unifying in a globalised system of trade, humanity is faced with the shortcomings of this same planet, no tably in some mineral and energy resources and the capacity of its environ ment to bear the activities of a population which should multiply tenfold between 1800 and 2050. This means that in time, this planet will not be able to bear an exponential increase of extractions from the environment and equitably and sustainably ensure access to resources for all.This mid century will be critical for several resources, starting with oil. It goes wi thout saying that humanity can no longer neglect the changes it is creating
on its environment, with its most serious r _____ —
.,.__• . ■ ,- . i j Mankind can no longer neglect manifestations beingchmate change and
the changes it creates on its envi ronment with its most serious ma nifestations being climate change and the erosion of biodiversity.
the erosion of biodiversity. These two phe nomena are signs of a weakness that man kind must henceforth scrupulously consider.
Mankind can no longer neglect the changes it creates on its environment with its most serious manifestations being climate change and the erosion of biodiversity.
In fact, the earth's climate knows no borders. It is the first planetary issue that is truly a joint concern. Yet, greenhouse gases responsible for climate change are mostly produced from the activities of humans in their private daily lives. This means that the problem of climate change cannot be solved without seeking the involvement of all. Thenceforth, this challenge is consi dered as the first "total" political issue in human history because it requires involvement spanning from individual to planetary governance levels. The less visible accelerated erosion of biodiversity is just as serious as climate change, equally a planetary issue and probably even more irreversible (Can-cussu M. et al, ibidem). This challenge also places the question of global public property at the centre of current development-related issues. This shared property for the quality of life is omnipresent in social, natural, cul tural and digital spheres. According to Cancussu M. (2012), it can be broken down as follows: (i) natural environment (earth, air, sea, forest, etc.); (ii) vital natural resources for feeding and healing (the genetic heritage of plants, soils, water, etc.); (iii) vectors of knowledge or learning (reading,
The Economies of Central Africa - 2013
writing, public cultural heritage, traditional knowledge, etc.); (iv) relations hip vectors (language, music, internet codes, etc.); (v) inclusive produc tion modes (production in cooperation).
Thus, this shared property is as much a gift from nature as it is the product of man. Preference is given to learning cooperation rather than competition and it requires the co-construction of rules and their application by users, or yet again, jointly developed and controlled open technologies, without ownership, hence without individual responsibility. It implies a participatory decision-making framework in a democratic context where users scrupu lously respect governance rules. The preservation of global shared property like the atmosphere, oceans and biodiversity cannot be envisaged without intergovernmental agreements applicable to all. This highlights three es sential components of this shared property, notably: (i) a material compo nent: our resources (water, earth, genetic code, technical and cultural knowledge, etc.) and time and space (the atmosphere); (ii) a social compo nent: humans enjoy these resources under defined social conditions; (iii) the third component is regulatory and refers to rules and standards gover ning relationships to shared property.
This management of shared goods should lead to sustainable and equitable sharing of the planet's resources and everyone's involvement in the construction of new avenues of development (Cancussu M. et al., ibidem).
This is how from that time, the international community initiated concerted actions to face this situation. In the same vein, there were the recent mea sures introduced in 2009 during the Copenhagen Summit on climate nego tiations: most countries committing to figured goals to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and the adoption of a general goal aimed at limiting average temperature rises to +2°C as against the preindustrial era.
The 2007-2008 economic and financial crises showed that the growth model inherited from the 20th Century was not sustainable; not only was it res ponsible for the excess greenhouse gas emissions disrupting the climate, it was also marked by a significant rise in social inequalities, international imbalances and multiple crises. In this way, the three-tier economic, finan cial and ecological crisis places the challenges of sustainable development at the heart of market economies and heightens the need to restore
condi-The triple economic, financial and ecological crisis places sustaina ble development challenges at the heart of market economies and heightens the need to restore conditions for sustainable growth in several countries.
tions for long-term targeted growth in several countries
At the height of this crisis, during the second semester of 2008, the concept of green economy emerged with the announcement of economic recovery plans formulated by different governments. For example, in 2008 South Korea adopted a new strategy geared towards"low carbon-intensive green growth", in order to combat climate
change while ensuring that the green tech nologies and industries necessary for this struggle are the drivers of its economic growth.
Progressively, expressions like "green eco nomy" and "green growth" entered into-common use internationally. There is no
internationally approved definition for green economy. The United Nations Environment Programme defines green economy as "one that results in im proved human well-being and social equity, while significantly reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities.
The triple economic, financial and ecological crisis places sustainable de velopment challenges at the heart of market economies and heightens the need to restore conditions for sustainable growth in several countries.
It is low in carbon, resource efficient and socially inclusive" (UNEP, 2011).
This definition was emulated by several international organisations inclu ding the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). While adopting UNEP's definition, the Economic Commission for Africa added the following specifications: "It is an economy driven by public and private investments that reduce carbon emissions and pollution, enhance energy and resource efficiency and prevent loss in biodiversity and ecosystem services" (ECA, 2011). This
concept refers less to the definition of an economic model and more totechnological change by transforming production and consumption modes.
Several experts agree that transitioning toa green economy requires an over-Transitioning to a green economy requires an overhaul of produc tion structures and consumption modes.
The Economies of Central Africa - 2013
vate sector and households have an important role to play in this process, although the public sector's contribution is necessary for the implementa tion of a development strategy notably based on infrastructure investment, fiscal and trade policies geared towards sustainable development, incentive or dissuasive measures to protect the environment and human capital in vestments to boost the absorption capacity of green technologies.
Transitioning to a green economy requires an overhaul of production struc tures and consumption modes. Indeed, it is accepted that this strategy must be a revolution centred on adapting and distributing green technologies.
Some specialists however highlight some concerns and risks associated with the green economy. The issue of technology transfer and adaptation in de veloping countries is one of the main sources of concern. Most technical innovations come from industrialised countries, but these innovations are often protected by copyright laws. This explains the risks linked to the green economy concept - a resurge of protectionism, the use of subsidies to pro ducers, imposing conditions for financing and adopting new standards for imported goods.Conscious of these risks, several developing countries re quested assistance and practical advice from UNEP on the best way to tran sition to a green economy in their development strategies.
Particularly in Central Africa, green economy is central to major stakes, considering the ecological potential of the sub region, particularly in terms of forests, protected areas, solar energy and hydrographical potential. This is how several initiatives are cur rently undertaken at the Secretariat General of the ECCAS to transition into a green economy, among which In Africa in particular, the issue of
a green economy is at the heart of major stakes considering the ecological potential of the sub
re-the initiation ofa Central Africa
gion.
Green Economy Development Sup-port Programme (PADEVAC).
Generally speaking, this chapter aims at assessing the challenges and risks associated with a transition to green economy in Central Africa, in order to trigger a proper understanding ofthe concept and formulate appropriate po licies, programmes and actions for success in the sub region. Apart from
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is a review of Central Africa's capacity to develop a green economy; the second highlights the challenges and prospects for a green economy in Cen tral Africa.
Section 1 - Review of Central Africa's Capacity to Develop a Green Economy
Central Africa has a wealth of natural renewable resources, but the sub re gion's economies are heavily dependent on natural resource exploitation (oil, forests, mines, etc.), thereby exposing them to the exhaustible nature of raw materials and the volatility of their world prices in a context where short-term practices are commonplace.
In spite of its potential and favourable growth prospects, Central Africa is still far from a performance level from which it
can resolutely move towards the MDGs. The time has come to redirect the agenda of the sub
. , . , ■ . ■ . ter efficiency in resource mai
region s countries towards aninclusive,
sustai-gement and increased resilier nable and job-generating growth strategy with
Cenfral Africa's developnm process would benefit from gr<
in growth, thereby evolving wards a more ecological, rru sustainable and more inclus development model.
its main objective being to meet the specific needs ofyouths and women. Achieving this goal will be determined by the quality of growth, ma king sure that progress is sustainable and recon
ciles short-term and long-term needs. To overcome these difficulties, Central Africa's development processwould benefit from increased effi ciency resource management and increased resilience in growth, thereby leading to an evolution towards a more ecological, sustainable and inclusive development model.
■ Systems of Production and Carbon Emission
In Central Africa, like in the rest of Africa, millions of persons depend on natural resources like land, forests and water for their subsistence. For the time being, the impact of their exploitation in terms of greenhouse gas emis sions is relatively low.
Figure3.1CountryCOZEmissions(in%ofglobalemissions,2007Data) Source:Kergomard(2009)
Figure 3.1 shows the "weight" of the different States or groups of States (Europe's 27) in the total global emissions. It highlights the fact that emer ging countries, particularly China and India have a very significant share in global emissions, while most of the developing world, including Central Africa only has a tiny share. The table below, inter alia, details country CO2 emissions in Central Africa.
Angola Burundi Cameroon CAR Congo DRC Gabon
Equatorial Guinea STP
Chad
O? Emissions Gross
16.6(89) n/a 5.0(113)
n/a 3.1 (132) 3.1 (133) 2.7(125)
n/a n/a n/a
Per Capita 0.9(106)
n/a 0.3(125)
n/a 0.4(116) 0.1 (135) 1.8(88)
n/a n/a n/a
Table 3.1: Carbon Emissions of Central African Countries Source: Journal Le Monde, 2013: Le bilan du Monde
Note: Gross CO2 Emission in millions of Ions (rank); CO2 per capita in metric tons (rank)
Contrasting with the abundant primary energy resources, the consumption of commercial energy is very low (0.06 tep/capita against 0.3 in Africa) and characterised by the predominance of petroleum products.
Hydrocarbon exportation dominates the sub region's economy, closely fol lowed by logging activities and extractive mining industries.The oil reserves of Central Africa are estimated at 31.3 million barrels, that is, 28% of the total reserves of the continent. Five of Africa's ten largest oil reserves are in Central Africa (Gabon, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Chad and Angola).
Contrarily to West Africa, Central Africa has only five small refineries (Ca meroon, Gabon, Congo, Angola, Chad); they are old, have low capacity and produce too much iuel oil to be cost effective (daily production is at most 50 000 barrels/day). Concerning gas, domestic market development is low
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is abundant, it is mostly reinserted in deposits to maintain pressure and im prove oil recovery. Liquefied natural gas (LNG) unit is functioning in Equa torial Guinea and another is in the pipeline in Angola. This limits the use of natural gas and forces most States to flare (purify) a considerable part of their production. For example, Gabon produces 2.6 billion cubic metres, of which 1.8 billion cubic metres have been flared and 0.6 billion cubic metres reinserted. In Cameroon, all of the gross production of 2.1 billion cubic me tres is flared. In Equatorial Guinea, 0.9 billion cubic metres ofthe 1.1 billion cubic metres were also flared. The conclusion is productive inefficiency in the hydrocarbons sector.
■ Energy Consumption Methods and Carbon Emission
The energy sector in Central African countries is overwhelmingly domina ted by the biomass which addresses 70 to 90% of total needs, depending on the country.
A wide majority of Central Africa's population, that is, over 80% depend on the biomass to meet their domestic energy needs - lighting, cooking and heating. However, the growing shortage of the resource is forcing women to cover increasingly larger distances to find wood. Faced with widespread poverty and demographic pressure, clea ring and excessive wood felling as well as overgrazing exacerbate deforestation in the sub region. Although industrialisation, energy consumption and consequently the A wide majority of Central Africa's
population, that is, over 80% de pend on biomass to meet their domestic energy needs - lighting.
^ **' contribution to greenhouse gas emissions
is low, the sub region is vulnerable to cli mate change with its most visible effects being long cycles of drought fol lowed by floods in some countries.
In this alarming context, national authorities and ECCAS have made access to modern and low-carbon renewable energies a priority to accelerate eco nomic growth and improve the living conditions of the population.
Forest areas in Central Africa are huge carbon sinks which could contribute in developing the sub region while rendering great environmental services to the whole world. Besides, it is these forests' capacity for carbon seques tration that Central African countries put forward to claim their eligibility to the REDD+ initiative. However, at the same time the need to participate in mitigating climate change must be reconciled with industrial logging and major mining and infrastructural projects in forest landscapes; some exam ples are the Belinga, Mbalam and Avima projects in Gabon, Cameroon and Congo respectively. The fact that countries in the region must meet the gro wing demand in energy, water, food and health services, and satisfy the need to reduce poverty and boost economic activities to create jobs and di versify sources of income by using forest areas, must be taken into account as well. Hence the need to develop land management plans.
Agriculture could be the driver of the economy of Central African countries, but it is dominated by unsustainable practices (slash and burn agriculture, bush fires) whichevery now and then lead to considerable loss of vegetation cover, soil degradation and pollution. Similarly, in rural areas, wood is the main source of energy.Over 80% of households use firewood for cooking.
Initiatives to reduce deforestation and desertification throughthe use of impro ved woodstoves (Chad, DRC and Came roon) are not widespread enough. And yet, the forest is reducing everywhere under the assault of shifting cultivation and anarchical urbanisation generating, among others, high levels of poorly ma naged waste which the population has no
other option than incineration, thereby intensifying pollution. All of these practices contribute in increasing greenhouse gas emission rates in countries concerned, which in spite of it all remains minimal.
Although Central African countries are among the least industrialised in the world, industrial pollution has not spared them. Several multinational cor
Although Central African countries are among the least industrialised in the world, industrial pollution has not spared them. Several multinational cor