It is clear that the legal and institutional, as well as the local social, economic and cultural conditions relevant to the extraction of water from freshwater lenses in Tarawa, form an interacting set of issues, all of which need to be addressed. The issues are complex and go far beyond the original scope envisaged in this project. The concerns of the traditional landowners of the,water reserve, the Bonriki community, overwhelmed any interest in our recharge study, which was seen as largely peripheral, or irrelevant, to village problems and biased towards the Government’s position because of the involvement of Government staff in the project team.
On
the other hand, the study reveals a Government being in a dilemma in that it has inherited. It has received a water reserve which is essential to the well being of the burgeoning urban population of South Tarawa, but by finalising strict lease agreements, it is compromising the only longstanding wealth of its constituents’, their land. Politically, the issue is a sensitive one.The singular focus on increased financial compensation for the resumption of Bonriki land for the water reserve and airport so coloured the responses of most of those interviewed that it was not possible to separate oral tradition from the drive for additional compensation.
There is a determining set of socio-cultural norms and traditions which have a major impact on land use and water management at Bomiki. From our observations, it appears that traditional understanding of the processes that affect the quantity and quality of groundwater is generally deficient. Many I-Kiribati do not believe in germs or that they can be made sick by something they cannot see. There is an opportunity here and across the Pacific to produce simple, clear educational material directed especially at primary school students to make them aware of the hydrologic cycle as it relates to freshwater lenses, groundwater pollution, and the socio- economic factors which impact directly on groundwater pollution.
A comprehensive legislative basis is needed for the management of water and associated land resources in order to identify, clarify and coordinate the roles of the many agencies with legitimate responsibilities for water and to define property rights for water. Such a basis will provide a better foundation for addressing the complex issues surrounding the creation and management of water reserves. The notion of separation of supplier and regulator has merit and advantages in many developed countries, although it imposes significant problems in small countries with limited water expertise (Metutera, 1994). The continuity, building up and training of appropriate expertise is a crucial issue in small island states.
The issue of the appropriate regulator and suppler largely depends on previous experience and the location of current expertise. The regulator should be responsible for the environmental impacts of water supply systems and ensuring the sustainability of water supply. Part of that role would include the use of models in examining the impact of water extraction strategies and
part would include school and community education programs. Regular monitoring and reporting of the salinity of the freshwater lenses and the salinity and microbiology at production wells and throughout the reticulation system are essential.
On going-vandalism of salinity boreholes has severely limited the ability to assess the
The study revealed problems in both formal consultation, and informal interviews. The inclusion of Government staff in formal discussions was seen as an indication of bias of the study towards the Government’s position. As well, community consultation is an imposed notion differing in character to the traditional, consensus approach followed in the maneaba.
The expectations and time frames imposed by external agencies for community consultation are not in keeping with the traditional process of consensus operating in the maneaba. Because of these differences, longer times are required for consultation (Harrison, 1980).
If interpreters are to be used in informal interviews, then they must be appropriately trained and appreciative of the process in order not to bias and filter both questions and answers.
In addition, the avoidance, where possible, of conflict by I-Kiribati, means that questions have to be carefully framed in order to determine the actual opinion of the interviewee.
It is clear from this study that considerable sacrifice has been demanded of the Bonriki reserve is a symptom of the underlying discontent.
Payment of simple compensation for land set aside for water reserves has created tensions within the community, between communities, and with the Government as well as fuelling demands and expectations for more compensation. An argument advanced by some Bonriki residents for additional compensation was that pumping of groundwater had decreased crop productivity and the health of vegetation on the water reserve. The findings of this study, that groundwater extraction from water reserves to define possible safe conjunctive uses for water reserves which are socially, culturally and economically acceptable.
8.1 Wider Applicability of Findings
Many of the findings of this component of the study are particular to the prevailing socio- cultural order including traditional land tenure principles, in South Tarawa. However, there are some issues that have wider relevance to small island nations. The importance of having comprehensive water resources legislation, which clearly defines and imposes responsibilities and roles in water resource policy, use, management and regulation, is evident. With this in place, institutional impediments to sustainable water use and inefficiencies due to duplication,
35
overlaps, and non-communication between relevant organisations should be able to be removed or reduced. Further, the need to resolve compensation issues, both social and economic, prior to occupation of the water reserve also emerges as critical. The separation of supply and regulation in the water sector is largely dependent on the availability and continuity of appropriate water expertise. This is a major issue in small island states. Regional organisations such as SOPAC in the South Pacific, could play a key role in assisting in the support of such expertise and training of personnel.
Shortage of land and scarcity of water, especially in dry times, are common themes to many small island communities. The establishment of water reserves is therefore of common interest in countries with private land tenure. The fundamental importance of, including, listening to and taking account of the views of the local community and traditional landowners is widely applicable where land is the main form of wealth and identity. The traditional method of decision-making, discussion and consensus and the length of time required for this process, needs to be appreciated, particularly by external organisations.
This study has demonstrated that the focus on payment of financial compensation alone for loss .of use of land when water reserves are established, creates as many problems as it solves. This is particularly so in societies where issues of public good are a secondary consideration to the compelling obligations of extended families and the rights of landowners to do ‘as they wish’ with their lands. Loss of land rights leads to a loss of traditional relationships with the land. It is not surprising therefore that a key issue is a lack of security of land tenure. It is suggested that where water reserves are created, the traditional owners be paid as custodians of the water reserve with appropriate performance indicators agreed to for payment or else alternate lands be made available. The. use of part of the water reserves as playing fields should be investigated where Government support exists. The study highlighted the need for research on safe conjunctive land uses on low island water reserves. Further, there seems to be a general lack of understanding of the processes leading to the recharge of groundwater and pollution of groundwater in many countries. An education and awareness campaign directed at key community groups especially primarily at school children, deserves support.
Finally, the study highlighted the difficulties and subtleties of cross-cultural, cross- language interviews and community consultation and of the impacts of imposed values. These suggest that any such study must be sensitive to the prevailing culture, traditions and socio- economic conditions under which interviews take place.
Acknowledgements
This work was initiated and supported by the UNESCO Division of Water Sciences as part of the II-IP Humid Tropics Programme administered through the UNESCO Office for the Pacific Sates, Apia, Samoa and the South Pacific Applied Geoscience Council (SOPAC), Suva, Fiji.
The authors wish to thank UNESCO IHP Humid Tropics Program, the Water Research
Foundation of Australia, Centre for Resource and Environmental Studies, Australian National
University; Ecowise Environmental ACTEW Corporation, the Government of the Republic of
Kiribati and SOPAC for their support. Drs Mike Bonell, of UNESCO, Jon Barnett, Steve
Dovers, Fred Ghasserni and Helen Ross of CRES, ANU are thanked for helpful comments and
criticisms.
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